Child development

ChildDevelopmentWorldwideChapter1Part2.pptx

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1.2 Humans: The Cultural and Global Species

From Africa to Distant Destinations

LO 1.2.1 Identify the evolution of characteristics that make modern humans distinct from their nearest great ape species.

Charles Darwin The Origin of Species

All species change through the process of natural selection

Humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas have a common ancestor

Hominins evolved into Homo sapiens

Brain size is a critical difference for humans

Babies born at earlier stage of brain development than chimpanzees or gorillas (assists with getting through birth canal)

Humans adapted to different environments and migrated

Figure 1.3 Changes in Brain Size in Early Humans

Early Cultures and Civilizations

LO 1.2.2 Summarize the major changes in human cultures since the Upper Paleolithic period.

Cultural differences in art and tools (spindles, looms, boats)

Growing food

Domestication of animals

Sturdier homes

Development of civilization

Cities

Writing

Specialized work

Status development

Political systems

Figure 1.4 Key Changes in Human Species Development Past 50,000 Years

SOURCE: Pearson Education, Inc.

Evolution, Culture, and Child Development Today

LO 1.2.3 Apply information about human evolution to how child development takes place today.

Development is based partly on evolutionary history

Humans developed large brains

Allowed us to adapt to most environments

Allowed us to change our environment

Survival methods are passed down to children as part of culture

Natural selection and culture determines how we live

1.3 The Field of Child Development: Emergence and Expansion

The Emergence of a Science of Child Development (1 of 3)

LO 1.3.1 Provide some reasons why the field of child development primarily focused on younger children until about the mid-20th century.

Freud’s focus on early childhood

Focus on traumatic events in childhood

Psychoanalysis was intended to bring repressed memories from the unconscious to the conscious mind

Psychosexual theory

Stages

Oral

Anal

Phallic

Latency

Genital

Freud’s theory was very popular, but is no longer favored

The Emergence of a Science of Child Development (2 of 3)

LO 1.3.1 Provide some reasons why the field of child development primarily focused on younger children until about the mid-20th century.

Binet and mandatory primary school

Asked by French government to design an instrument to identify struggling students

Binet-Simon intelligence scale

General knowledge

Reasoning

Memory

Problem-solving

Mandatory schooling spread across nations and testing was implemented in most contexts

The Emergence of a Science of Child Development (3 of 3)

LO 1.3.1 Provide some reasons why the field of child development primarily focused on younger children until about the mid-20th century.

Hall’s preliminary attention to adolescence

Hall’s importance in psychology

First to obtain Ph.D. in U.S.

Founder of American Psychological Association

President of Clark University

Wrote first text on adolescence

Based writings on recapitulation

While no longer supported, some research confirms his ideas

Popularized the term “adolescence”

Expansion of the Field of Child Development: Adolescence

LO 1.3.2 Describe when the field of child development began to address adolescence in a notable way, and explain why the age range that Hall had designated for adolescence has been been moved downward by contemporary researchers.

Anna Freud

Supported storm and stress period for adolescents

Erik Erikson

Proposed lifespan theory of development

Adolescence a period for establishing identity

Change in age range for adolescence

Menarche has steadily started earlier in girls

Growth in secondary education giving a natural end to adolescence when school ends

Table 1.2 Enrollment in Secondary School, Selected Developing Countries, 1980

Country	Females (%)	Males (%)
Argentina	62	53
China	37	54
Egypt	41	66
India	20	39
Mexico	46	51
Nigeria	13	25

Table 1.2 Enrollment in Secondary School, Selected Developing Countries, 2015 or Latest Year

Country	Females (%)	Males (%)
Argentina	87	86
China	69	69
Egypt	90	90
India	77	72
Mexico	80	76
Nigeria	41	47

You can compares enrollment in secondary school among females and males for six developing countries between 1980 (previous slide) and 2015.

Figure 1.5 Enrollment in High School in the United States, 1890–2010

Another Expansion: Emerging Adulthood

LO 1.3.3 Explain how the field of child development has recently expanded anew to encompass emerging adulthood.

Emerging adulthood

Stage between adolescence and young adulthood

Developed countries

Reflects continuing education

People enter marriage and parenthood after mid-20s

Stage representing some separation from parents, but not clear commitment to stable roles

Developing countries

Still marry in early 20s

No continuing education

Enter adult roles earlier

Table 1.3 Gross Enrollment Ratio in Tertiary Education, Selected Developed Countries

COUNTRY	FEMALES	MALES
Australia	102	72
Czech Republic	77	55
France	71	58
Germany	63	68
Greece	110	110
Italy	74	53
Japan	60	65
Lithuania	82	56
South Korea	81	108
Spain	96	82
United States	101	73

Note: Gross enrollment ratio is the number of students enrolled in tertiary education divided by the number of persons ages 18–22 in the population.

Source: Based on Arnett et al. (2014).

Education Focus: Falling Behind? College Graduation in the United States

United States has slipped behind other developed countries in college completion

In 1995 led all countries with graduation rate of 33%

In 2012 only 4 countries fell below United States

College education the highest cost in the United States

There are economic benefits to a college education

Today’s Child Development

LO 1.3.4 Describe the cultural-developmental approach, and why developmental stages and pathways within this approach are somewhat flexible.

