Week 5 D 1

Students Who Are Gifted and Talented

7

Ingram Publishing/Thinkstock

Pre-Test:

1. “Twice-exceptional” students have a disability comorbid with being gifted. T/F

2. Identifying gifted students became easier with the creation of the IQ test. T/F

3. The primary cause of giftedness is genetics. T/F

4. Identification of gifted students should occur with a variety of assessments. T/F

5. Schools advance gifted students a grade level to address the needs of the student. T/F

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define and explain the terms “gifted” and “ talented.”

2. Explain important advances in assessment that have benefitted gifted students.

3. Discuss the characteristics of students with giftedness.

4. Explain some potential causes of giftedness.

5. Explain how gifted students are identified by schools.

6. Explain how gifted students differ based on grade level.

7. Discuss classroom strategies that are helpful for teaching students with giftedness.

231

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 231 5/7/13 8:15 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 What Is Gifted and Talented?

Introduction

You might be wondering: Why is “gifted and talented” in this book? Gifted students don’t have disabilities! And gifted and talented is not considered a disability under the IDEA 2004. How-ever, there are three reasons to include gifted and talented in a book on special education: 1. Many gifted students receive individualized instruction through special education ser-

vices in schools. In fact, some districts even develop individualized educational plans for their gifted students. (These individualized educational plans do not fall under the IDEA 2004, though, as you’ll learn in this chapter.)

2. Many strategies used to individualize instruction for students with disabilities can also be used to individualize instruction for gifted students.

3. Students called “twice gifted” or “twice exceptional” are those who are both gifted and have a disability, so they do qualify for special education services under the IDEA 2004.

Please note that the gifted community does not adhere to people-first language. It is acceptable to say either “gifted students” or “students who are gifted.” Some people also say, “students who exhibit gifted behaviors.” This chapter will use several variations.

This chapter first discusses formal definitions of gifted and talented and the prevalence of gifted students in U.S. schools. It highlights the historical context for providing educational services to gifted students and the characteristics of students with giftedness. The next sections explore possible causes for giftedness, the diagnosis of students in schools, and suggestions for teaching students who are gifted.

7.1 What Is Gifted and Talented?

This section provides definitions of gifted and talented. These definitions do not come from IDEA 2004 because this legislation does not cover students who are gifted. The section con-tinues with a discussion of the prevalence of gifted and talented students in schools. Defining Gifted and Talented Gifted is often used as an umbrella term that describes individuals who are gifted or talented. Stu- dents who are gifted demonstrate innate abilities that are exceptional. Students who are talented demonstrate exceptional performance related to their ability. Most people use the terms gifted and talented interchangeably.

While there are no universal definitions of gifted or talented, the primary organization that represents gifted students, the National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC), provides the following guideline:

Gifted individuals are those who demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude (defined as an exceptional ability to reason and learn) or competence (documented perfor- mance or achievement in top 10% or rarer) in one or more domains. Domains include any structured area of activity with its own symbol system (e.g., mathematics, music, language) and/or set of sensorimotor skills (e.g., painting, dance, sports). (2008)

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 232 5/7/13 8:15 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 What Is Gifted and Talented?

From My Perspective: Being Gifted Hi, I’m Garrett, and I’ve been on Earth for 10 years. We excep- tionally/profoundly gifted kids may seem like troublemakers. We get distracted easily during normal school curricula, and just don’t seem normal. That’s mainly because we aren’t nor- mal. While most kids are happy when they get easier classes, we aren’t jumping for joy. We’re doing just the opposite. We want to be challenged. We enjoy having our abilities put to the test, no matter if it is science or history or the molecu- lar structure of platypi. We seem distracted because it takes every ounce of our power not to fall asleep during a subject we’ve already studied.

Most of us require nontraditional teaching or extracurricular academic activities to stay pleased. The majority of us have trouble interacting socially, too. In my eye, a kid either gets one or the other. You may have an honor-roll, international-spelling-bee champion student with an IQ well into the upper 100s, but chances are, he or she is socially clueless. Other kids are fairly bright, and most of them are probably going to be kids you want to be around, usually with great humor and personality. Those of us in the first group are usually picked on. We have the spot of “useless geek” cut out for us. The thing is, we’re not. Those of us in the first group need a little extra help, both academically and socially. Teach- ers (and parents, too!) are in the best spot to give one of us a little assistance. You just might find how helpful and fun we can be.

According to the NAGC definition, gifted and talented students demonstrate or have the potential for exceptional abilities in one or more areas.

Another definition, this one from a federal statute, explains that gifted and talented students demonstrate higher performance or are capable of higher performance in intellectual, creative, or leadership domains. According to these definitions, which also vary from state to state, gifted and talented students need specialized instruction, activities, or services in order to develop their exceptional abilities above and beyond general classroom instruction (Stephens & Karnes, 2000).

Gifted and Talented and IDEA 2004 Giftedness is not a category under IDEA 2004, but many school districts serve gifted students through special education offices or programs. The thinking is that students with disabilities require individualized instruction to meet their learning needs, and the same should be true for gifted students. The wide variability in definitions of gifted by both states and districts, though, means that many gifted students are not identified and are underserved (Robertson, Pfeiffer, & Taylor, 2011).

Furthermore, money to provide specialized programs to gifted students does not come from funds provided to school districts under IDEA 2004. Districts provide services through their district bud- gets; some schools apply for grant funding or work with private organizations to provide programs for gifted students.

Stockbyte/Thinkstock

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 233 5/7/13 8:15 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 How Has the Gifted and Talented Field Evolved?

Prevalence of Gifted and Talented According to state-reported data from the National Center for Educational Statistics (2008), more than 3 million American students qualified as gifted in 2006. Each school or district, however, determines its own criteria and process for determining giftedness in both academic and nonaca- demic areas. Thus, the statistical prevalence of giftedness is difficult to determine and compare between schools, districts, and state populations (Callahan, 2011). As with students with disabili- ties, giftedness persists into adulthood (Fiedler, 2012).

Minorities tend to be underrepre- sented in gifted programs (Ford, 2013), as opposed to overrep- resented in disability categories (Bollmer, Bethel, Garrison-Mogren, & Brauen, 2007). Reasons for the underrepresentation of minori- ties include fewer referrals from teachers and bias of assessments for eligibility (Ford, 2013; Hargrove & Seay, 2011). Also, some minor- ity students may choose to not participate in programs because of the negative comments they could get from peers about being in the gifted program (Henfield, Wash- ington, & Owens, 2010). While this is more often reported for minor- ity students, many gifted students may experience some bullying or ostracism because of being gifted (Peters & Bain, 2011).

7.2 How Has the Gifted and Talented Field Evolved?

Like students with disabilities, students with giftedness have not always received special ser-vices. Toward the end of the 19th century, some schools started to provide appropriate educational services to gifted students. One such effort was put forth by William Torrey Harris, the superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Missouri. Harris ensured that the school curriculum was enhanced to meet the needs of gifted stu- dents and incorporated art and music into the school day. By the turn of that century, school districts in large cities, such as San Diego and Chicago, started creating classes or schools for students who could handle an advanced curriculum (VanTassel-Baska, 2010). The first school devoted exclusively to the education of gifted students opened in Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1901 (Henry, 1917).

. Andrew Fox/Corbis

To encourage gifted and talented minority students, many colleges and universities run special summer programs for students. Students spend some of the summer taking classes and living on a college campus. These programs encourage minority students to explore new academic areas, and the programs help students get excited about the possibility of higher education and beyond.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 234 5/7/13 8:15 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 How Has the Gifted and Talented Field Evolved?

Science & Society Picture Library/Contributor/Getty Images

Lewis Terman, the father of gifted education, helped develop tests, like the one pictured, to measure student intelligence while at Stanford University. His studies on the relationship of genetics and giftedness led to his publication of Genetic Studies of Genius (Stoskopf, 2002). This publication followed gifted students throughout their lifetime to track their successes and failures (Jolly, 2008).

The Debut of the Intelligence Quotient Test With the development of the first intelligence quotient (IQ) test in France in 1905, people began the attempt to quantify intelligence. The Binet-Simon Intelligence Test was originally designed to identify students with intellectual disabilities.

Lewis Madison Terman, an edu- cational psychologist at Stan- ford University, revamped the Binet-Simon test in 1916 as the Stanford-Binet IQ test. This test allowed schools to identify stu- dents of below-average or above- average intelligence according to their scores. Schools could use the scores to identify gifted stu- dents and provide additional or different programs for them.

After the introduction of the Stanford-Binet IQ test, schools began placing students into tracks (i.e., educational programs based on intelligence) in an attempt to provide appropriate educa- tional services. At the heart of this movement was Leta Stet- ter Hollingworth, who started a “Special Opportunity Class” in New York City for students

with above-average intelligence. Hollingworth went on to open the Speyer School in New York (VanTassel-Baska, 2010), which was devoted to educating gifted students. She studied her stu- dents over a number of years and wrote the first textbook on gifted students.

The Push for Educating Gifted Students In 1954, the National Association of Gifted Children was founded to advocate for specialized pro- grams on behalf of gifted individuals. A few years later in 1957, when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first artificial Earth satellite, a movement to identify and provide advanced instruction to gifted individuals took on new life. The United States, fearing that the Soviet Union was getting ahead in terms of technology and science exploration, began pouring money into educational programs that promoted science, technology, and mathematics education. Legislation, such as the National Science Foundation Act and the National Defense Education Act, began providing funds for the education of gifted students in grades K–12.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 235 5/7/13 8:16 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students Who Are Gifted and Talented?

In 1972, the U.S. Commissioner of Education, Sidney P. Marland, Jr., published a report on the education of gifted students. The Marland report defined gifted as children capable of high perfor- mance including those with demonstrated achievement and/or potential ability (Marland, 1972). The Marland report emphasized that students with outstanding abilities need differentiated instruction and services above and beyond the typical educational programs (Kaplan, 2011). In differentiated instruction, students participate in classroom activities and assignments that are tailored (i.e., differentiated) to the strengths of the individual student.

