Human Behavior-week 1

Impact of Social Networks on the Advancement of Women

and RaciallEthnic Minority Groups

Monica L. Forret

here have been glimmers of progress in U.S. corporations for women and bers of racial and ethnic minority groups. In 2002, Fortune published its ist of the 50 Most Powerful Black Executives in ~mer i ca . ' The Executive

eadership Council, a professional network for senior African American ex- utives in Fortune 500 firms, has grown from I9 members in 1956 t o over 340 embers today, with women making up one-third of the membership. Although e signs of upward movement are becoming more visible, the pace is slow. For stance, although women account for about half of all managerial a n d profes- onal positions, they hold only 8 percent of executive vice president positions d higher at Fortune 500 companies, and only 5 percent are among the top five ghest paid for each company.*

A number of explanations exist for the lack of upward advancement for omen and minorities. A Catalyst study found that both Fortune 1000 CEOs d women executives agreed that lack of line experience was a major factor eventing women's upward movement. Other major barriers cited include ex- usion from informal networks, negative stereotypes about women, lack of ac-

ountability of top leaders for advancing women, lack of role models, lack of entoring, and lack of awareness of organizational politics.3 Constraints posed social networks can help explain the obstacles women and minorities face that ult in their restricted upward movement in organizations. The constraints me in a variety of forms, such as increased difficulty in forming social networks

and lower levels of influence held by the members of their social networks. onsistent with Ragins's definition, the term nlinority will be used here to refer those groups traditionally lacking power in organizations-including women d members of racial and ethnic groups.4

In this chapter, I will first discuss the need for more attention to the social pita1 of minorities and important factors to consider in building social net- rks. Second, I explore three major barriers minorities face in developing their

1 52 Orgariizational Practices and Indiv idual Strategies

control the flow of information between them, which may be used to one's advantage.22 In addition to Burt, Podolny and Baron found that structural holes were associated with upward mobility, and Rodan and Galunic showed that they were related to greater managerial pe r fo rmar~ce .~~

F i r ~ a l l ~ , the resources of a tie refer to the benefits that may be derived from a relationship. These benefits may take a wide variety of forks, including in- formation, friendship, materialslservices, and i n f l u e n ~ e . ' ~ In particular, re- lationships with high-status individuals have the potential to provide valued outcomes. To illustrate, in their study of job seekers, Lin, Ensel, and Vaughn found that the status of the contact had a strong positive effect on the prestige of the attained job, indicating the ability of powerful contacts to exert influence on one's behalf.25

T o summarize, network size, tie strength, pattern of ties, and resources of ties are critical factors to consider in building one's social network. However, mino~ities experience unique barriers in their attempts to develop their social networks, which will now be considered.

BARRIERS MINORITIES FACE IN BUILDING THEIR SOCIAL NETWORKS

Three explanations for the difficulties minorities experience in building their social networks are centered on: ( 1 ) the similarity-attraction paradigm, (2) tokenism theory, and (3) existing organizational structures.

Similarity-Attraction Paradigm

Using Byrne's similarity-attraction paradigm, those who are considered si- milar on ascriptive characteristics (e.g., gender, race, ethnicity) are likely to perceive greater interpersonal similarities, which in turn leads to increased attrac- t ~ o n and more frequent c o i ~ ~ m u n i c a t i o n . ~ ~ Gender, racial, and ethnic sin~ila- rities facilitate interactions with others like oneself. Similarity on these factors increases the likelihood ofshared values, beliefs, and attitudes, which helps reduce uncertainty and create trusting relationships. For example, Tsui and O'Reilly found that subordinates in same-gender superior-subordinate dyads were rated higher in perceived effectiveness and lilting by their superiors and experienced lower role conflict and ambiguity than subordinates in mixed-gender dyadsz7

According to March and Simon, similarity on ascribed characteristics influences t l ~ e "language compatibility" between two people and makes com- munication easier.28 Roberts and O'Reilly found that participants in a coin- ~nunication network tend to have higher job satisfaction, more organizational commitment, and higher job performance than isolate^.'^ Furthermore, by communicating frequently, individuals develop similar attitudes and beliefs, which facilitate their integration into the o r g a n i ~ a t i o n . ~ ~

Impact of Social Networks on Women and Minor i ty Groups 153

Mou~ever, the similarity-attraction paradigm poses a problem for minorities in organizations in that the demographic makeup offers fewer opportunities for interactioi~s with others like themselves based on gender, race, or et l~nici ty.~ ' For example, based on a sample of managers from four Fortune 500 companies, Ibarra found that minorities had fewer same-race ties and fewer strong ties than white This lack of similarity affects the availability of social support for minority employees. Furthermore, given that minorities have less power in organizations, ties to other minorities are less instrumental in their ability to provide access to valued resources. Therefore, minorities have to seek out dis-

. similar others to obtain what they need. This necessity was illustrated in Ibarra's study of an advertising firm, in which men developed both instrumental and expressive (i.e., fi-iendship) contacts with other males, whereas females devel- oped instrumental contacts with men and expressive contacts with women.

