DB questions
Chapter 13 Summary
Analyzing the Media Economy The study of the economic conditions of mass media poses a number of complicated questions. For example, what role should the government and citizen groups play, if any, in regulating and influencing who owns what mass media and what products are manufactured? Before studying this question, it’s important to understand the difference between a monopoly (where one owner dominates an industry), an oligopoly (where a few firms dominate an industry), and limited competition (a market with many sellers and producers but only a few products). In each case, the media organizations make money through direct payments from the sale of goods to consumers, or indirect payments from advertisers who want to reach those consumers. Large companies are also able to take advantage of the economy of scale, which states that when items are mass produced, the cost per item goes down. The Internet has added a few new developments to the business models of media operations. Older forms of mass media must now have Web presences, which in turn open up new avenues for revenue. For example, nonprofit broadcasters can’t sell commercials over the air, but might not face the same restrictions on the Internet. The Transition to an Information Economy The first half of the twentieth century emphasized mass production, the rise of manufacturing plants, and the intense rivalry of U.S–based companies competing against products from other countries. But, by the 1990s, the emphasis was on information distribution and retrieval as well as international economic cooperation. The shift to an information–driven economy began in the 1950s, when mass media companies began to market music, movies, television programs, and computer software globally. In the 1960s, the first wave of national media consolidation began, escalating into the global media mergers that have continued since the 1980s. These mergers took place despite a number of laws passed earlier in the twentieth century to combat monopolies and monopolistic business practices. Newer laws have focused on deregulation or a de–emphasis of regulation by government administrations, beginning with the Carter administration (1977–1981) and continuing today. Media companies have also been able to avoid monopoly charges by purchasing diverse types of media instead of trying to control just one medium. Other factors that characterize the economics and business practices of large media conglomerates include: flexible markets that rely on cheap labor (sometimes to the point of exploitation), the decline of labor unions, downsizing, and huge compensation gaps between the common worker and the company CEOs. One reason there isn’t more debate about these issues is the concept of hegemony. Hegemony is the acceptance of the dominant values in a culture by those who are subordinate to those who hold political and economic power. If companies or politicians can convince consumers and citizens that the interests of the powerful are commonsense and natural, they create an atmosphere with less chance for challenge or criticism. Common sense is disseminated through narratives—the dominant way that we make sense of experience and articulate values. Specialization and Global Markets
Chapter 13 Summary
In today’s complex economic environment, with global firms seeking greater profits, companies have sought to move labor to less economically developed countries that need jobs and have loose health and safety regulations for workers. Bolstered by GATT (passed in 1947), the WTO (which succeeded GATT in 1995), and NAFTA (passed in 1994), global cooperation fostered transnational media corporations. The multitude of media channels and products owned by a single entity has fostered the rise of specialization, creating products to fill niche demands, and synergy, using those niche products to simultaneously promote different aspects of a media property. For example, a company that makes a movie might also try to spin–off a television program, merchandise, soundtrack albums, and books. Disney is a great example of this, with movie studios, broadcast network ABC, multiple cable channels, radio networks, and theme parks that can be used to expand their brand. This global audience also provides an important source of income for media organizations. Social Issues in Media Economics The merger mania witnessed in recent years between companies like Time Inc. and Warner Communications, AOL and Time Warner, and Comcast and GE has accompanied stripped–down regulation, which has suspended most ownership limits on media industries. Since the 1980s, American antitrust laws have been easily subverted or simply rewritten as most media companies diversify among different product lines, never completely dominating a particular industry. These diversification strategies promote oligopolies, the kind of economic arrangement that makes it difficult for companies and products offered outside the oligopoly to compete in the marketplace. And because antitrust laws aim to curb national monopolies, most media monopolies today operate locally. There is a lack of public debate surrounding the oligopoly structure of international media conglomerates. Economists and media critics attribute this lack to two reasons: the reluctance to criticize capitalism, and the fact that while people have consumer choice they do not have consumer control. The influence of American popular culture has created much debate in international circles. On one hand, the global spread of media software and hardware has made it harder for political leaders to secretly repress dissident groups because so much police and state activity can be documented digitally. On the other hand, American styles in fashion, food, and media are shaping cultures and identities of other nations—what many critics have identified as cultural imperialism. The Media Marketplace and Democracy A key paradox of the Information Age is that for economic discussions to be meaningful and democratic, they must be carried out in the popular media as well as in educational settings; however, public debates about the structure and ownership of the media are often not in the best economic interests of media owners. In some places, local groups and consumer movements are addressing media issues that affect individual and community life, and the Internet has made it possible for such groups to form globally. By better understanding media economics, we can make a contribution to critiquing media organizations and evaluating their impact on democracy.