To be gifted, according to Marland, students needed to demonstrate achievement or potential ability in at least one of the following areas: general intellectual ability, specific academic apti- tude, creative or productive thinking, leadership ability, visual or performing arts, or psychomo- tor ability (Jolly, 2009b). (Psychomotor ability was later removed from the definition.) To assist in delivering a proper education to gifted students, the Office of the Gifted and Talented in the U.S. Department of Education was recognized in 1974.

The Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act A 1983 report called A Nation at Risk announced that students in the United States were not per- forming as well as students in comparable countries around the world. The report suggested that gifted students should receive a curriculum that supports their needs. To affirm this idea, the U.S. Congress passed the Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act in 1988. This Act provided funds for national centers and programs for the education of the gifted and talented. The Javits Act was included in the authorization of No Child Left Behind in 2001 but has not been reauthorized since 2011. Without reauthorization, funds to conduct research and outreach in the area of gifted education are unavailable to research centers and state departments of education.

Even though state and federal standards for students are rising with efforts like the Common Core and No Child Left Behind, gifted students still require individualized and differentiated instruction (Johnsen, 2012). In fact, some people feel that such initiatives focus only on raising the perfor- mance levels of lower-performing students (Siemer, 2006). Therefore, gifted students may not be receiving the educational services that are warranted (Hargrove, 2012). Without proper avenues for research and dissemination (with the Javits Act) and funding opportunities for gifted program- ming, it is difficult for many school districts to afford gifted programs.

7.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students Who Are Gifted and Talented?

The exceptional abilities that gifted students display tend to fall into the categories of cre-ative thinking, general intellectual ability, leadership ability, psychomotor ability, specific academic ability, and visual and performing arts ability (Amend, Schuler, Beaver-Gavin, & Beights, 2009; Song & Porath, 2011). Many (if not all) students exhibit one or more characteristics of giftedness at some time during their school careers. When these characteristics are exhibited consistently, a student warrants additional or different instruction at school.

The following section discusses the characteristics of gifted students related to their exceptional abilities and moves on to discuss students who are “twice exceptional.”

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 236 5/7/13 8:16 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students Who Are Gifted and Talented?

Characteristics Related to Gifted and Talented Gifted students often demonstrate a gift or talent in one or more of the following areas. These areas are similar to those found in the Marland (1972) report and those outlined by the National Society for the Gifted and Talented (NSGT). Students may exhibit some of these characteristics in one or more of the following areas (Carroll, 2008; Cukierkorn, Karnes, Manning, Houston, & Besnoy, 2008; Glass, 2004; Neumeister, Adams, Pierce, Cassady, & Dixon, 2007; Renzulli, Siegle, Reis, Gavin, & Reed, 2009):

• General intellectual ability • Displays advanced vocabulary • Engages in tasks independently • Gets excited about new ideas and

information; curious • Picks up new material quickly • Remembers information easily • Asks engaging questions • Processes information in complex

ways

• Specific academic aptitude • Eagerly participates in readings • Reads widely in an area • Comprehends difficult material • Reads advanced material • Accurately recalls facts • Discovers patterns in mathematics • Solves problems abstractly or creatively • Uses a variety of representations

• Creative or productive thinking • Pursues opportunities to work and create with technology • Enjoys working with hands-on materials • Invents and creates • Writes and speaks in creative ways • Provides several solutions to problems • Challenged by creative tasks • Displays mature sense of humor; understands sarcasm • Grasps metaphors and analogies

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Many gifted students demonstrate their exceptionalities from an early age. Gifted students often sit up, learn to walk, throw an object, or play with toys earlier than other students. Also, gifted students often speak earlier than other students, and most can read by the age of 4 (McGee & Hughes, 2011).

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 237 5/7/13 8:16 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students Who Are Gifted and Talented?

From My Perspective: Teaching Gifted Students I’m Kris, and I’ve taught gifted students for over 10 years. Parallels are often drawn between students diagnosed with disabilities and those identified as gifted or talented. Setting aside the fact that many students are both, there is a tempt- ing logic to viewing them as symmetric departures from the norm. We often use this argument in gifted education to reinforce the need for special services, including differenti- ated instruction in response to individual needs and special training for counselors.

The metaphor, however, only goes so far. For students who learn easily, the general classroom is often the most restric-

tive environment, not the least. I have spent most of my teaching career with students who were being accelerated through middle school into early high school entrance. It was typically a revelation for these students, who had spent most of their younger days mentally pacing the floor. Many felt at home for the first time, but our program constantly faced charges of elitism. In contrast to mainstreaming, and partially due to persistent achievement gaps predicted by race and family income, pushing gifted stu- dents academically and preparing them for their role in a diverse democracy are sometimes difficult to do in the same room.

That being said, I believe the fundamentals persist across all populations. Students defy categoriza- tion, and they bring a complex and unpredictable set of capabilities into the classroom. My students were a constellation of incredible potential and staggering limitation, earnest effort and bewildering quirk—much, I would guess, like any classroom. Every student is served by a teacher who combines command of the content with a keen desire to understand and develop the souls they serve. For teachers of students with diagnoses, I believe that desire is doubly critical, for the real strengths are often hidden behind the label.

• Leadership ability • Sought out by peers as a leader • Works well with others • Expresses ideas fluently • Acts confidently • Makes sound judgments and thinks through consequences of decisions • Is organized • Likes structure

• Visual or performing arts • Creates • Observes • Has a visual memory • Displays exceptional ability in art, dance, drama, or music • Reasons well spatially • Solves puzzles and mazes easily

Image Source/Thinkstock

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 238 5/7/13 8:16 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students Who Are Gifted and Talented?

Twice-Exceptional Students Twice-exceptional students—that is, those who are gifted and also have a disability—have been rec- ognized since the 1970s (Leggett, Shea, & Wilson, 2010). These students have above-average intel- ligence, but their disability prohibits them from reaching their full potential.

Twice-exceptional students can experience giftedness concurrent with a specific learning disability (Barber & Mueller, 2011), an emotional or behavioral disorder (Bianco & Leech, 2010), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Foley-Nicpon, Rickels, Assouline, & Richards, 2012), and autism spectrum disorder (Amend et al., 2009; Assouline, Nicpon, & Dockery, 2012). Twice-exceptional students represent a small per- centage of students with disabilities. For example, approximately 3–4% of students with SLD also experi- ence giftedness (Leggett et al., 2010).

It is often difficult to identify twice-exceptional stu- dents, because their disabilities may mask their gift- edness or their giftedness may be more obvious than their disabilities (Morrison & Rizza, 2007). Schools need to use a variety of identification methods rather than relying on one assessment or observation (Rizza & Morrison, 2007). Because of difficulties with identifica- tion, twice-exceptional students are underrepresented across the United States (Bianco & Leech, 2010). That is, many students who are twice exceptional remain unidentified and only receive services or accommoda- tions related to their disability and not their giftedness.

Determining best educational practices for twice-exceptional students can be difficult (Amend et al., 2009). These students require specialized instruction and appropriate accommodations and modifications for both their disability and their giftedness (Jeweler, Barnes-Robinson, Shevitz, & Weinfeld, 2008). For example, a gifted student with SLD related to reading may need disability services and accommodations related to reading compre- hension and test anxiety (King, 2005). This student, who excels with verbal communication, may need gifted services or accommodations to promote her excellent verbal storytelling skills and creative problem-solving skills. If the teacher only focuses on the disability, the student’s full potential for aca- demic success may be ignored.

(a)

Time Life Pictures/Contributor/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images

Chip Somodevilla/Staff/Getty Images News /Getty Images

Thomas Edison (a) and Stevie Wonder (b) are both twice-exceptional individuals. Thomas Edison had a hearing impairment, and he became a famous inventor. Stevie Wonder is blind and musically gifted.

(b)

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 239 5/7/13 8:17 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 What Are the Causes of Giftedness?

Hemera Technologies/AbleStock.com/Thinkstock

You may have noticed that researchers conduct a lot of studies with twins. Why? Researchers like studying twins (both identical and fraternal) because the genetic make-up of the twins is very similar, and any notable differences can help researchers determine the genetic tendency of something occurring, such as giftedness or ADHD.

In addition, twice-exceptional students may require emotional or social support from teachers (Foley-Nicpon et al., 2012; King, 2005). For example, both gifted and twice-exceptional students may be bullied and need help dealing with this abuse (Peters & Bain, 2011). Also, many twice-exceptional children feel high expectations based on their giftedness, but they have difficulty meeting expecta- tions because of their disability (Barber & Mueller, 2011). These high expectations may come from the students themselves or from adults or peers close to them.

7.4 What Are the Causes of Giftedness?

Like many disabilities, giftedness has no single cause. The main factors, though, are thought to be genetics and the environment (Simonton, 2005). Some people may claim that this is a debate between nature (i.e., genetics) and nurture (i.e., environment of student), but most in gifted education believe giftedness is a blend of the two (Winkler & Jolly, 2012).

A genetic influence can be seen in research showing that parents who exhibit exceptional abilities may have children who are also gifted, just as parents with disabilities may have children with dis- abilities (Simonton, 2005; Thompson & Oehlert, 2010). Students with gifted siblings are also more likely to be gifted themselves (Ronald, Spinath, & Plomin, 2002). In research related to the brain, researchers have discovered that gifted students demonstrate brain activation patterns different from those of students with below-average or average intelligence (Haier & Jung, 2008; Hoppe & Stojanovic, 2009; Prescott, Gavrilescu, Cunnington, O’Boyle, & Egan, 2010).

The possible influence of the envi- ronment can be seen in students who are exposed, especially at an early age, to opportunities that permit them to develop or enhance their gifts and talents (Seeley, 2004). Typically, students from lower-income families and schools or students with minor- ity backgrounds may not have as many gift-enhancing opportuni- ties (Gagné, 2011; Seeley, 2004), so these students may be at a disadvantage for being identi- fied as gifted. School criteria and processes may also influence whether students are identified as gifted.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 240 5/7/13 8:17 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.5 How Are Students Identified as Gifted and Talented?

7.5 How Are Students Identified as Gifted and Talented?

No one process or assessment exists for identifying students as gifted and talented (Callahan, Tomlinson, Hunsaker, Bland, & Moon, 1995). Teacher perception plays a sig-nificant role in the recommendation of students for gifted evaluation. Interpretations of giftedness, however, vary by district and state. The identification problem is compounded by the fact that giftedness itself is manifested differently from individual to individual, and differently in the same individual at various ages. Regardless of the identification method, most researchers agree that early identification and early intervention are best for gifted students so students have many opportunities to enhance their gifts or talents (Wellisch & Brown, 2012).