3 3

Tokenism Theory

According to Kanter, the presence of a small, easily identifiable minority group of individuals (referred to as tokens) results in increased performance pressures and boundary heightening. Given that minorities are highly visible in

: organizations, they face added pressures to perform. If a niinority employee performs poorly, it is more liltely to be known throughout the organization. This may encourage ~n,ajority employees to distance tliemselves from minorities to avoid negative perceptions that association might convey. Furthermore, the

: behavior of a minority employee is likely to be construed as being symbolic for

1 ' the group. For example, if a woman fails at her position, majority members are ' likely to view this as evidence that women as a group are unable to handle those

types of jobs.34 Bouildary heightening occurs due to polarization that magnifies distinc-

tions betweell minority and majority groups. Boundary heightening results in an ' increase in stereotyping and isolation of minorities from areas where informal

socializing and politicking take place.35 To illustrate, Ely found that sex-role stereotypes were exaggerated in law firms dominated by men, in contrast to

: firms with a more balanced gender r e ~ r e s e n t a t i o n . ~ ~ Furthermore, Lyness and Thompson found that female executives were more likely than male executives to report lack of culture fit and bein excluded from informal networks as barriers to their career advancement."These results support the research on

; organizatioilal interaction networks in that minorities, due to their token status, have less access to members of the dominant power structures. 3 8

According to Baron and Pfeffer, white males are motivated to prescrve the ingroupioutgroup distinctions to protect their status and privilege in organizations.

39

'

Applying tokenism theory to the building of social networks, one c a n surmise that there will be a tendency for white males to avoid developing relationships with minority employees, resulting in smaller social networks comprised of less instru~nental contacts.

154 Organizational Practices and Individual Strategies Impact of Social Networks on Women and Minority Groups 155

Existing Organizational Structures

An individual's position in the organizational structure influences that person's social n e t w ~ r l i . ~ ~ T l ~ e hierarchy ofauthority indicated by an organization chart determines the superior and subordinates one interacts with to facilitate vertical coordination. Furthermore, the design and flow of the work necessitates coordination with other individuals, and changes in the technology used have been found to affect communication patterns.41 T o the extent that the job held calls for coordination with individuals from a variety of work units, there is more opportunity to develop personal relationships, which may influence network size, the strength of ties, the pattern of ties, and the resources available.

Brass and colleagues also argue that the location of a person in the physical and temporal space of an organization influences interaction patterns.42 We tend to communicate with individuals who are in close proximity to us and who work the same hours we do. One drawback of telecommuting and other types of flexible work arrangements (which are frequently marketed to women) is the negative impact on informal learning and relationship development due to the lower rates of interaction with members of the ~rganization.'~ Similarly, Meyerson and Fletcher emphasize the importance of time bound- aries in organizations. If strategic clecisions are frequently made outside of normal working hours (e.g., while socializing afier work), women are less likely to have input into them due to the need to attend to child care and other responsibilities at 11orne.~~

Also, as individuals move into different positions in an organization, their social networks change. New relationships must be developed to meet the demands required by the new position, and former relationships may erode through n o n u ~ e . ' ~ Starting a new position poses an extra challenge for mino- rities in that they are more likely to have to develop relationships with others who are dissimilar on the basis of gender, race, or ethnic status. Therefore, organizational decision makers may believe that promoting a minority will result in a slower transition and reduced levels of effectiveness.

Furthermore, Pfeffer states that examining the job structure to ensure that minorities are located in jobs that lead to higher positions in the organization is c r ~ c i a l . ' ~ Because lack of line experience is a major factor preventing upward movement, it is important for minorities to obtain jobs that have career lad- d e r ~ . ' ~ Although minorities may hold staff positions that call for extensive interaction with others, those holding line positions with profit and loss re- sponsibility have access to the most powerful decision makers and opportunities to prove their value to the organization. Competition for such line positions is intense and political. Having a powerful sponsor in the upper levels of an organization advocating on one's behalf provides a strong advantage to ob- taining these jobs. Minorities are much less likely to have such sponsors.

In sum, research shows that multiple forces help maintain existing power structures. What is being done to address this situation? Next, I discuss the

success of three strategies women and minorities are using to alter their social networks and improve their opportunities in organizations, namely, rnentoring, networking, and network groups.

Mentoring has been defined as a relationship whereby a more senior, ex- perienced individual is committed to providing developmental assistance and guidance to a less experienced prot~gC.48 Obtaining a powerful mentor re- presents the addition of a strong tie to an individual's social network that pro- vides access to valued resources.49 Mentors provide protCgCs with career de- velopment and psychosocial They nominate prottgCs for challenging and visible assignments and provide coaching to help ensure that their protCgCs succeed. By introducing protCgCs to influential individuals, mentors confer a sense of legitimacy on their protCg~s.51 Mentors serve as role models for pro- tCgCs and affirm their worthiness and identity by offering counseling and friendship. The benefits of mentoring for protCgCs as a result of such assistance have been well established. ProtCgCs have greater opportunities a n d higher compensation and receive more promotions than those who have not received m e n t ~ r i n ~ . ' ~ ProtCgCs also are more satisfied with their jobs and careers and have greater intentions to remain in their organizations. 5 3

Many researchers have discussed barriers that women and minorities face in finding potential mentors.54 Given that the upper echelons of organizations are dominated by white males, there is a lack of role models available to serve as mentors. The few women and minorities in the upper ranks may feel over- whelmed by the number of individuals who might desire a mentoring re- lationship, and cross-race and cross-gender relationships are more difficult to develop. Cross-gender and cross-race rnentoring relationships are highly visible, which might invoke feelings of envy and accusations of favoritism by peers, especially if the protCgC is perceived as less competent.55 In addition, the high visibility of the relationship makes it more likely that a failure by t h e protCgC will be known in the organization and may reflect poorly on t h e mentor. Furthermore, men and women may avoid participating in a cross-gender men- toring relationship due to concerns that a sexual relationship might develop or to avoid damaging gossip and rumors that a sexual relationship exists.56

However, even though these barriers are present, several studies show no differences between men and women in the number of mentoring relationships or the amount of mentoring receiveds7 According to Thomas, d u e to the scarcity of demographically similar relationships in an organization, minorities are more likely to search outside their organization to find individuals willing to provide developmental a s s i ~ t a n c e . ~ ~ Although benefits such as career advice and acceptance can be gained from these relationships, a mentor outside one's organization is unlikely to wield the type of power and influence needed to help

156 Organizational Practices and Individual Strategies Impact of Social Networks on Women and Minority Groups 157

the protege land prestigious assignments and move up the career ladder in his or relationships is associated ~ l i t h greater work satisfaction, career progress, and her organization. 59 retention in the organization."

