key assessment

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1. Child-care usage and mother-infant "quality time"....................................................................................... 1

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Document 1 of 1 Child-care usage and mother-infant "quality time" Author: Booth, Cathryn L; Clarke-Stewart, K Alison; Deborah Lowe Vandell; McCartney, Kathleen; Margaret Tresch Owen ProQuest document link Abstract: Mothers' time-use paterns were compared in families in which infants spent more than 30 hours per week in child care (In-Care group; n = 143) versus 0 hours per week (At-Home group; n = 183) from birth to 6 months of age. In-Care group mothers spend about 12 fewere hours per week interacting with their infants, for about 32% less time; fathers of these infants were more involved in caregiving. Full text: Headnote Mothers' time-use patterns were compared in families in which infants spent more than 30 hours per week in child care (In-Care group; n = 143) versus 0 hours per week (At-Home group; n = 183) from birth to 6 months of age. In-Care group mothers spent about 12 fewer hours per week interacting with their infants, for about 32% less time; fathers of these infants were more involved in caregiving. The groups did not differ in the quality of mother-infant interaction. In the In-Care group, quantity of in Headnote teraction was related to greater separation anxiety and concerns about effects of maternal employment. Time- use data were not related to child outcomes at 15 months of age. Results suggest that the effect of extensive time spent apart on the quantity and quality of mother-infant interaction may be smaller than anticipated. Headnote Key Words: child care, mother-infant interaction, time use. Dramatic increases in the labor force participation of women with young children in the United States have led to a concomitant increase in the use of early and extensive nonmaternal child care, usually beginning in the early months of life (Hofferth, Brayfield, Deich, &Holcomb, 1991). The increasing use of extensive child care in early infancy has generated scientific debate about the effects of child care on children's development and the mother-child relationship (see Lamb, 1998). One of the chief concerns is that early entry into child care may have a negative impact on the ability of the mother and infant to develop a synchronous relationship. That is, long hours spent apart may provide insufficient time for the mother to learn about her infant's cues and biological rhythms (Brazelton, 1986), and her appropriate and sensitive responses to these cues are vital for fostering the infant's optimal development (see Kelly &Barnard, 2000). A particular area of concern is the infant's attachment security to the mother. According to attachment theory, the degree of mother-infant sensitivity and responsivity forms the basis for the development of the infant's secure (or insecure) attachment to her (see De Wolff &van Ijzendoorn, 1997). The security of this attachment, in turn, is important because it predicts children's subsequent peer relations, affect regulation, selfesteem, ego resiliency, and behavior problems (see Thompson, 1998). Thus, to the extent that maternal sensitivity and responsivity decrease when the mother and infant spend long hours apart, then we would expect an increase in the risk of insecure attachment and other less optimal outcomes. Infants form important and independent attachments to their fathers and other caregivers as well. However, a comparison of the relative influence of infant-mother and infant-father attachment on child outcomes has indicated that the infant-mother relationship is a stronger predictor (Thompson, 1998). These results, coupled with concerns about the effects on children of large increases in maternal employment hours, have led to a focus on the early mother-child, rather than father-child, relationship within the child-care and employment literature. Within the child-care literature, several studies focusing on early infancy have supported the hypothesis of a