Assessments In the identification of giftedness, students need multiple opportunities to exhibit special gifts or talents through a range of instruments and performance tasks that align with the areas of giftedness being evaluated. For instance, a standardized assessment may be more appropriate to diagnose giftedness in mathematics than in art, where a portfolio of the student’s work would give a more accurate assessment of exceptional ability.

Schools may use scores on intelligence tests or achievement tests to determine whether students are significantly above average, range in the top 1–5% percent, and/or meet their school’s desig- nated criteria for intellectual ability. An intelligence test (i.e., an IQ test) provides a score related to a student’s potential in terms of intellectual capability; it emphasizes potential instead of showing how much a student knows. An achievement test, on the other hand, provides a score related to what a student knows. Achievement tests usually provide scores in the areas of reading, writing, and mathematics.

To most accurately identify special gifts and talents, a variety of assessments is recommended, including standardized intelligence and achievement tests, performance tasks, observation check- lists, and portfolios (Callahan, 2011).

In a performance task, students complete an open-ended task that offers multiple solution pos- sibilities. Student responses are scored via a rubric that helps determine where performance falls on a spectrum from novice to expert (VanTassel-Baska, Johnson, & Avery, 2002). On an observa- tion checklist, teachers identify gifted characteristics that students typically display. Many times, a parent fills out an observation checklist (Figure 7.1) about behaviors exhibited in the student’s home environment. A portfolio is a collection of student work that is collected to demonstrate a student’s exceptional ability in one or more areas (e.g., art and music).

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 241 5/7/13 8:17 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.5 How Are Students Identified as Gifted and Talented?

Figure 7.1: Observation Checklist

This teacher checklist from the State of Tennessee is filled out by a student’s classroom teacher when the student is being screened for gifted identification. Information gathered from the checklists helps schools determine whether students are eligible for gifted programs.

TN Teacher Observation Checklist (TnTOC)

The TN Teacher Observation Checklist (TnTOC) is an important component of this student's individual screening and/or assessment. Please make careful consideration of each behavior characteristic while completing this checklist. Record on the lines provided below examples of behavioral traits of intellectual giftedness (whether considered socially "positive" or "negative") that you have observed in this student when compared to others of their age, experience and environment.

Please check those items which are frequently characteristic of this child. It is unlikely that any child will have all of these attributes.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

Date: Grade Student: School:

Generates abstract ideas, or asks complex questions Challenges rules, assignments, requests, and may ask provocative questions Is curious wants to know “why, how, etc.”; asks thoughtful, searching questions Understands puns, political cartoons, etc., beyond their peers Shows desire for knowledge

Often fails to complete schoolwork

Enjoys school

Works and plays well with others

Utilizes advanced language skills and a large vocabulary in oral and/or written formats Is most successful in the classroom setting rather than in after-school activities Exhibits a wide range of interests

Is eager to please the teacher

Demonstrates intense or focused concentration

Is generally mature

Has a long attention span in areas of interest

Generates a large number of ideas

Learns quickly and is able to apply new information in a variety of ways at a faster and more advanced pace than peers

Does not perform to his/her ability on tests (e.g., test phobia) Displays in-depth information in one or more areas Has difficulty functioning constructively in groups Communicates complex ideas and concepts to others, verbally or nonverbally

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

Is impatient – hurries to complete a task

Exhibits long term retention of school or non-school related information Is motivated to high achievement in a low- performing school environment Understands relationships among seemingly unrelated objects, ideas, or facts Attributes success and failure to fate, luck, or chance

Likes structure, order, and consistency

Facility with words/oral language exceeds quality of written work Demonstrates a depth of perception and understanding beyond peers in a low-performing school environment May lose track of time

Shows little patience with rote learning (handwriting, spelling, and math skill repetition) Has an advanced ability to reason and draw conclusions from given information Demonstrates superior insight; infers and connects concepts Forgets/loses work

Demonstrates an advanced sense of justice and fairness Enjoys role playing, creative dramatics

Enjoys competitive games

Demonstrates leadership qualities; is able to influence others toward desirable and/or undesirable goals

Demonstrates superior ability to hold information in memory and recall it when necessary Fine and gross motor coordination skills are advanced for age Learns better by "doing" than from a "lecture approach" Is a keen observer; interprets observations

Source: From Resource Packet: Assessment of Intellectual Disabilityand Functional Delay, p. 7, Tennessee Department of Education.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 242 5/7/13 8:17 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.5 How Are Students Identified as Gifted and Talented?

Table 7.1 shows a sampling of some commonly used assessments of achievement, performance, creativity, and problem-solving (Callahan et al., 1995):

Table 7.1: Sampling of Commonly Used Assessments

Assessment What it Measures

California Achievement Test (CAT) Vocabulary, reading comprehension, mathematics, science, social studies

Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS) Reading, language, mathematics

Developing Cognitive Abilities Test (DCAT) Verbal ability, quantitative ability, spatial ability

Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS) Vocabulary, listening comprehension, reading comprehension, mathematics, science, social studies

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) Verbal ability

Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) Writing, reading, mathematics

Stanford Achievement Test Reading, spelling, mathematics, science, social studies

Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) Creativity with pictures and words

Wallach-Kogan Creativity Instrument Creativity

Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal Critical thinking, decision making

Trained specialists (e.g., school psychologists, gifted teachers), administrators, and guidance counselors may administer assessments and interpret the scores, depending on school and dis- trict guidelines. If observations or portfolios will be used to determine giftedness, a team should be formed. Members of the team may include the student’s general education teacher, a gifted teacher or program coordinator, a school psychologist or guidance counselor, and any other staff members with experience with gifted and talented students.

The student’s family should be interviewed or involved in the decision-making process for eligibil- ity for gifted programs. For students with gifts that might not be apparent in the general class- room, it is especially important that family members and other people close to the student help show school personnel all aspects of the student’s exceptional abilities. For example, students with exceptional musical abilities may not be able to demonstrate their skill if the school does not have an active music program.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 243 5/7/13 8:17 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.5 How Are Students Identified as Gifted and Talented?

. JLP/Jose L. Pelaez/Corbis

Teachers may not realize students who are English Language Learners (ELL) are gifted if students do not demonstrate proficiency in English. Some researchers have suggested that assessments without a verbal component might be helpful in identifying gifted ELL students, but research in this area is still under investigation (Lohman, Korb, & Lakin, 2008).

Limitations of Assessments The cultural and linguistic bias in some standardized assessment instruments can influence stu- dents’ performance scores. For example, some assessments require the student to read and respond to questions. If English is not the student’s first language, the student may have diffi- culty with the reading. If the assessment were administered in the student’s first language, the student’s score might be a better indicator of performance. Additionally, some assessments ask questions related to activities that could be considered culturally biased because a student may be unfamiliar with the content—for example, Halloween trick-or-treating (if not celebrated), remod- eling of a house (when living in an apartment high-rise in the city), playing racquetball (if it has never been played or seen). Teachers have no control over the bias of instruments, of course, but they can use instruments that demonstrate minimal bias as much as possible.

Teachers may have difficulty spot- ting giftedness in students who are English Language Learners (Harris, Plucker, Rapp, & Marti- nez, 2009). First, because of diffi- culties with the English language, teachers may not readily iden- tify students and refer them for a gifted evaluation (Harris et al., 2009). Also, because many stu- dents may be working on their English skills, students may not participate in activities (e.g., a problem-solving activity in sci- ence class) that would help get them noticed for demonstrat- ing gifted characteristics (Harris, Rapp, Martinez, & Plucker, 2007).

Unintended evaluation bias can also occur for populations liv- ing in low-income communities, rural communities, or attend- ing low-performing schools (Howley, Rhodes, & Beall, 2009). These students may be considered for evaluation less frequently and may have fewer opportunities to develop and refine their talents than if they attended a more affluent school. Ethnic and racial minorities are dispropor- tionately affected because these students tend live in low-income communities more often than non-minority students, which may be a reason that fewer minority students are identified as gifted (Callahan, 2011).

Evaluation bias can also occur for students who have been previously diagnosed with a disabil- ity and are twice exceptional. Teachers or evaluators may let the student’s disability cloud their judgment about the student’s potential for giftedness. Indeed, every student has a multitude of strengths and weaknesses, and all of them must be considered when making educational decisions.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 244 5/7/13 8:18 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.6 How Does Being Gifted and Talented Differ Across Grade Levels?

Response to Intervention RTI, as you learned in an earlier chapter, is a framework that schools use to provide tiers of ser- vices for the diagnosis or instruction of students with disabilities or giftedness. It is especially use- ful in identifying twice-exceptional students because RTI can assist teachers in determining how well students respond (or do not respond) in specific content areas (Crepeau-Hobson & Bianco, 2011; Hughes et al., 2009; Pereles, Omdal, & Baldwin, 2007). Using RTI alone, however, may not be the most viable approach for identifying twice-exceptional students because disability often masks giftedness (and vice versa), so a comprehensive evaluation might be better for identifying giftedness in twice-exceptional students.

When Are Students Identified? Students may be referred for gifted and talented programs at any time. A parent or teacher may request a gifted screening. When students show exceptional ability in general intelligence, a spe- cific subject (e.g., reading or mathematics), or a nonacademic area (e.g., art or music), the evalu- ation process can be initiated.

7.6 How Does Being Gifted and Talented Differ Across Grade Levels?

Gifted and talented students may receive services in several different ways. They may be “pulled out” of the general education classroom to receive instruction by a teacher quali-fied in gifted instruction. Middle and high school students may be placed in honors and advanced placement courses. Acceleration is common for gifted students, either across grade lev- els or within their grade level curriculum. Gifted students may be promoted to the next grade, or work through classroom content at a faster pace than their peers. (See the discussion of pull-out programs and acceleration in Section 7.7.) Students who are gifted in nonacademic areas, such as arts or music, may enroll in magnet schools, if the local school district provides them.