Some evidence suggests that cross-gender or cross-race relationships yield Individuals engage in networking to help build developmental relationships fewer benefits than those accruing to white male prot6gb with white male that in turn improve tlieir social networks by influencing the size of their mentors. Although Dreher and Cox identified no gender or racial differences in networks, their pattern of ties, and the resources available through their ties. forming mentoring relationships, they found preferences for similarity. African Nehvorlting behaviors are proactive atteinpts by individuals to develop and American, Hispanic, and female MBAs were less likely to establish mentoring maintain relationships with others for the purpose of mutual benefit in their relationships with white male mentors, despite a compensation advantage for work or career.71 Networking expands an individual's relationship constella- those with white male mentors.60 In his examination of cross-race mentoring tion by forming relationships with those internal to the organization (e.g., peers) relationships, Thomas found that protCgCs receive inore psychosocial support and those external to it (e.g., members of professional association^).^^ The rela- from mentors of the same Furthermore, some research suggests that role tionships formed through networlting tend to be characterized I,y less interaction modeling is more liltely to occur in same-gender inentoring 'The and intimacy than informal mentoring relationships, and hence are considered increased psychosocial functions protCgCs receive in same-gender, same-race to be wealter ties.73

relationships are not surprising given the greater social identification based on Forret and Sullivan advocate taking a strategic approach to networking, in sex and race.63 that individuals should determine their career goals; assess their current social

Given the widespread benefits of mentoring and the additional barriers capital; align their networking efforts accordingly to reach individuals in their women and minorities face in developing a mentoring relationship, organiza- organization, profession, or community; and invest the time, energy, and effort tions have implemented formal mentorin programs to ensure that mentoring to develop mutually beneficial r e l a t i o n s ~ ~ i ~ ~ s . ~ ~ Developing interpersonal rela- relationships are accessible to employees.' However, several studies show that ps through networking is considered to be a specific competency vital for

ing one's career. 7 5 formal mentoring programs tend to be ineffective for advancing a protCgC's career.6s Noe argues that one should not expect the same benefits from both et~iorking is related to career outcomes of managers, such as promotions formal and informal mentoring relationships because the latter develop natu- salary progression.76 Forret and Dougherty identified five types of network- rally based on mutual attraction and interest.66 111 contrast, formal mentoring behaviors: maintaining external contacts, socializing, engaging in profes- programs tend to be for a l i~ni ted time period (such as a ear) in wliich inelltors sional activities, participating in community, and increasing internal ~ i s i b i l i t y . ~ ~ and proteges are paired through a matching process that may not be Imed n a study examining the relationship between types of networking behaviors on mutual identification given the shortage of mentors in organizations.h7 For nd career outcornes for men and wornen, Forret and Dougherty found in- strong sponsorship to occur, the mentoring relationship needs to be char- creasing internal visibility to be significantly related to nuinl~er of promotions acterized by identification and trust between the mentor and protCgC, co nd total con~pensation for men, but not for women. Also, a marginal re-

fidence in the mentor of the protCge1s abilities and potential, and a coinmitine tionshill between engaging in professional activities and total cornpensatioi~ to helping the prot6gC succeed. Although formal inentoring programs m as found. However, the relationship was positive for men and negative for provide seine benefits to minorities, it is unlikely that they will receive th omen.7B Although women make attempts to increase their internal visibility,

backing an illformal mentor can provide. e work assigiiments and taskforces in which they participate may be less estigious than those of men, given their lack of access to rnembers of the or-

anization's power structui-e.79 Wit11 regard to engaging in professional activ-

NETWORKING S, organizations may assign a higher value to the professional involvement of en than of women.*"

In light of the difficulties in finding a high-ranlting senior manager to take a The few studies examining gender differences in networking behaviors strong interest in one's development, and given the current boundaryless work OW little difference between men and women. In the Gould and Penley study, environment characterized by frequent movement within and across organiza- en reported engaging in networking (measured via the extent to which tions, a new focus has emerged on forming multiple developmeiltal relati spondents reported building a network of contacts and friendships in the

ganization) more than women, but the result was marginally significant. 61 ships to support one's career.68 Multiple developmental relationships build IZram's concept of the relationship constellation, which proposes that career an milarly, F'orret and Dougherty found few differences. Men were m o r e likely

psychosocial support can come from a multitude of people both within and o o engage in socializing behaviors than women; however, a subsequent analy-

side the organization.69 Research has shown that having multiple developlnen is comparing men with single women found no difference in socializing

158 Organizational Practices and Individual Strategies Impact of Social Networks on Women and Minority Groups 159

b e l ~ a v i o r s . ~ ~ Because married women tend to carry a disproportionate share of respondents with network groups in their organization reported more support family and household responsibilities, it is not surprising that little tinie is left and ties wit11 other African Americans, were more likely to receive support from for socializing with colleagues outside of work.83 a mentor, and felt they were better able to interact with white mentor^.^' The

