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Chapter 12 Summary
Early Developments in Public Relations During the gradual transformation of society from farm to factory at the beginning of the twentieth century, public relations (PR) emerged as a profession. This occurred in part because businesses needed to fend off increased scrutiny from muckraking journalists and emerging labor unions. The first PR practitioners were theatrical press agents, or those who sought to advance a client’s image through media exposure. These press agents would try to generate publicity for their clients. Two entrepreneurs who knew how to play this game particularly well were entertainers P.T. Barnum and Buffalo Bill. During the same time period in the nineteenth century, big businesses like railroads became adept at using press agents and lobbying efforts to secure public support for government funding and favorable legislation for themselves. By the early 1900s, muckraking journalists began to expose a number of deceptive and fraudulent practices employed by press agents, and the resulting social pressure led some practitioners to try and professionalize the industry into what we know as modern public relations. Two important figures in this transformation were Ivy Ledbetter Lee and Edward Bernays. Lee understood that the appearance of openness between an organization and the press was often an effective strategy in improving the organization’s public image, though he also felt that the “facts” were malleable and could be shaped in an organization’s favor. Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund Freud, brought elements of sociology and psychology into the public relations field and even taught the first college course on the subject. Like Lee, Bernays saw public opinion as pliant and often irrational. The Practice of Public Relations Today, there are more than 2,900 hundred companies offering PR services worldwide, including 1,900 in the United States. The Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) defines the role of PR as helping “an organization and its publics adapt mutually to each other.” This can be done by hiring an outside PR firm, maintaining an in–house PR department, or sometimes using a combination of the two. As in other media institutions, a few very large multinational corporations exercise a great deal of control in the PR business, with the biggest being the WPP Group. PR involves a number of practices and techniques that include publicity, communication, public affairs, issues management, government relations, financial PR, community relations, media relations, and propaganda. A key tool for PR is the press release—its video counterpart is the video news release (VNR), and a public service announcement (PSA) is the nonprofit version. PR companies also manage media relations, put on special events, and orchestrate pseudo–events. PR companies are also responsible for managing community and consumer relations, as well as an organization’s relationship with the government. They do so by engaging in government lobbying, or even by creating a phony grassroots movement with astroturf lobbying. The public relations industry is now looking to the Internet for new ways to do its job. Company Web sites, Facebook pages, YouTube videos, and Twitter feeds are all tools used by public relations professionals to communicate with a company’s publics and to create a positive online image.
Chapter 12 Summary
A key function of PR firms is crisis management. From the days of Ivy Lee Ledbetter, companies have turned to PR practitioners to control the negative fallout from accidents, mistakes, and outright criminal activity. Two examples of poor PR management during a crisis are the Exxon Valdez oil tanker spill in 1989 and the more recent BP oil spill. In contrast, PR educators often point to the way Burson–Marsteller helped Johnson & Johnson respond to seven deaths from tampering with bottles of Tylenol as an example of both ethical and effective public relations in a crisis. Tensions between Public Relations and the Press Historically, there has been a great deal of antagonism directed at PR from the journalism profession. Reporters consider themselves part of an older public–service profession, whereas many regard the PR agent (sometimes called a flack by reporters) as belonging to a pseudo– profession created to distort the facts that reporters work to gather. At the same time, this mutually antagonistic relationship is also one of the most mutually dependent in all of mass media. Heavy newsroom cutbacks mean that journalists increasingly rely on press releases and tips from PR practitioners to find the news. Still, journalists resent that PR firms hire away newsroom talent, restrict access to people and information, and promote business and publicity as news. In response to a tainted past and journalism’s hostility, the PR industry has tried a few image–enhancing tactics, including forming its own professional organization (PRSA) and ethical framework and using more flattering terms like institutional relations to describe what it does. PR Watch, a publication that investigates the PR companies’ tactics and practices, was developed to bring a degree of transparency to the industry. Public Relations and Democracy Perhaps the biggest effect of public relations on democracy is felt during an election cycle. Organizations hire spin doctors to favorably shape or reshape a candidate’s media image. The question is not how to prevent that but how to ensure that less well–financed voices receive an equal or adequate hearing. To that end, journalists need to be less willing conduits in the distribution of publicity, and PR agencies need to show clients that participating in the democratic process as responsible citizens can serve them well and enhance their image.