Has broadened its scope to include adolescence and emerging adults

Spectrum of the field

Prenatal

Infancy

Early childhood

Middle childhood

Adolescence

Emerging adulthood

Cultural-developmental framework

Study impact of culture on developmental periods

Study across diverse cultures

Highlights that cultural change can be quite rapid and many people identify with more than one culture

1.4 How We Study Child Development

The Five Steps of the Scientific Method

LO 1.4.1 Recall the five steps of the scientific method.

Five Steps

Step 1: Identify a question of scientific interest

Step 2: Form a hypothesis

Step 3: Choose research measurement and research design

Step 4: Collect data to test the hypothesis

Step 5: Draw conclusions and form new questions and hypotheses

Figure 1.6 The Steps of the Scientific Method

Research Measurements

LO 1.4.2 Summarize the main measurements used in research on child development.

Questionnaires

Interviews

Quantitative and qualitative data

Observations

Biological measurements

EEG

fMRI

Reliability and validity

Table 1.4 Research Measurements: Advantages and Limitations

Measurements	Advantages	Limitations
Questionnaire	Large sample, quick data collection	Preset responses, no depth
Interview	Individuality and complexity	Time and effort of coding
Observations	Actual behavior, not self-report	Observation may affect behavior
Biological Measurements	Precise data	Expensive, relation to behavior may not be clear

Research Designs

LO 1.4.3 Distinguish between major types of research designs.

Experimental design

Independent/dependent variable

Interventions

Natural experiment

Correlational design

Ethnographic research

Case study

Figure 1.7 Physical Health and Exercise Are Correlated—But Which Causes Which?

Table 1.5 Research Designs: Advantages and Limitations

Designs	Advantages	Limitations
Experiment	Control, Identification of cause and effect	May not reflect real life
Natural experiment	Illuminates relations among naturally occurring events	Unusual circumstances; rare
Correlational study	Quick and inexpensive	Correlations difficult to interpret
Ethnographic research	Entire span of daily life	Researcher must live among participants; possible bias
Case studies	Rich, detailed data	Difficult to generalize results

Research Focus: Darwin’s Diary: A Case Study

Darwin kept a diary of the development of his first child

Recorded cognitive, language, social, and moral development

Wanted to determine what was learned and what was innate

Research Designs in Developmental Psychology

LO 1.4.4 Describe the two major types of research designs distinctive to developmental psychology.

Cross-sectional design

People of different ages collected at a single point in time

Strengths

Affordable and timely

Limitations

Can only show correlation

Longitudinal

Same persons are followed over time

Strengths

Allows researchers to examine how people change over time

Allows researchers to gain more insight into the question of correlation or causation

Limitations

Take time, money, and patience

Attrition

Ethics in Child Development Research

LO 1.4.5 Identify some key ethical standards for child development research.

Use of institutional review boards

Protection from physical harm

Informed consent prior to participation

Confidentiality

Deception and debriefing

Cultural concerns in ethics

1.5 Why We Study Child Development Worldwide

Contributing Knowledge

LO 1.5.1 Explain the three general levels at which child development contributes knowledge.

Nomothetic knowledge

Idiographic knowledge

Sociocultural knowledge

Improving Children’s Lives

LO 1.5.2 Give examples of how scientific knowledge can be applied across contexts to improve children’s lives.

Contexts for improvement

Families

Childcare institutions

Schools

Media

Government

International nonprofit organizations

Photo Credits

Chapter 1 Table 1.1: Data from Population Reference Bureau. (2013). 2013 World population data sheet. Retrieved from http://www.prb.org/pdf13/2013-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf; Figure 1.1Data from World Population Ageing 2013. United Nations. http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/ageing/World-PopulationAgeing2013.pdf; Figure 1.2: Based on Kaiser Family Foundation (2013); Figure 1.3: Based on Kaiser Family Foundation (2013); Pearson Education; Figure 1.3: Pearson Education; Freud, A. (1958) Adolescence. Psychoanalytic Study of the child, 15, 255–278. New York: International Universities Press, Inc.; Figure 1.5: Pearson Education; Table 1.2: Pearson Education; Table 1.3: Arnett, J. J., Žukauskiene, R., & Sugimura, K. (in press). The new life stage of emerging adulthood, ages 18–29: Implications for mental health. Lancet Psychiatry; Undata (2014); Figure 1.6: Adapted from: Weisner, T. S. (1984). Ecocultural niches of middle childhood: A cross-cultural perspective. In A. Collins (Ed.), Development during middle childhood: The years from six to twelve. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; Table 1.4: Pearson Education; Figure 1.7: Pearson Education; Figure 1.7: Pearson Education; Keegan, R.T. & Gruber, H.E. (1985) Charles Darwin’s unpublished “Diary of an infant,” An early phase in his psychological work. In G. Eckhardt, W.G. Bringmann & L. Spring (eds.) Contributions to a history of developmental psychology (pp. 127–145). New York, NY: Mouton; Table 1.2: Pearson Education; Based on Fisher, C. B. (2003). A goodness-of-fit ethic for child assent to nonbeneficial research. The American Journal of Bioethics, 3, 27–28.; Rosnow, R. L., & Rosenthal, R. L. (2005). Beginning behavioral research (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall; Table 1.6: Pearson Education.

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