Although writings on protean careers stress the importance of networking, presence of a network group was positively related to optimism about career especially because the burden of responsibility for one's career has shifted froin rogress in the organization, although this relationship was mediated by the the organization to the individual, research on the benefits of networking for the resence of a mentor. Network groups also may influence job performance. careers of women and minorities is ~ a c l t i n ~ . ~ ' T h e little existing evidence shows cording to Catalyst, sales for women brokers who started a network group at women benefit less than men from networking efforts. One explanation may be ain Rauscher increased 19.2 percent compared with 5 percent for the rest of that because women's contacts are more likely to be at lower levels in organi- zations, they have less ability to provide influence and access to resources There is some concern that forming a network group will promote backlash Studies examining the success of networking behaviors of minorities need to be y the majority members in an organization. As Friedman discussed, a vo- conducted. luntarily formed group of minorities signals that social identity makes a differ-

nce. Majority group members may see a network group as a threat to the existing power structure, and its existence may result in heightened tension and

NETWORK GROUPS voidance behaviors. Those who might benefit from participation in a network oup may choose to decline membership over fears that it will highlight their

Network groups are defined as intraorganizational groups composed of cia1 identity and negatively influence their career progress.93 In a Catalyst members who share a common social identity (e.g., gender, race, ethnicity) who rvey of management representatives and leaders of the women's network at have formally organized themselves to ~ rov ide support for their members.85 32 companies, close to 75 percent of both groups indicated the presence of African American employees at Xerox organized one of the first network grou me minor negative reactions to the network group, such as males feeling After an African American colleague left the company in 1971, a group of ened, concerns over elitism, women's fears about how participation might rican American employees started meeting to practice their presentatio their careers, conflicts between the group's and HR management's role, share sales techniques, and provide tips for navigating the corporate culture to ack of management support for the network group. However, 20 percent help each other succeed.86 pressed no negative responses, and only a very few experienced significant

According to Catalyst, 33 percent of Fortune 100 companies have w ckla~h.~ ' In Creating Women's Networks, Catalyst outlines steps for creating networks, including IBM, Procter & Gamble, Ford, Merclt, I<raft, an revamping women's networks and advocates finding the right goals for the Organizations with women's networks are much more likely to have other -k, responding to member needs, and making positive contributions to the network groups (e.g., based on race or sexual orientation) than companies 9 5

without women's networks.87 Network groups provide networking opportuniti verall, although network groups can provide a variety of benefits to their social support, and career development for their members. They also adv mbers, their ability to advance minorities to upper organizational levels may senior management and human resource managers on issues that concern th limited due to the lack of interaction with members of the majority group. members and attempt to create positive organizational change." In a survey o search is needed to examine the linkages between network groups and ad- 20 I-IR managers, 70 Executive Leadership Council members, and 397 Na- ncement of minorities. tional Black MBA Association members, similar findings regarding the effec- tiveness of networlt groups were found. Networks groups were consistent1 rated as most effective at ~ r o v i d i n ~ social support, informal advice, support fo GGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING SOCIAL NETWORKS younger employees, and voicing concerns to management. 89

Network groups meet regularly, often on company premises, where the The results of proactive attempts such as mentoring, networking, and hold a variety of events (e.g., speakers, seminars, workshops, career developme groups that minorities use to alter their networks have been somewhat sessions) for their meinbers. Network groups are a means by which minoriti 1 in providing work-related and psychosocial benefits. However, the can find and meet other minorities in their organization, thereby affecting tl ysis of these strategies shows they may not attain the desired results in terms number, strength, pattern, and resources of their network ties. This reduc advancing minorities into the upper ranlts of organizations. To g e t past the feelings of isolation, and allows them to act as "majority" members for a perio rriers presented by the similarity-attraction paradigm, tokenism theory, and of In a sample of members of the National Black MBA Association, isting organizational structures, organizations need to ensure opportunities for

Organizational Practices a n d Individual Strategies Impact of Social Networks on Women a n d Minority Groups

substantive interaction take place between the organization's ininority and 2. Betsy Morris, Kate Bonamici, Susan M. IZaufinan, and Patricia Neering, inajority members. "How Corporate America Is Betraying Women," Fortune (January 10, 2005): 65-74.

AS Laurence Prusak and D o n Cohen discuss in their book, In Good 3. Sheila Wellington, Marcia Brumit Kropf, and Paulette R. Gerkovich, "What's Coi7zpany: How Social Capital Makes Orgc~nizations Work, social capital is Holding Women Back?," I-larvard Business Review (June 2003): 18-19. created when employees have the opportunity to participate in "real work" with 4. Belle Kose Ragins, "Diversified Mentoring Relationships in Organizations: A

one another that accon~plishes organizational objective^.^^ Sponsoring the oc- ower Perspective," Academy of Malzagenzerzt Review 22 (1997): 482-52 1.

casional social gathering to provide opportunities for majority and minori 5. Gary S. Becker, Hunzalz Capital (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975); Francine D. Blau and Marianne A. Ferber, The Ecolzonzics of Women, Men and Work employees to interact is not sufficient for developing the types of trusting (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice I-Iall, 1987).

lationships that are crucial for successful organizational functioning. In 6. Ann M. Morrison and Mary Ann Von Glinow, "Womeri and Minorities in context of performing real work, employees can discover similar values, a Management," Anzericalz Psychologist 45 (1990): 200-208. tudes, and beliefs held by iildividuals who initially appear dissimilar. Hence, 7. Linda I<. Stroh, Jeanne M. Brett, and Anne M. Reilly, "All the Right Stuff: A employees are able to look beyond initial differences and communicate inore mparison of Female and Male Managers' Career Progression," Ioumal of Applied effectively with each other. chology 77 (1992): 251-60.