Magnet schools are public institutions that organize instruction around a particular skill or interest (e.g., arts and theater, engineering, technology) or academic excellence (e.g., International Bac- calaureate program). Courses and curricula at magnet schools include coverage of state standards as well as instruction specific to the magnet’s area of specialty. Magnet schools often require stu- dents to apply, and the selection process can be competitive. Magnet schools are most prevalent at the secondary level, since they focus on developing skills to prepare students for careers in specific fields. However, some districts have magnet programs or schools at the elementary level, which prepare students to apply for magnet schools in middle and high school.

Early Childhood A child showing early evidence of giftedness might reach developmental benchmarks (language, counting skills, classifying/organizing objects, etc.) significantly earlier than normal. However, since children develop at varying rates during their early years, it can be difficult to accurately diagnose giftedness at young ages.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 245 5/7/13 8:18 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.6 How Does Being Gifted and Talented Differ Across Grade Levels?

From My Perspective: Gifted in Preschool I’m Caity, and in our school district, anyone who feels their child may be gifted can have their child tested for the Encore pro- gram. The Encore Program serves intellectually gifted and aca- demically talented learners and helps develop their hands-on, concept-based, real world problem solving skills.

The process for qualification begins with several pages of paperwork. My husband and I, as well as my daughter Claire’s preschool teachers, had to fill out paperwork detailing the reasons we suspected Claire to be gifted. These forms asked questions about her milestones as a baby (sitting, walking, talking, etc.) all the way up to her current interests and tal-

ents. The forms were then sent to our school district’s psychologist for processing. After the forms were received and processed, we were called in for some testing.

Claire was given a screening measure (Woodcock-Johnson-III-NU, Tests of Achievement, Form B). Because she reached the minimum requirement on that test, she was given an additional test (Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales). The testing took place on one day and took less than two hours. The school psychologist let us know that she had qualified for Encore and could begin attending the Encore classes immediately.

Claire attends Encore once each week for 3 hours. Her class has seven children, one teacher, and one aide. Right now they are working on a science unit focused on chemistry. Each day they spend time in “the lab,” where they do simple experiments and explore topics like mixtures, acids and bases, and chromatography.

There is debate on whether giftedness can or should be identified in early childhood, as well as whether recognizing giftedness before Kindergarten is necessary for students to realize their full potential (Callahan, 2011). Some talents may not be evident until children enter elementary school, and students may not demonstrate giftedness at an early age. Additionally, putting too much pressure on developing a gift or talent at very early ages can be detrimental to young chil- dren’s development. However, once a young child demonstrates a particular gift or talent, adults can encourage development in a supportive manner. Special education services are typically not available for young gifted students, but early education teachers and parents can provide oppor- tunities to develop gifts and talents.

Early childhood teachers can provide activities that are enjoyable and engaging for young children. If a child shows talent in art or science, creative activities, such as art projects and experiments, can encourage this interest. Additionally, providing praise and practice for students who show academic excellence in areas of early literacy and mathematics can be beneficial. In any case, early identification of exceptional talent can help parents and pre-school teachers encourage ability and facilitate access to opportunities.

Hemera/Thinkstock

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 246 5/7/13 8:18 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.6 How Does Being Gifted and Talented Differ Across Grade Levels?

Elementary School Once in elementary school, gifted students are more likely to be diagnosed. Schools provide ser- vices for elementary students with giftedness in several ways. Often the responsibility falls on the general education teacher, who may accommodate gifted students by differentiating instructional activities, grouping students by ability, or allowing acceleration within the curriculum (all of which will be described in detail in “How Do I Teach Students with Giftedness?”). Teachers must be care- ful that their instructional decisions and student groupings are not rigid and that they allow all children opportunities to move forward.

Gifted services that are offered outside the general education classroom are typically led by a gifted education teacher and may or may not be grade- or subject-specific. Schools may offer special classes for the whole day for students who are gifted in all academic subjects. More often, though, students are pulled out for content-specific enrichment in addition to their general class- room instruction. Academic enrichment typically takes the form of projects and activities that encourage higher-order thinking about the classroom content (e.g., project-based learning in which students recreate westward expansion). Arts or music enrichment may include additional instruction and practice on different types of art genres.

Secondary School Once students who are gifted move on to middle school, they are more likely to be placed in honors and high school level classes. Gifted high school students are commonly placed in honors, Advanced Placement (AP), and/or International Baccalaureate (IB) classes. Honors classes typi- cally incorporate more rigorous assignments than the general class curriculum. AP classes offer students the opportunity to earn college credit by passing an intensive exam at the end of the course. Students must apply to the IB program, which is highly competitive and rigorous. IB stu- dents are also prepared to take AP exams at the end of each year to earn college credit while still in high school. Gifted high school students also may elect or be selected to attend magnet schools to develop their talents in specific areas, such as creative arts or engineering.

Ensuring that students who are gifted find the appropriate level of challenge and rigor is especially important in middle and secondary school. Increased peer pressure to fit in socially, coupled with high academic expectations, can influence students’ desire to achieve. Depending on a student’s interests and social group, achievement in school may not be widely accepted. Additionally, gifted students often face high expectations from parents and teachers because of their recognized tal- ent. Encouraging student motivations and interests can help keep them focused on realizing their full potential. Summer and afterschool programs can encourage talent and skill, while also pro- viding students with opportunities to build a social network with peers who share their interests. Ensuring students see the connections between their gift or talent and future career opportuni- ties is also important to keep students motivated.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 247 5/7/13 8:18 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.7 How Do I Teach Students With Giftedness?

Transition Gifted students’ transition to post-secondary outcomes and opportunities is different from those of students with disabilities. Since giftedness is not an exceptionality classification under IDEA, teachers and parents may elect whether to create a transition plan for students. Students who are twice exceptional will likely have a transition plan that incorporates goals for both giftedness and disability. Please refer to the Chapter 3 section on transition for more information on transition plans for students with disabilities.

Gifted students may or may not be interested in pursing their gift or talent as a career. Students who are motivated to do so can benefit from summer or afterschool programs that develop par- ticular skills and interests. These programs can enable students to make contacts in their field of interest that lead to future opportunities. Acceleration (and its potential pitfalls) is also some- thing to consider for a gifted student’s transition from high school. Students who have accelerated through school may be able to take college coursework at a much earlier age than class peers, but social and psychological support may be helpful or even necessary for gifted students to adjust (Cross, 2011). Mentoring, goal setting, and career planning can also be beneficial for gifted and talented students in post-secondary environments.

7.7 How Do I Teach Students With Giftedness?

Teachers can choose from among teaching strategies used for all students to improve the instruction and outcomes for gifted students, and no one teaching model or strategy is con-sidered best. These students should receive instruction that enhances their individual abili- ties (Tomlinson, 2005). A team of school staff (e.g., general education teachers, gifted teachers or specialists, school psychologists) should consider student strengths and weaknesses and develop an individualized program for each gifted student.

Some schools put together a Gifted Individualized Education Program (GIEP) that functions simi- lar to an IEP for students with disabilities. Please note that a GIEP has no connection with IDEA 2004 or special education funding. However, a GIEP helps the school staff (and the student’s fam- ily) understand what specialized programs or accommodations are available to provide enriched experiences for a gifted student. For example, a student’s GIEP may highlight how a student’s academic program will be accelerated (i.e., covering more academic material in a shorter amount of time) or gifted programs in which the student may participate.

General classroom teachers can enhance the education of gifted students by employing various strategies related to accelerating or enriching the learning of gifted students. Often, gifted stu- dents can be grouped together for such instructional purposes. Two common approaches to pro- viding gifted students learning opportunities within the general classroom include differentiation and Universal Design for Learning (UDL).

Student Grouping Strategies Schools may group any students for social, political, or instructional reasons (Kettler, 2012). Social grouping includes keeping siblings with the same classroom teacher or distributing males and females across classrooms. Political grouping deals with fairness. For example, a school may feel

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 248 5/7/13 8:18 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.7 How Do I Teach Students With Giftedness?

it fair to distribute gifted students among classroom teachers instead of placing all the gifted stu- dents with one teacher. Instructional grouping allows teachers to tailor instruction for a group or classroom of students. Often, the way students are distributed into classrooms (i.e., grouped) is determined at the school or district level.

Regardless of the grouping strategy (i.e., social, political, instructional), students may receive gifted services in a variety of ways:

• Self-contained classrooms or programs. In a self-contained classroom, all students have similar needs (e.g., they are all gifted). A teacher who is familiar with specializing instruction for gifted students provides accelerated and differentiated instruction for the classroom. Elementary schools that group students by ability create self-contained classrooms within each grade level. In secondary schools, self-contained classrooms are created when students are placed into tracks by ability. For example, an Advanced Placement (AP) or honors class might be considered a self-contained gifted placement. (These classes, however, might include students who are bright or hard-working but who do not qualify as gifted. Often, these students also benefit from the accelerated curriculum of the self-contained classroom.)

• Pull-out programs. Pull-out programs group similar students together and provide them with instruction outside the general classroom (McAllister & Plourde, 2008). In many school districts, the gifted program may take place one afternoon each week. At that time, all gifted students are pulled from their general classroom to participate in gifted programs for the time period. Pull-out programs allow gifted students to explore topics in more depth than in the general classroom, or allow them to partici- pate in problem-solving activities, such as Odyssey of the Mind.

• Cluster groups. In a cluster group, several gifted students are placed together within a general classroom. This strategy works well for both elementary and secondary stu- dents because schools do not always have the resources for self-contained classrooms or pull-out programs. Typically, students are in groups of four to eight students (Pierce et al., 2011). The clustering enables the classroom teacher to tailor the content, prod- ucts, and learning environment to meet the needs of the gifted students while the rest of the classroom participates in the general curriculum.

Traditional Teaching Strategies Quite a few traditional teaching strategies can be employed to improve the educational programs of gifted students in any grouping situation (Brulles & Winebrenner, 2011). These methods include acceleration, compacting, enrichment, and independent studies.

As with all effective instruction, proper teacher training is vital (Brulles, Saunders, & Cohn, 2010). Teachers cannot implement strategies or programs without an in-depth knowledge of how to apply them with gifted students. Teachers also need to gather observational and academic data to understand whether gifted students are benefitting from the evidence-based strategies that teachers are using (Eyre, 2007). If students are not demonstrating appropriate performance gains, then teachers need to re-evaluate their instructional strategies and try another strategy.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 249 5/7/13 8:18 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.7 How Do I Teach Students With Giftedness?