Collaborative relationships need to be developed between majority and 8. Jeanne M. Brett and Linda K. Stroll, "Jumping Ship: Who Benefits from an minority employees. Collaborative relationships are characterized by ltnowl- External Labor Market Career Strategy?," \ounzal ofApplied Psychology 82 (1997): 331-41. edge of each person's expertise, a willingness to engage in active and timely 9. George F. Dreher and Taylor H. Cox Jr., "Labor Market Mobility and Cash

problem solving, and trust.97 Building social networks composed of individuals Compensation: The Moderating Effects of Race and Gender," Academy of Manogell~eizt

diverse in gender, race, and ethnic backgrouild increases the likelihood of oumal43 (2000): 890-900. 10. Jacqueline Landau, "The Relationship of Race and Gender t o Managers' receiving novel ideas and a greater variety of feedback, which should enhance

93 Ratings of Promotion Potential," \ounzal of Organizational Behavior 16 (1995): 391-400. ltnowledge sharing and creation.

11. Phyllis Tharenou, Shane Latimer, and Denise Conroy, "How Do You Make It Furthermore, IVIeyerson and Fletcher advocate experimenting with incre- the Top? An Examination of Influences on Women's and Men's Managerial Ad-

mental structural changes to eradicate sources of inequity. By questioning or- ncement," Academy of Management \ouinal 37 (1994): 899-931; Joy A. Schneer and ganizatioilal procedures and assumptions, practices that undermine equity for rieda Reitrnan, "The Interrupted Managerial Career Path: A Longitudinal Study of women and minorities can be modified or removed.99 For e x a ~ n ~ l e , require- MBAs," Ioumal of Vocational Behavior 51 (1997): 41 1-34. ments for a line position that are unnecessary for performance but eli~ninate 12. Wayne Baker, Achievilzg Success through Social Capital: Tapping the Hidden minorities from the applicant pool can be dropped. By providing women with Resources in Your Personal and Business Networks (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000). advancement opportunities, battling gender stereotypes, and rewarding man- 13. Paul S. Adler and Seok-WOO Kwon, "Social Capital: Prospects for a New

agers based o n achieving diversity goals, Georgia-Pacific increased its percen- Concept," Acade~izy of Maizagemeizt Review 27 (2002): 17-40.

tage of top women executives from 9 percent in 2001 to 29 percent in 2 0 0 4 . ' ~ ~ 14. Scott E. Seibert, Maria L. Kraimer, and Robert C. Lideri, "A social Capital Theory of Career Success," Academ)~ of Malzagemerlt Ioumal 44 (2001): 2 19-37. Breaking down the barriers to advancement for women and minorities must

15. Monica L. Forret and Sherry E. Sullivan, "A Balanced Scorecard ~ p ~ r o a c h to become a corporate imperative, not just because it is the ethical step to take but Networking: A Guide to Successfully Navigating Career Changes," ~r~alzizatiolzal also because it is good for business. A recent study by Catalyst of 353 Fortune Dylzamics 31 (2002): 245-58. 500 companies found that those with the highest representation of senior 16. Elizabeth Wolfe Morrison, "Newcomers' Relationships: The Kole of Social women had a 35 percent higher return o n equity and a 34 percent higher return Network Ties During Socialization," Academy ofManagement \ounzal45 (2002): 1149-60. to shareholders than those companies with the lowest number of high-ranking 17. Joel M. Podolny and James N. Baron, "Resources and Relationships: worne i~ . '~ ' Perhaps organizations with higher proportions of minorities in upper Social Networks and Mobility in the Workplace," American Sociological Review 62 management ranlts are talting better advantage of both their employees' human and social capital, a worthy goal for every company. 18. Mark S. Granovetter, "The Strength of Weak Ties," Americarl Ioumal of So-

ciology 78 (1973): 1360-80. 19. Mark S. Granovetter, Getting a lob: A Study of Contacts and Careers (Cam-

NOTES bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974). 20. Morten T. Hansen, "The Search-Transfer Problem: The Role of Weak Ties in

Sharing Knowledge across Organizational Subunits," Adnzi~zistrative Scierzce Quarterly 1. Cora Daniels, "The Most Powerful Black Executives in America," Fortulze

(July 22, 2002): 60-80.

162 Organizational Practices a n d Individual Strategies

21. Marc-David L. Seidel, Jeffrey T . Polzer, and Katherine J. Stewa~t, "Friends in High Places: T h e Effects of Social Networks on Discrimination in Salary Negotiations," Adininistrative Science Quai-lerly 45 (2000): 1-24.

22. Ronald S. Burt, Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Coinpetition (Cam- bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).

23. Ibid.; Podolny and Baron, "Resources and Relationships"; Siinon Rodan and Charles Galunic, "More than Network Structure: How Knowledge Heterogeneity In- fluences Managerial Performance and Innovativeness," Strategic Manageinent ]ournu/ 25 (2004): 541-62.

24. Noel M. Tichy, Michael L. Tushman, and Charles Fombrun, "Social Net- work Analysis lor Organizations," Acadeiny of Manageinent Review 4 (1979): 507-19.

25. Nan Lin, Walter M. Ensel, and John C . Vaughn, "Social Resources and Strength of Ties: Structural Factors in Occupational Status Attainment," American So- ciological Review 46 (1981): 393-405.

26. Donn E. Byrne, The Attraction Paradigm (New York: Academic Press, 1971); I<arlene 13. Roberts and Charles A. O'Reilly 111, "Some Correlations of Communication Roles in Organizations," Academy of Maizagernent ]ounzal 22 (1979): 42-57.

27. Anne S. Tsui and Charles A. O'Reilly 111, "Beyond Simple De~nographic Effects: The Importance of Relational Demography in Superior-Subordinate Dyads," Academy of Management ]oumal 32 (1989): 402-23.

28. James G . March and Herbert A. Simon, Orgaizizations (New York: Wiley, 1958).

29. See Roberts and OIReilly, "Some Correlations." 30. W. Gary Wagner, Jeffrey Pfeffer, and Cha~ le s A. O'Reilly 111, "Organizational

Demography and Turnover in Top-Management Groups," Admiizistrative Scieizce Quar- terly 29 (1964): 74-92.

31. Her~ninia Ibarra, "Personal Nehvorks of Woinen and Minorities in Man- agement: A Conceptual Framework," Acade7izy of Maizageinent Review 18 (1993): 56-87.

32. I-Ierminia Ibarra, "Race, Opportunity, and Diversity of Social Circles in Managerial Networks," Acadeiny of Maizagernent ]ounldl 38 (1995): 673-703.

33. Herminia Ibarra, "Homophily and Differential Returns: Sex Differences in Nehvork Structure and Access in an Advertising Firm," Administrative Science Quarterly 37 (1992): 422-47.

34. Rosabeth Moss Kanter, "Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women," A~nericai~ ]ounzal of Sociology 82 (1977): 965-90.

35. Ibid. 36. Robin J. Ely, "The Power in Demography: Women's Social Constructions of

Gender Identity at Work," Acaden~y of Management ]ou7izal 38 (1995): 589-634. 37. Karen S. Lyness and Donna E. Thompson, "Above the Glass Ceiling? A

Comparison of Matched Samples of Female and Male Executives," ]ounlal of Applied Psychology 82 (1997): 359-75.

38. Daniel J. Brass, "Men's and Women's Networlts: A Study of Interaction Pat- terns and Influence in an Organization," Acadelny of Management ]ounlal 28 (1985): 327-43; Ibarra, "Personal Networks of Women and Minorities"; Ibarra, "Homophily and Differential Returns."

Impact of Social Networlts on Women and Minority Groups 163

39. Jaines N. Baron and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "The Social Psychology o f Organizations and Inequality," Social Psychology Quarterly 57 (1994): 190-209.

40. Daniel J. Brass, "A Social Network Perspective on Human Resources Man- agement," in Gerald R. Ferris, ed., Research in Personnel and Huinan Resources Man- ageii~ei~t (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 2004), pp. 13:39-79; Daniel J . Brass, Joseph Galaskiewicz, Henrich R. Greve, and CVenpin Tsai, "Taking Stock of Networks and Organizations: A Multilevel Perspective," Academy of Maizagen~ent ]ournu/ 47 (2004): 795-817; Podolny and Baron, "Resources and Relationships."

41. Marlene E. Burkhardt and Daniel J. Brass, "Chaiiging Patterns or Patterns of Change: The Effect of a Change in Technology on Social Network Structure and Power," Adiiziizistratii~e Science Quarterly 35 (1990): 104-27.

42. See Brass, "A Social Network"; see Brass et al., "Taking Stock." 43. Cecily D. Cooper and Nancy B. IZurland, "Telecommuting, Professional

Isolation, and Employee Develop~llent in Public and Private Organizations," Jounlal of Organizational Behavior 23 (2002): 51 1-32,

44. Debra E. Meyerson and Joyce I<. Fletcher, "A Modest Manifesto for Shat- tering the Glass Ceiling," Hanxard Business Review (JanuaryFebruary 2000): 126-36.

45. Podolny and Baron, "Resources and Relationships." 46. Jeffrey Pfeffer, "A Political Perspective on Careers: Interests, Networks, and

Environments," in Michael B. Arthur, Douglas T . Hall, and Barbara S. Lawrence, eds., Hai~dbook of Career Theory (Cambl-idge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 380-96.

47. Welliilgto~l et al., "What's Holding Women Back?" 48. Kathy E. I<ram, Mentoring a t Work: Developmental Relationships in Organi-

zational Life (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresinan, 1985). 49. Reba Keele, "Mentoring or Networking? Strong and Weak Ties in Career

Development," in Lynda L. Moore, ed., Not as Far as You Think: The Realities of Working Women (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1986), pp. 53-68.

50. Kram, Mentoring at Work. 51. Belle Rose Ragins, "Barriers to Mentoring: The Female Manager's Dileinma,"

' Huinail Relatioi~s 42 (1989): 1-22. 52. Ellen A. Fagenson, "The Mentor Advantage: Perceived Career/Job Experi-

ences of ProtCgCs versus Non-ProttgCs," ]ounzal of Organizational Behavior 10 (1989): 309-20; Terri A. Scandura, "Mentorship and Career Mobility: An Empirical In- vestigation," ]ounzal of Orgaizizatioizal Behavior 13 (1992): 169-74; William Whitely, Tho~nas CV. Dougherty, and George F. Dreher, "Relationship of Career Mentoring and Socioeconomic Origin to Managers' and Professionals' Early Career Progress," Acadelny of Maizageineizt Journal 34 (1991): 33 1-5 1.