Acceleration Acceleration is a process in which students work through materials at a quicker pace or earlier than other students. For example, a student may learn about cell mitosis in one week instead of three. Acceleration may also mean that a student skips a grade in school. Some high school stu- dents accelerate their instruction by taking college courses while still in high school.

Acceleration has been shown to be a viable strategy for providing a challenging curriculum to gifted students and for setting gifted students up for later success in life (Gross, 2006; Vialle, Ashton, & Carlton, 2001). To effectively implement an accelerated program, however, teachers need to work with students to prepare them academically and emotionally. Many gifted students experience a drop in self-esteem once they start an accelerated program because the work is chal- lenging and not as easy as they are used to. With proper support, however, students will learn to succeed in their accelerated curriculum (Chapman, 2009).

Whether acceleration that involves skipping grades in school is the best choice for gifted stu- dents is controversial. Some experts express concern about the emotional and social needs of the students, while others have demonstrated that gifted students who skipped grades or entered college early seem to be happy and content with their acceleration (Boazman & Sayler, 2011; Steenbergen-Hu & Moon, 2011).

Compacting To use the strategy of compacting, the teacher assesses (either formally or informally) what a student already knows about a topic and then allows the student to skip known material and move to learning new material (Sutton, 2001; Winebrenner, 2003). Compacting can be used at the elementary and secondary levels (Lewis, Cruzeiro, & Hall, 2007). For example, if a middle school teacher is planning a two-week unit on the core of the Earth, the teacher could administer a pre-test. If a student already knows most, if not all, of the material, the teacher could compact the unknown material into two or three days and then move on to another science unit with this student. Without compacting, many gifted students are bored because they are reviewing mate- rial they already have learned.

Enrichment To provide enrichment, teachers provide extension activities for gifted students. Typically, enrich- ment activities go into more depth than typical classroom activities (Miller & Gentry, 2010). An effective enrichment activity gives students a choice about what or how they will learn and then provides challenging activities or assignments accordingly (Pereira, Peters, & Gentry, 2010). Enrichment might involve assigning alternative readings that cover a specific topic in greater depth (Halls, 2011). For example, in a classroom unit on Egypt, the student may read books about writing in hieroglyphics and the process of mummifying bodies. In mathematics, students might be presented with open-ended problems that require a variety of upper-level mathematics skills to solve (McAllister & Plourde, 2008). In a history class, student learning might be enriched by research into local history and participation in hands-on activities as well as field trips (Morris, 2005). Students can conduct interviews with people who have lived in the community for years and then write and act in a play about the history of the community.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 250 5/7/13 8:18 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.7 How Do I Teach Students With Giftedness?

From My Perspective: Ethan’s Enrichment Program Hello, my name is Ethan, and I’m 11 years old. When I was in third grade, I was identified as gifted. In fourth grade, I entered a program called FUTURA that was run by my school for the gifted kids. We went to a different school one day a week to learn about topics we would never be taught in regular school. It continued through fifth grade, but when I went to middle school, it changed to SPECTRUM, which I have once every other day for 45 minutes. Being gifted means a lot to me. I think of myself very confidently and know that I’m going to do well in life. I hope to get into a good college and fulfill my dream of being an engineer. It will probably help a little on my college application to say that I’ve been in gifted programs and camps.

There are some things I like about being called academically talented, such as taking more advanced courses in school that make me think and having classmates look up to me. I remember in second grade that whenever someone didn’t know how to spell a word, they always came to me. Also, in fifth grade, my teacher let a couple of kids from FUTURA teach a math lesson, and I was one of them.

Enrichment can occur during the school day in a general classroom or a gifted program. It can also occur in Saturday programs or summer programs for gifted students (Pereira, et al., 2010). Some gifted programs are connected with local colleges and universities, rather than a school district; other gifted programs may be connected with private organizations (e.g., an engineering lab, a medical school, or a creative writing center). Typically, these organizations reach out to local schools to help with recruitment of gifted students.

Corbis/SuperStock

Independent Studies Students engaged in independent studies investigate a topic in depth with monitoring and guid- ance from a teacher or mentor. Mentors are often community members (e.g., architects, musi- cians, journalists) who work in the student’s area of interest. Independent studies work well when students decide (or have a choice) about what they would like to learn and investigate (Delisle, 2012; Powers, 2008). Students can also be provided with open-ended tasks that allow them to decide which approach to use to solve a problem (Gadanidis, Hughes, & Cordy, 2011). For exam- ple, a student may decide to investigate the effect of recycling on their community. This task does not have a “yes” or “no” answer, and the student makes choices about how to do the research and measure the effect of recycling. Students should also be presented with authentic reading experi- ences to pursue their independent learning (Moore, 2005). A student can read books, magazines, plays, newspaper articles, or diaries to learn about a topic.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 251 5/7/13 8:18 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.7 How Do I Teach Students With Giftedness?

Technology Technology can be used to provide instruction to gifted students (Thomson, 2010), especially in schools with limited resources, a small number of gifted students, or a rural location without access to gifted services and programs. At internet portals, students can work with other gifted students in other locations to solve problem-based scenarios (Eckstein, 2009). Online learning portals can connect students with appropriate mentors to engage in meaningful learning oppor- tunities. Of course, teachers need to ensure that the technology sources are appropriate (i.e., age-appropriate, content-appropriate, and with credible information) for their students to use (Johnson, 2008).

Differentiated Instruction Differentiation of instruction is probably the most mentioned approach for teaching reading and mathematics, as well as content-area subjects, such as science and history, to gifted students (Chval & Davis, 2008; Park & Oliver, 2009). In differentiation, the content (i.e., what the student learns), process (i.e., how the student learns), and product (i.e., how the student shows what she has learned) are differentiated by student (Tomlinson, 1999). Differentiation works well for gifted students because the curriculum is adapted based on the student’s readiness, interest, and learn- ing profile. For twice-exceptional students, differentiation can be used for both remediation and extension or advancement (Manning, Stanford, & Reeves, 2010; Rock, Gregg, Ellis, & Gable, 2008).

Differentiation is not a specific program, but an approach to designing instruction for students. The proper differentiation of instruction for students requires quite a bit of training and prepara- tion on the part of teachers (Dee, 2011). Teachers determine their students’ interests and abilities (Manning et al., 2010). They then individualize the content, process, and product for students based on each student’s readiness, interest, and learning profile (Tomlinson, 1999).

Differentiating the Content, Process, and Product Teachers can differentiate the content, the process, and the product. Content refers to the material covered during instruction. Process refers to how students will access and interact with material. Prod- uct refers to the ways that students demonstrate their knowledge or understanding of the material.

To differentiate by content, teachers can adapt current instructional materials or change the ways that students interact and work with those materials (Tomlinson, 2001). Some ways to differenti- ate by content include teaching concepts (rather than procedures), compacting, developing learn- ing contracts, conducting mini-lessons, and using a variety of materials and resources.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 252 5/7/13 8:18 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.7 How Do I Teach Students With Giftedness?

Learning contracts are an agreement between the teacher and student about what and how the student will learn. The student is held accountable for ensuring that he or she is making adequate progress toward meeting goals. Mini-lessons, which work well in general classrooms, involve teaching students in small groups, in which teachers can extend or remediate work.

To differentiate by process, teachers develop meaningful ways for students to learn the materials. Strategies that help differentiate by process include having students in interest groups, provid- ing students with different types of graphic organizers, providing complex and varied instruction, allowing students to work independently, and accessing the multiple strengths of students.

Differentiating by product entails creating assignments or outcomes that truly show what a stu- dent has learned. These products should be interactive and engaging; traditional end-of-chapter tests often are not effective products. See Table 7.2 for some examples.

Table 7.2: Differentiation by Products

Sample Products

Design a game Make a documentary Conduct an interview

Conduct an experiment Write a biography Circulate a petition

Write letters to an editor Design a costume Write a song

Present a news report Create a recipe Write a new law

Write a musical Design political cartoons Conduct a training session

Be a mentor Write a book Plan a journey

Write a poem Lead a symposium Present a radio program

Put on a puppet show Design a web page Develop an exhibit

Source: Tomlinson (2001).

Differentiation by Readiness, Interest, and Learning Profile Teachers determine a student’s readiness, interest, and learning profile and use this information to differentiate by content, process, and product. Readiness refers to how well a student under- stands underlying or prerequisite material before the teacher begins presenting new material. Once a teacher has assessed what students already know (determined their readiness), he or she should provide learning opportunities that push students to learn new material or that which is an extension of previously learned material.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 253 5/7/13 8:18 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.7 How Do I Teach Students With Giftedness?

To formulate an approach to differentiating instruction, Tomlinson (2001) encourages teachers to think about the following:

• Should representations be more concrete (i.e., hands-on, easy-to-understand) or abstract (i.e., less easy to picture)?

• Should resources and materials be simple or more complex? • Should problems have a single approach or many approaches? • Should transfer to novel problems be a small leap or giant leap? • Should solutions and approaches be more or less structured? • Should students have less or greater independence? • Should the pace of learning be slow or quick?

In addition to readiness, teachers need to gauge their students’ interest, or engagement, in learn- ing. Teachers need to understand the interests of their students, play into them, and help stu- dents develop new ones (Tomlinson, 2001). For example, a student who loves dinosaurs might be encouraged to learn about other prehistoric animals and plants. Table 7.3 lists ways teachers can differentiate based on a student’s interests.

Table 7.3: Differentiation by Interest

Strategy Description

Design-a-day Students choose a topic to work on. Students set goals about their learning, work towards their goals, and assess how well they met their goals.

Group investigation A group of students work together to investigate a topic of the group’s choice. Collaboration is key.

I-search Students work independently to answer their own questions.

Jigsaw A group of students all learn about different parts of a similar topic and then share their ideas.

Literature circles Students read up on topics of interest and share their readings with other classmates who read the same or similar material.

Negotiated criteria A teacher gives the students an outcome (e.g., develop a movie), and the students use their personal interests to help with the outcome.

Orbitals Students create their own questions and find ways to answer their questions. Students then share their information with peers.

Source: Tomlinson (2001).

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 254 5/7/13 8:18 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.7 How Do I Teach Students With Giftedness?

Another way teachers can differentiate learning is according to a student’s learning profile, which describes how an individual student learns (Tomlinson, 2001). The student’s learning profile is how, where, and with whom the student learns best. There are many aspects that can go into preferences based on learning style (Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.2: Differentiation by Learning Profile

All students learn in different ways. What ways do you like to learn?

Source: Tomlinson, 2001.

Teachers who consider all the strengths of a student who is gifted, then, can differentiate instruc- tion for that student. Differentiation does take a lot of planning and teacher education, but it can be a good approach for students who require individualized instruction either because of gifted- ness, a disability, or both.

Universal Design for Learning Universal Design for Learning (UDL), discussed in Chapter 2, is also useful to gifted students. The principles of UDL encourage teachers to present content in different ways, allow students to pres- ent what they have learned in different ways, and engage in the content in different ways, which is fairly similar to differentiation. UDL and differentiation do share many of the same ideas. UDL,

Cognitive Style

• Creative or conforming?

• Expressive or controlled?

• Inductive or deductive?

• Interpersonal or introspective?

• Linear or nonlinear?

• Oral or visual or kinestetic?

• Reflective or active?

• Adult orientation

• Groups • Independent • Peers

• Flexible or fixed?

• Quiet or noisy? • Still or mobile? • Warm or cool?

• Combination

• Kinestetic • Mathematical • Musical • Practical • Spatial • Verbal

Group Orientation

Intelligence Preference

Learning Environment

• Analytic • Creative

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 255 5/7/13 8:18 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.7 How Do I Teach Students With Giftedness?

From My Perspective: Parenting a Twice-Exceptional Child Hi, I’m Stephanie. I am the parent of a twice-exceptional child. The school system can be a challenging and frustrating place for gifted students and their parents. We want to believe the teachers know everything, but gifted kids may be labeled as uncooperative, lazy, inattentive, or even ADHD when they are, in fact, just bored. The number one thing parents need is for teachers to listen. We all want to believe our kids are gifted. . . but some of us are right!

As a parent, I would like for teachers to know that many of us raising gifted children do not think our kids are better than others, but we know they are different. They are more chal-

lenging behaviorally because they will not sit still while the class reviews a concept again and again. A gifted child only needs to be taught a new idea a couple of times to fully understand it. An exceptionally or profoundly gifted child only needs to hear the lesson one time to both comprehend and remem- ber it. For the parents, this is both fascinating and exhausting. Personally, I see my son most content and engaged when the teacher can provide differentiation in the lessons. Let the speed-learners work together in a small group or on independent projects.

My son looked forward to starting kindergarten and the flood of knowledge in which he expected to revel. He was disappointed to the point of tears to discover the class was going to learn the alphabet, and math class would not include the multiplication table he had been begging to learn. As a 5-year-old, he could not comprehend why the teacher thought he was “stupid” and would not teach him anything new. For all of his academic intelligence, socially and emotionally my son was 5 years old and unprepared for the experi- ences of the average classroom as experienced through the eyes of a gifted child. One of my requests was for the teachers to provide the suggested reading list for higher grades. I struggled to find reading material that was appropriate for an 8-year-old reading at a high school level. My son read at an accelerated pace from an early age and supplying books that provided interesting content without mature themes was

however, was developed with special education students in mind (whereas differentiation was a general education initiative), and UDL emphasizes the use of technology more than differentia- tion. Of course, gifted students can clearly benefit from instruction in which the content and inter- action with the content are individualized to fit their needs.

Motivating Gifted Students Many gifted students do well in school and need little motivation to keep up their enthusiasm for learning. Some gifted students, however, may underachieve rather than excel in school. This under- achievement is often attributable to boredom, lack of challenge, or social pressure to perform at or below average. It also may be a reaction to family members’ extremely high expectations (Callahan, 2011). These factors can compound over time and lead to an increased risk of dropping out of school.

Minimizing this risk and helping underachievers can be difficult for general educators who are faced with the need to simultaneously challenge and support students who are below, on, and above grade level. Teachers must find a balance between engaging disinterested gifted students and fos- tering habits and mindsets to help students participate even when they find the material boring.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

(continued)

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 256 5/7/13 8:19 AM

CHAPTER 7Section 7.7 How Do I Teach Students With Giftedness?

Case Study 1: Determining Appropriate Intervention Based on the Idea That “More Work Is not Better”

Sofia is a student in your sixth-grade honors mathematics class. She picks up new concepts very quickly and always seems to know the correct answer. Sofia earned 100% on every assignment, quiz, and unit test throughout the first 9 weeks of the school year. She has told you that she had a gifted teacher in elementary school and has always made straight As. Her parents are very involved in her education and have proactively contacted you multiple times since you met them at the initial open house.

Recently Sofia’s grades on weekly assessments have been lower than normal. She has become reluc- tant to volunteer answers in class, and has even started exhibiting minor misbehaviors, such as passing notes to friends during classroom instruction. You believe it is not that the new content is too difficult for Sofia, but that she is not putting in the effort. You talk to her after class, and she tells you she is bored in class and doesn’t really like math anymore.

Questions to Consider:

1. What could you adjust in your class to challenge Sofia at a more rigorous level? Specifically: a. How could you differentiate the complexity and level of work? b. How could you adjust the frequency of assignments and activities for Sofia? Why might

adjusting classroom pace be helpful? c. How could you use student groupings to engage Sofia in classroom instruction?

2. How would you approach your concerns with Sofia’s parents? 3. What additional information do you need from Sofia to motivate and re-engage her in your class? 4. How would you address habits (such as perseverance and discipline) to build long-term traits and

mindsets in Sofia that will help her in other classes she may be bored in?

From My Perspective: Parenting a Twice-Exceptional Child (continued) and still is a huge challenge. Having a toolbox of ideas ready to challenge a gifted learner can change the child’s perception of school from a fancy daycare where the teachers hold him back to a fascinating mental playground where he can experience the joy of learning. Gifted children, especially at the higher levels of giftedness, can be very anxious. For the first few years of school, my son worried that he might not get perfect scores on all his work. That was a lot of pressure for a first grader to put on himself. I worked with his teachers to reinforce that we did not expect him to know everything immediately and that learning was a process. From talking to other parents and consulting with teachers, I’ve learned this perfectionism can be very difficult for the student to handle. Even the brightest students need to know it is okay to get an answer wrong or conduct an experiment that does not work. We bought my son books on “successful” mistakes throughout history to help him see the value of errors, too.

Gifted children can also be “twice exceptional” (“2E”), and that is even more confusing for parents, espe- cially if teachers do not realize the issues involved. We often heard from teachers that our son’s ideas were outstanding—if they could only read his handwriting. It took several very frustrating years to discover that our son has dysgraphia, so writing by hand is very difficult for him. Providing keyboarding instruction and access to a computer for longer assignments allowed him to enjoy writing and greatly improved the qual- ity of his work. I have spent time with other parents of 2E kids who are helping their children navigate through giftedness and dyslexia or giftedness and Asperger’s. We know this can be hard to detect, espe- cially in today’s classroom, where teachers have many competing demands placed on them.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 257 5/7/13 8:19 AM

CHAPTER 7Wrap-Up

Case Study 2: Advocating for Gifted Education Ja’marcus is a fifth-grade student in your self-contained special education classroom. Ja’marcus is Afri- can American, qualifies for free/reduced lunch, and attends a school labeled as “academically unac- ceptable” by the state accountability system. He has a specific learning disability in reading, writing, and mathematics. By January, Ja’marcus has made impressive progress towards all of his academic goals.

In addition to his academic progress, you’ve noticed that he is extremely talented in drawing. He loves to draw after completing every assignment. Some of his drawings are more intricate and precise than what most adults could produce. After getting a few other opinions, you believe that Ja’marcus may be gifted in art. When you bring this up with his mother, she agrees that he is incredibly talented but con- fides that she has not had the financial resources to put him in any art classes or programs. Additionally, Ja’marcus’ school does not offer any gifted services, and he has never been evaluated.

After doing some research, you learn that there is one public middle school in the district that serves as the gifted magnet program for creative arts. Since Ja’marcus has never been identified as gifted, he needs to submit a portfolio of several different types of artwork to be considered for the school. Since Ja’marcus has never received any formal art training, you recruit all of your artistic friends willing to give free Saturday tutoring. Within two months, Ja’marcus has learned to paint using watercolors, sketch with charcoal, sculpt with clay, and is in the process of compiling his best work.

Questions to Consider:

1. What impact might attending the gifted art program in middle school have on Ja’marcus’ future?

2. What additional steps could you take to ensure Ja’marcus is most competitive for the magnet art program?

3. How could you work collaboratively with Ja’marcus’ mother so she is best prepared to advocate and seek out opportunities for his extraordinary talent?

4. How could Ja’marcus’ elementary school have better helped him realize his talent?

Wrap-Up

• There is no singular definition of gifted and talented. • Gifted students do not receive services under IDEA 2004. • Gifted students have received attention over the last century with the creation of assess-

ments that can readily quantify the intelligence of students. • Gifted students typically exhibit exceptional characteristics in one or more of the follow-

ing areas: intellectual ability, academic aptitude, creative thinking, leadership, or visual and performing arts.

• Students are likely gifted because of a combination of genetics and factors in the stu- dent’s environment.

• Schools have different ways to identify gifted students. Researchers suggest using a combination of formal assessments, observations of the student’s work, checklists of the student’s behaviors, and portfolios of the student’s work.

• Gifted students typically exhibit gifted behaviors from a very early age. • General education teachers can adapt classroom teaching strategies to extend the cur-

riculum for gifted students. Often, gifted students can be grouped together to provide specialized instruction to the group.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 258 5/7/13 8:19 AM

CHAPTER 7Post-Test

Post-Test

1. What does twice exceptional mean? a. A student is gifted in two areas. b. A student will skip two years in school. c. A student is gifted and has a diagnosed disability. d. A student has two disabilities.

2. Which of the following must a student do in order to qualify as gifted? a. Meet the federal definition. b. Meet their district’s definition. c. Demonstrate high performance on an IQ test. d. Read before the age of 4.