53. Monica C. Higgins and David A. Thomas, "Constellations a n d Careers: TO- ward Understanding the Effects of Multiple Developmental Relationships," ]ounlal of Orgaizizaiional Behavior 22 (2001): 223-47; Ralph E. Viator, "An Analysis of Formal Mentoring Programs and Perceived Barriers to Obtaining a Mentor at Large Public Accounting Firms," Accounting Horizoizs 13 (1999): 37-53; Ralph E. Viator and Terri A. Scandura, "A Study of Mentor-ProtCgC Relationships in Large Public Accounting Firms," Accouizti~zg Horizons 5 (1991): 20-30.

54. Kram, Mentoi-iizg at Work; Ragins, "Barriers to Mentoring"; Belle Rose Ragins and John Id. Cotton, "Easier Said than Done: Gender Differences in Perceived Barriers

164 Organizational Practices and Individual Strategies

to Gaining a Mentor," Acadeiny of Maizagement Journal 34 (1991): 939-51; Raymond A. Noe, "Women and Mentoring: A Review and Research Agenda," Acadellz)~ of Manage- ment Review 13 (1988): 65-78.

55. See Ragins, "Diversified Mentoring Relationships"; IZram, Mentoring a t Work. 56. Kram, Mentoring a t Work; Ragins, "Barriers to Mentoring." 57. George F. Dreher and Ronald A. Ash, "A Comparative Study of Mentoring

among Men and Women in Managerial, Professional, and Technical Positions," \ounzal ofApplied Psychology 75 (1990): 539-46; Belle Rose Ragins and Terri A. Scandura, "The Way W e Were: Gender and the Termination of Mentoring Relationships," l o ~ ~ m a l of Applied Psychology 82 (1997): 945-53; Whitely et a]., "Relationship of Career."

58. David A. Thomas, "The Impact of Race on Managers' Experiences of De- velopmental Relationships (Mentoring and Sponsorship): An Inter-Organizational Study," Iounznl of Organizatior~al Belzavior 11 (1990): 479-92.

59. Ragins, "Diversified Mentoring Relationships." 60. George F. Dreher and Taylor 1-1. Cox Jr., "Race, Gender, and Opportunity: A

Study of Compensation Attainment and the Establishment of Mentoring Relationships," Journal of Applied Psyclzology 81 (1996): 297-308.

61. Thomas. "The Impact of Race on Managers' Experiences." 62. Belle Rose Ragills and Dean B. McFarlin, "Perceptions of Mentor Roles in

Cross-Gender Mentoring Relationships," Jounzal of Vocatio~lal Behavior 37 (1990): 321- 39; Terri A. Scandura and Ethlyn A. Williams, "An Investigation of the Moderating Effects of Gender on the Relationships between Mentorship Initiation and Prottgi: Perceptions of Mentoring Functions," Journal of Vocatio~zal Behavior 59 (2001): 342-63.

63. Ragins, "Diversified Mentoring Relationsliips." 64. Monica L. Forret, Daniel B. Turban, and Thomas W. Dougherty, "Issues

Facing Organizations When Implemer~ting Formal Mentoring Progranlmes," Leadership and Orga~zizatiotz Develo/~rnent Journal 17 (1996): 27-30; Kathryn Tyler, "Mentoring Programs Link Employees and Experienced Execs," NR Magazine 43 (1998): 98-103.

65. Georgia T. Chao, Pat M. Walz, and Philip D. Gardner, "Formal and Inforinal Mentorships: A Co~nparison on Mentoring Functions and Contrast with Nonmentored Counterparts," Persorz~zel Psychology 45 (1992): 619-36; Belle Rose Ragins and John L. Cotton, "Mentor Functions and Outcomes: A Cornparison of Men and Women in Formal and Informal Mentoring Kelation~hi~s," Journal of Applied Psychology 84 (1999): 529-50; Belle Rose Ragins, John L. Cotton, and Janice S. Miller, "Marginal Mentoring: The Effects ofType of Mentor, Quality of lielationship, and Program Design on Work and Career Attitudes," Academy of blanagernelzt Journal 43 (2000): 1177-94; Scandura and Williams, "An Investigation."

66. See Noe, "Women and Mentoring." 67. See Ragins and Cotton, "Mentor Functions." 68. Michael B. Arthur and Denise M. Rousseau, eds., The Bouizdaryless Career:A

New Employment Principle for a New Orgal1iratio11al Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Monica C . Higgins, "The More, the Merrier? Multiple Developmental Relationships and Work Satisfaction," lounzal of Management Developri~e~zt 19 (2000): 277-96; Monica C . Higgins and Kathy E. IZram, "Reconceptualizing Mentoring at Work: A Developmental Network Perspective," Acade7izy of Ma~zage~r~ent Review 26 (2001): 264-88; Higgins and Thomas, "Constellations and Careers."

69. Kram, Me~ztoring a t Work.

Impact of Social Networks on Women and Minority Groups 165

70. See Higgins, "The More, T h e Merrier"; see Higgins and Thomas, "Con- stellations and Careers."

71. Monica L. Forret and Thomas W. Dougherty, "Correlates of Networking Behavior for Managerial and Professional Employees," Group and Orga7zizatiol1 Maiz- agenzent 26 (2001): 283-3 11.

72. See Higgins and Kram, "Reconceptualizing Mentoring." 73. Keele, "Mentoring or Networking?" 74. Forret and Sullivan, "A Balanced Scorecard Approach." 75. Robert J. DeFillippi and Michael B. Arthur, "The Boundaryless Career: A

Con~petency-Based Perspective," Journal of Orga~zizational Belzavior 15 (1994): 307-24; Michael B. Arthur, Kerr Inkson, and Judith IZ. Pringle, The New Careers: I~zdividual Action and Ecorzo~nic Change (London: Sage, 1999).