3. How do schools provide gifted services to students? a. Under IDEA 2004 b. From Section 504 funds c. Under the Javits Act d. Varies according to the local school

4. Which of the following is not a general characteristic of gifted children? a. Creates b. Questions c. Scores highest on tests d. Self-starts

5. How are gifted students typically identified? a. Through an evaluation with multiple types of assessments b. Parent referral c. Through a classroom observation d. Teacher referral

6. What are some ways to group gifted students for instruction? a. Pull-out program and self-contained classroom b. Extra computer practice c. Universal Design for Learning d. Independent study

7. Which is not an example of acceleration? a. Participation in an honors class b. Skipping the second grade c. Graduating high school early d. Participation in an extra science experiment

8. Why is differentiation a helpful strategy for gifted students? a. It provides individualized instruction for the student. b. It is easy for a teacher to implement. c. It is cheap for districts to implement. d. Students always get to choose what they want to learn.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 259 5/7/13 8:19 AM

CHAPTER 7Additional Resources

9. What strategy enables students to avoid wasting time on already-learned material? a. Enrichment b. Universal Design for Learning c. Compacting d. Learning contract

10. How can districts provide appropriate services to students with special talents? a. Send the student to a private school. b. Create magnet schools or after-school programs. c. Apply for IDEA 2004 funding. d. File a Section 504 plan.

Answers: 1 (c); 2 (b); 3 (d); 4 (c); 5 (a); 6 (a); 7 (d); 8 (a); 9 (c); 10 (b)

Discussion Questions

1. How do you feel about proponents of gifted education stating that gifted students need the same access to individualized instruction as students with disabilities?

2. Do you feel that IQ tests accurately portray a student’s intelligence? Should IQ tests be used to identify gifted students?

3. How would you, as a teacher, accommodate a gifted student in your classroom when you also have to meet the needs of all the other students?

Answers and Rejoinders to Pre-Test

1. True. Students who are identified as “twice exceptional” have an identified disability and have also been identified as gifted.

2. True. The IQ test made identifying students with above-average intelligence easier, and schools use IQ scores to identify gifted students.

3. False. Researchers agree that there are likely two causes—genetics and the student’s environment—that contribute to a student being gifted.

4. True. Rather than relying on one assessment, the identification of a gifted student should rely on several assessments and include observations and assessments of student work.

5. False. Some gifted students may advance grade levels, but many students will remain in their grade level and participate in gifted programs. Teachers will use teaching strategies to enhance the curriculum for gifted students.

Additional Resources

• The National Society for the Gifted and Talented helps gifted and talented students con- nect to appropriate resources. http://www.nsgt.org

• The National Research Center on Gifted and Talented from the University of Connecticut has lots of information about evidence-based practices. http://www.gifted.uconn.edu

• National Association of Gifted Children provides information for parents and teachers of gifted students. http://www.nagc.org/

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 260 5/7/13 8:19 AM

CHAPTER 7Key Terms

Acronyms Used in Chapter 7

Acronym Description

ADHD Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

ASD Autism Spectrum Disorder

AP Advanced Placement

CAT California Achievement Test

CTBS Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills

DCAT Developing Cognitive Abilities Test

EBD Emotional and Behavioral Disorder

ELL English Language Learner

GIEP Gifted Individualized Education Program

IB International Baccalaureate

IDEA 2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

IQ Intelligence Quotient

ITBS Iowa Test of Basic Skills

LD Learning Disability

NAGC National Association for Gifted Children

NCES National Center for Educational Statistics

NSGT National Society for the Gifted and Talented

PPVT Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test

RTI Response to Intervention

SAT Scholastic Aptitude Test

SLD Specific Learning Disability

TTCT Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking

UDL Universal Design for Learning

Key Terms

acceleration When a student works through classroom material at a quicker pace than other students.

achievement test A type of assessment that aims to quantify what a student knows in a specific area (e.g., reading, math, science).

cluster group When several students with similar needs are grouped together in the gen- eral classroom.

compacting When a student skips known classroom material to work on unknown material.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 261 5/7/13 8:19 AM

CHAPTER 7References

differentiated instruction Instruction that is tailored and individualized to the strengths of a specific student.

enrichment Extra extension activities for stu- dents that are typically provided outside of the general classroom.

gifted A student who demonstrates excep- tional ability in one or more areas.

independent studies When a student works on material individually with help from the teacher or mentor.

intelligence quotient (IQ) test A type of assessment that aims to quantify a person’s intelligence (i.e., how smart a person is).

pull-out program A program in which stu- dents with similar needs are pulled out of the general classroom to receive extra support.

talented A student who demonstrates excep- tional performance related to his or her ability.

twice exceptional A student who is gifted and has a disability.

References

Amend, E. R., Schuler, P., Beaver-Gavin, K., & Beights, R. (2009). A unique challenge: Sorting out the differences between giftedness and Asperger’s disorder. Gifted Child Today, 32(4), 57–63.

Assouline, S. G., Nicpon, M. F., & Dockery, L. (2012). Predicting the academic achievement of gifted students with Autism Spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 1781–1789. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1403-x

Barber, C., & Mueller, C. T. (2011). Social and self-perceptions of adolescents identified as gifted, learning disabled, and twice-exceptional. Roeper Review, 33, 109–120. doi:10.1080/0278 3193.2011.554158

Bianco, M., & Leech, N. L. (2010). Twice-exceptional learners: Effects of teacher preparation and disability labels on gifted referrals. Teacher Education and Special Education, 33, 319–334. doi:10.1177/0888406409356392

Boazman, J., & Sayler, M. (2011). Personal well-being of gifted students following participation in an early college-entrance program. Roeper Review, 33, 76–85. doi:10.1080/02783193.20 11.554153

Bollmer, J., Bethel, J., Garrison-Mogren, R., & Brauen, M. (2007). Using the risk ratio to assess racial/ethnic disproportionality in special education at the school-district level. The Journal of Special Education, 41, 186–198.

Brulles, D., Saunders, R., & Cohn, S. J. (2010). Improving performance for gifted students in a cluster grouping model. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 34, 327–350.

Brulles, D., & Winebrenner, S. (2011). The schoolwide cluster grouping model: Restructur- ing gifted education services for the 21st century. Gifted Child Today, 34(4), 35–46. doi:10.1177/107217511415381

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 262 5/7/13 8:19 AM

CHAPTER 7References

Callahan, C. M. (2011). Special gifts and talents. In J. M. Kaufman & D. P. Hallahan (Eds.), Hand- book of special education (pp. 304–317). New York, NY: Routledge.

Callahan, C. M., Tomlinson, C. A., Hunsaker, S. L., Bland, L. C., & Moon, T. (1995). Instruments and Evaluation Design Used in Gifted Programs. Charlottesville, VA: The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented.

Carroll, K. L. (2008). Helping artistically gifted and talented students succeed academically. Gifted Child Today, 31(4), 36–43.

Chapman, C. (2009). A smoother acceleration: Addressing transition issues that arise for acceler- ated gifted students. The Science Teacher, 76(3), 42–45.

Chval, K. B., & Davis, J. A. (2008). The gifted student. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 14, 267–274.

Crepeau-Hobson, F., & Bianco, M. (2010). Identification of gifted students with learning dis- abilities in a response-to-intervention era. Psychology in the Schools, 48, 102–109. doi:10.1002/pits.20528

Cross, T. L. (2011). Social emotional needs: The necessity of psychological services for students with gifts and talents. Gifted Child Today, 34(4), 64–65. doi:10.1177/1076217511418068

Cukierkorn, J. R., Karnes, F. A., Manning, S. J., Houston, H., & Besnoy, K. (2008). Recognizing giftedness: Defining high ability in young children. Dimensions of Early Childhood, 36(2), 3–12.

Dee, A. L. (2011). Preservice teacher application of differentiated instruction. The Teacher Educa- tor, 46, 53–70. doi:10.1080/08878730.2010.529987

Delisle, J. R. (2012). Reaching those we teach: The five Cs of student engagement. Gifted Child Today, 35(1), 62–68. doi:10.1177/1076217511427513

Eckstein, M. (2009). Enrichment 2.0: Gifted and talented education for the 21st century. Gifted Child Today, 32(1), 59–63.

Eyre, D. (2007). Structured tinkering: Improving provision for the gifted in ordinary schools. Gifted and Talented International, 22(1), 31–38.

Fiedler, E. (2012). You don’t outgrow it! Giftedness across the lifespan. Advanced Development Journal, 13, 23–41.

Foley-Nicpon, M., Rickels, H., Assouline, S. G., & Richards, A. (2012). Self-esteem and self-concept examination among gifted students with ADHD. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 35, 220–240. doi:10.1177/0162353212451735

Ford, D. Y. (2013). Multicultural issues: Gifted underrepresentation and prejudice – learning from Allport and Merton. Gifted Child Today, 36(1), 62–67. doi:10.1177/1076217512465285.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 263 5/7/13 8:19 AM

CHAPTER 7References

Gadanidis, G., Hughes, J., & Cordy, M. (2011). Mathematics for gifted students in an art- and technology-rich setting. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 34, 397–433.

Gagné, F. (2011). Academic talent development and the equity issue in gifted education. Talent Development and Excellence, 3, 3–22.

Glass, T. F. (2004). What gift? The reality of the student who is gifted and talented in public school classrooms. Gifted Child Today, 27(4), 25–29.

Gross, M. U. M. (2006). Exceptionally gifted children: Long-term outcomes of academic accelera- tion and nonacceleration. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 29, 404–429.

Haier, R. J., & Jung, R. E. (2008). Brain imaging studies of intelligence and creativity: What is the picture for education? Roeper Review, 30, 171–180. doi:10.1080/02783190802199347

Halls, K. M. (2011). Alternative book topics can help interest reluctant readers. Knowledge Quest, 39(4), 74–77.

Hargrove, K. (2012). From the classroom: Advocating acceleration. Gifted Child Today, 35(1), 72–73. doi:10.1177/1076217511428309

Hargrove, B. H., & Seay, S. E. (2011). School teacher perceptions of barriers that limit the partici- pation of African American males in public school gifted programs. Journal for the Educa- tion of the Gifted, 34, 434–467.

Harris, B., Plucker, J. A., Rapp, K. E., & Martinez, R. S. (2009). Identifying gifted and talented English Language Learners: A case study. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 32, 368–393.