76. Monica L. Forret and Thomas W. Dougherty, "Networking Behaviors and Career Outcomes: Differences for Me11 and Women?," \ o ~ ~ r n a l of Organizatio~zal Be- havior 25 (2004): 419-37; Fred Luthans, Richard M. Hodgetts, and Stuart A. Ro- senkrantz, Real Managers (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1988); James Michael and Gary Yukl, "Managerial Level and Subunit Function as Determinants of Nehvorking Behavior in Organizations," Group and Orgaizization Managenzent 18 (1993): 328-51; Sam Gould and Larry E. Penley, "Career Strategies and Salary Progression: A Study of Their Relationships in a Municipal Bureaucracy," Orga~zirational Behavior and Hunlalz Per- fon~zance 34 (1984): 244-65.

77. Forret and Dougherty, "Correlates of Networking Behavior." 78. See Forret and Dougherty, "Networking Behaviors." 79. Belle Rose Ragins and Eric Sundstrom, "Gender and Power in Organizations:

A Longitudinal Perspective," Psychological Bulleti11 105 (1989): 51-88; Brass, "Men's and Women's Networks"; Ibarra, "Personal Networks of Women and Minorities."

80. See Forret and Dougherty, "Networking Behaviors." 81. See Gould and Penley, "Career Strategies." 82. Forret and Dougherty, "Correlates of Networking Behavior." 83. Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Secoitd Shift (Ne\v York: Penguin Books, 2003). 84. Douglas T . Hall, The Career Is Dead-Long Live the Career: A Relational

Approach to Careers (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996). 85. Ray Friedinan, "Defining the Scope and Logic of Minorib and Fenlale

Network Groups: Can Separation Enhance Integration?," in Gerald R. Ferris, ed., Re- search in Personnel nrzd Humaiz Resources Marzagenze11t (Greenwich, C T : JAI Press, 1996), pp. 14:307-49; Ray Friedmall, Melinda Kane, and Daniel B. Cornfield, "Social Support and Career Optinlism: Examining the Effectiveness of Network Groups among

'

Black Managers," Huilza7z Relatio7zs 5 1 (1998): 11 55-77. 86. Elizabeth Lesly, "Sticking it Out at Xerox by Sticking 'Together," Business

Week (November 29, 1993): 77. 87. Catalyst, Creating Womeiz's Networks: A Mow-To Guide for Wonzelz and

Compalzies (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999). 88. Ibid. 89. See Friedman, "Defining the Scope." 90. Ibid. 91. See Friedman, &ne, and Cornfield, "Social Support." 92. Catalyst, Creating Women's Networks.

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166 Organizational Practices and Individual Strategies

93. See Friedman, "Defining the Scope." 94. Catalyst, Creating Wollzerz's Networks. 95. ILid. 96. Don Cohen and Laurence Prusak, In Good Coinpaizy: I-low Social Capital

Mnkes Organiratio~ls Wor-k (Boslu~~: Harvard Business School Press, 2001). 97. Rob Cross, Andrew Parker, Laurence Prusack, and Stephen P. Borgatti,

"I<nowing What We Know: Supporting I<nowledge Creating and Sharing in Networks," Orgalzizatiolzal Dylzanzics 30 (2001): 100-1 20.

98. Baker, Acllieviizg Success through Social Crlpital. 99. Meyersorl and Fletcher, "A R/Iodest Manifesto."

100. Diane Brady, "The Glass Ceiling's Iron Girdcrs," Business Week Oillirle (March 28, 2005), web24.epnet.com (assessed July 4, 2005).

101. Patricia Sellers, "By the Numbers," Foitulze (February 2, 2004): 22.

Women Are on tlze Same Team. . . and Other Important Business Rules

Gail Evans

1 a m forced to begin this chapter with an admonition. Did you know that men fill a room from the center to the front and women from the center to the back! In an office setting, unless they have an assigned seat at the table, wulllen tend to take chairs on the The11 they have a great idea, and they're sitting in outer space; thc boss is sitting at the table. Tlie action is happening among the people at the table. A woman has something to say and begins, "This may be an idca we have tried before, bu t . . ." W e know 1,001 things to say before the word but. Then the woinan quietly explains her idea, preceded by a conditional phrase. She knows she achieved her current position because she is "perfect" and does not want to speak up in the meeting unless her comments are perfect. She says something quite intelligent; others at the table murmur, and the meeting continues.

Ten minutes later, a sinart young man lower in rank than the woman but sitting at the table even though he doesn't necessarily belong there, rephrases her idea. He says, "We should-" and suddenly, the power structure says, "That's a great idea!" As people leave the room, the man and the boss discl~ss the idea, and the womail walks out with a female friend discussing the fact that the man stole her idea. Actually, she gave it away! A real friend doesn't say, "Yes, he stole your idea." She says, "You said it, but he's actually the only one at the table who really

I

heard you. You need to speak more powerfully and own your idea, rather than being so concerned about whether it is perfect.

So I begin by getting angry at all of you and saying, "You don't have tu be perfect." If you're always at the meeting table and others say what you wanted to say, maybe you think, "1 thought of that three weeks agu," or "I was about to say that." None of that counts. Learn that nobody ever got fired for saying something stupid. Actually practice. Say so~~~et l l i r ig stupid at a meeting once, and discover that you don't get fired. T h e boss only hears and discusses the smart ideas, never the stupid thirigs; that's why that person's the boss.