Harris, B., Rapp, K. E., Martinez, R. S., & Plucker, J. A. (2007). Identifying English Language Learners for gifted and talented programs: Current practices and recommendations for improvement. Roeper Review, 29(5), 26–29.

Henfield, M. S., Washington, A. R., & Owens, D. (2010). To be or not to be gifted: The choice for a new generation. Gifted Child Today, 32(2), 17–25.

Henry, T. S. (1917). Classroom problems in the education of gifted children (Doctoral Thesis). Champaign, IL: University of Illinois.

Hoppe, C., & Stojanovic, J. (2009). Giftedness and the brain. Psychologist, 22(6), 498–501.

Howley, A., Rhodes, M., & Beall, J. (2009). Challenges facing rural schools: Implications for gifted students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 32, 515–536.

Hughes, C. E., Rollins, C., Johnsen, S. K., Pereles, D. A., Omdal, S., Baldwin, L., . . .Coleman, M. R. (2009). Remaining challenges for the use of RTI with gifted education. Gifted Child Today, 32(3), 58–61.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [IDEA], 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004).

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 264 5/7/13 8:19 AM

CHAPTER 7References

Jeweler, S., Barnes-Robinson, L., Shevitz, B. R., & Weinfeld, R. (2008). Bordering on excellence: A teaching tool for twice-exceptional students. Gifted Child Today, 31(2), 40–46.

Johnsen, S. K. (2012). Gifted education and the Common Core State Standards. Gifted Child Today, 35(2), 81–82.

Johnson, A. (2008). Internet strategies for gifted students. Gifted Child Today, 31(2), 58–64.

Jolly, J. L. (2008). Lewis Terman: Genetic Study of Genius – elementary school students. Gifted Child Today, 31(1), 27–33.

Jolly, J. L. (2009a). A resuscitation of gifted education. American Educational History Journal, 36, 37–52.

Jolly, J. L. (2009b). Historical perspectives: Sidney P. Marland, Jr. Gifted Child Today, 32(4), 40–43, 65.

Kaplan, S. N. (2011). Advocacy: Differentiating the differentiated curriculum. Gifted Child Today, 34(4), 59–60. doi:10.1177/1076217511418069

Kettler, T. (2011). Grouping and instruction for gifted students. Gifted Child Today, 34(3), 62–63.

King, E. W. (2005). Addressing the social and emotional needs of twice-exceptional students. Teaching Exceptional Children, 38(1), 16–20.

Leggett, D. G., Shea, I., & Wilson, J. A. (2010). Advocating for twice-exceptional students: An ethi- cal obligation. Research in the Schools, 17(2), 1–10.

Lewis, J. D., Cruzeiro, P. A., & Hall, C. A. (2007). Impact of two elementary school principals’ lead- ership on gifted education in their buildings. Gifted Child Today, 30(2), 56–62.

Lohman, D. F., Korb, K. A., & Lakin, J. M. (2008). Identifying academically gifted English-Language Learners using nonverbal tests: A comparison of the Raven, NNAT, and CogAT. Gifted Child Quarterly, 52, 275–296. doi:10.1177/0016986208321808

Manning, S., Stanford, B., & Reeves, S. (2010). Valuing the advanced learner: Differentiating up. The Clearing House, 83, 145–149. doi:10/1080/00098651003774851

Marland, S. P. (1972). Education of the gifted and talented: Vol. 1, Report to the Congress of the United States by the U.S. Commissioner of Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

McAllister, B. A., & Plourde, L. A. (2008). Enrichment curriculum: Essential for mathematically gifted students. Education, 129, 40–49.

McGee, C. D., & Hughes, C. E. (2011). Identifying and supporting young gifted learners. Young Children, 66(4), 100–105.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 265 5/7/13 8:19 AM

CHAPTER 7References

Miller, R., & Gentry, M. (2010). Developing talents among high-potential students from low-income families in a out-of-school enrichment program. Journal of Advanced Aca- demics, 21, 594–627.

Moore, M. (2005). Meeting the educational needs of young gifted readers in the regular class- room. Gifted Child Today, 28(4), 40–47, 65.

Morris, R. V. (2005). The Clio club: An extracurricular model for elementary social studies enrich- ment. Gifted Child Today, 28(1), 40–48.

Morrison, W. F., & Rizza, M. G. (2007). Creating a toolkit for identifying twice-exceptional stu- dents. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 31, 57–76.

National Association for Gifted Children. (2008). What is giftedness? [Web page]. Retrieved from http://www.nagc.org/index.aspx?id=574

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2008). Number of gifted and talented students in pub- lic elementary and secondary schools, by sex, race/ethnicity, and state: 2004 and 2006. Digest of Education Statistics 2008 Tables and Figures, Table 53. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/tables/dt08_053.asp

Neumeister, K. L. S., Adams, C. M., Pierce, R. L., Cassady, J. C., & Dixon, F. A. (2007). Fourth-grade teachers’ perceptions of giftedness: Implication for identifying and serving diverse gifted students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 30, 479–499.

Park, S., & Oliver, J. S. (2009). The translation of teachers’ understanding of gifted students into instructional strategies for teaching science. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 20, 333–351. doi:10.1007/s10972-009-9138-7

Pereira, N., Peters, S. J., & Gentry, M. (2010). My class activities instrument as used in Saturday enrichment program evaluation. Journal of Advanced Academics, 21, 568–593.

Pereles, D. A., Omdal, S., & Baldwin, L. (2007). Response to intervention and twice-exceptional learners: A promising fit. Gifted Child Today, 32(3), 40–51.

Peters, M. P., & Bain, S. K. (2011). Bullying and victimization rates among gifted and high-achieving students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 34, 624–643.

Pierce, R. L., Cassady, J. C., Adams, C. M., Neumeister, K. L. S., Dixon, F. A., & Cross, T. L. (2011). The effects of clustering and curriculum on the development of gifted learners’ math achievement. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 34, 569–594.

Powers, E. A. (2008). The use of independent study as a viable differentiation technique for gifted learners in the regular classroom. Gifted Child Today, 31(3), 57–65.

Prescott, J., Gavrilescu, M., Cunnington, R., O’Boyle, M. W., & Egan, G. F. (2010). Enhanced brain connectivity in math-gifted adolescents: An fMRI study using mental rotation. Cognitive Neuroscience,1, 277–288. doi:10.1080/17588928.2010.506951

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 266 5/7/13 8:19 AM

CHAPTER 7References

Renzulli, J. S., Siegle, D., Reis, S. M., Gavin, M. K., & Reed, R. E. S. (2009). An investigation of the reliability and factor structure of four new Scales for Rating the Behavioral Characteris- tics of Superior Students. Journal of Advanced Academics, 21, 84–108.

Rizza, M. G., & Morrison, W. F. (2007). Identifying twice exceptional children: A toolkit for suc- cess. Teaching Exceptional Children Plus, 3(3). Retrieved from http://journals.cec.sped.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1284&context=tecplus

Robertson, S. G., Pfeiffer, S. I., & Taylor, N. (2011). Serving the gifted: A national survey of school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 48, 786–799. doi:10.1002/pits.20590

Rock, M. L., Gregg, M., Ellis, E., & Gable, R. A. (2008). REACH: A framework for differentiating classroom instruction. Preventing School Failure, 52(2), 31–47.

Ronald, A., Spinath, F. M., & Plomin, R. (2002). The aetiology of high cognitive ability in early childhood. High Ability Studies, 13, 103–114. doi:10.1080/1359813022000048761

Seeley, K. (2004). Gifted and talented students at risk. Focus on Exceptional Children, 37(4), 1–8.

Siemer, E. A. (2006). Bored out of their minds: The detrimental effects of No Child left Behind on Gifted Children. Journal of Law and Policy, 30, 539–560.

Simonton, D .K. (2005). Giftedness and genetics: The emergenic-epigenetic model and its impli- cations. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 28, 270–286.

Song, K., & Porath, M. (2011). How giftedness coexists with learning disabilities: Understanding gifted students with learning disabilities (GLD) in an integrated model of human abilities. Talent Development and Excellence, 3, 215–227.

Steenbergen-Hu, S., & Moon, S. M. (2011). The effects of acceleration on high-ability learners: A meta-analysis. Gifted Child Quarterly, 55, 39–53. doi:10.1177/0016986210383155

Stephens, K. R., & Karnes, F. A (2000). State definitions for the gifted and talented revisited. Exceptional Children, 66, 219–238.

Stoskopf, A. (2002). Echoes of a forgotten past: Eugenics, testing, and education reform. The Educational Forum, 66, 126–133.

Sutton, K. K. (2001). Curriculum compacting. Science Scope, 24(4), 22–27.

Thompson, L. A., & Oehlert, J. (2010). The etiology of giftedness. Learning and Individual Differ- ences, 20, 298–307. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2009.11.004

Thomson, D. (2010). Conversations with teachers on the benefits and challenges of online learn- ing for gifted students. Gifted Child Today, 34(3), 31–39.

Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 267 5/7/13 8:19 AM

CHAPTER 7References

Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2005). Quality curriculum and instruction for highly able students. Theory into Practice, 42, 160–166.

VanTassel-Baska, J. (2010). The history of urban gifted education. Gifted Child Today, 33(4), 18–27.

VanTassel-Baska, J., Johnson, D., & Avery, L. D. (2002). Using performance tasks in the identifica- tion of economically disadvantaged and minority gifted learners: Findings from Project STAR. Gifted Child Quarterly, 46, 110–123. doi:10.1177/001698620204600204

Vialle, W., Ashton, T., & Carlton, G. (2001). Acceleration: A coat of many colors. Roeper Review, 24(1), 14–19.

Wellisch, M., & Brown, J. (2012). An integrated identification and intervention model for intellectually gifted children. Journal of Advanced Academics, 23, 145–167. doi:10.1177/1932202X12438877

Winebrenner, S. (2003). Teaching strategies for twice-exceptional students. Intervention in School and Clinic, 38(3), 131–37.

Winkler, D. L., & Jolly, J. L. (2012). Nativists and environmentalists: A history of disagreement. Gifted Child Today, 35(2), 146–149.

pow85736_07_c07_231-268.indd 268 5/7/13 8:19 AM