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negative association between the amount of child care and the quality of motherinfant interaction, but the majority of researchers have not (see National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network [NICHD ECCRN], 1999, for a review). Analyses from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care are especially relevant in this regard, because a subset of these data were used in the present report. Longitudinal analyses of the main data set indicated that greater hours per week in child care were related to somewhat less maternal sensitivity and child engagement in mother-child interaction in the first 3 years of life (NICHD ECCRN, 1999). However, this relatively small decrease in the quality of mother-child interaction did not appear to have an impact on the infants' attachment security to their mothers, except when mothers were highly insensitive (NICHD ECCRN, 1997). In all of these studies, the quality of motherchild interaction and attachment security have been evaluated in relation to the number of hours that the child spends in child care or the number of hours that the mother is employed. However, it is significant that none of them has assessed the amount of time that the mother and child actually spend together, and in the absence of empirical evidence, it is generally assumed that hours of maternal employment serve as a proxy for the reduction in the amount of time spent in motherchild interaction (Baydar, Greek, &Gritz, 1999). Contrary to this assumption, evidence from studies based on time-use diaries and interviews has shown that maternal employment is related to a relatively small reduction in social interaction and a larger reduction in physical care (Baydar et al., 1999; Hilton, 1990; Nock &Kingston, 1988; Walker &Woods, 1976), with differences of less than 5 hours of care per week between employed and nonemployed mothers (Douthitt, 1989; Sanik, 1990). One limitation of these time-use studies is the assumption that time spent in mother-child interaction is, by definition, "quality time" that will enhance children's development (Bryant, 1992). However, large individual differences exist in the quality of interaction when mothers and children do spend time together, and these differences predict child outcomes in cognitive, linguistic, and socioemotional domains (e.g., Baumrind, 1989; NICHD ECCRN, in press). Thus, it is important to measure directly the quality and quantity of mother-child interaction. It is also likely that there are individual differences in the extent to which mothers, regardless of employment hours, optimize the time that is available for interacting with their infants. In some families, employed mothers may make special efforts to spend high-quality time with their infants during nonwork hours or on the weekends, whereas in other families, the stresses of multiple roles and responsibilities may leave mothers with very little time or energy to devote to their infants when they are at home together (Hochschild, 1989; Rachlin, 1987). Similarly, it is likely that some stay-at-home mothers focus on spending a lot of high-quality interaction time with their children, whereas others are mostly present in the home while engaging in other primary activities (Baydar et al., 1999; Bianchi, 2000; Nock &Kingston, 1988). Some of the variance in the amount of time mothers and infants spend together may be due, in part, to demographic factors. Maternal education, for example, is positively related to amount (e.g., Bryant &Zick, 1996; Hill &Stafford, 1980) and quality (e.g., Clarke-Stewart, Gruber, &Fitzgerald, 1994; NICHD ECCRN, 1999) of motherchild social interaction. Another source of individual differences in the time mothers spend with their infants may be the mothers' psychological characteristics. For example, maternal separation anxiety may positively affect the extent to which employed mothers are motivated to spend time with their infants when they are not at work. In support of this hypothesis, Bradley, Whiteside-Mansell, Brisby, and Caldwell (1997) found that greater maternal separation anxiety was related to mothers' having greater socioemotional investment in their children. Also, Fagan (1994) found that among employed mothers, greater maternal separation anxiety was positively related to time spent with their infants in on-site child-care settings. Attitudes about employment also may affect the extent to which mothers spend quality time with their infants. Mothers who believe that the consequences of maternal employment for children are relatively negative are less

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likely to be employed and are less likely to view maternal employment as acceptable at younger child ages (Greenberger, Goldberg, Crawford, &Granger, 1988). If employed mothers must spend long hours away from their children despite negative attitudes about employment consequences, we would expect these mothers to maximize the amount of time they spend with their children when they have the opportunity to be together. Nock and Kingston (1988) have suggested that fathers may compensate for the decreased time spent by employed mothers with their children, thereby reducing the potential negative effects of maternal employment on child outcomes. However, both Sanik (1990) and Douthitt (1989) found that fathers' hours of caring for their children did not differ as a function of maternal employment, even though these hours have increased in the past few decades. Although the present study focuses primarily on the mother-infant relationship, we also sought to determine whether fathers' involvement with their infants varied according to the time these infants spent apart from their mothers, and the effects of both father involvement and mother-infant time on child outcomes. The following questions were addressed in the present study: Among families in which the study infants spent more than 30 hours per week in child care, versus those in which child care was not used, (a) How do the mothers compare in the amount of time spent in instrumental care and social interaction with their infants? (b) How do the mothers compare in the quality of interaction? (c) Is the quality of mother-infant interaction related to the amount of time they spend together? (d) Do mothers' psychological characteristics and fathers' involvement differ by group, and are they related to the amount of time mothers spend with their infants? and (e) Do the quantity and quality of maternal care and father involvement predict child outcomes at age 15 months? METHOD Participants Data were analyzed from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care, a prospective longitudinal study of the effects of child care on children's development. Participants were recruited during the first 11 months of 1991 from hospitals at 10 research sites that were located in or near Little Rock, Arkansas; Irvine, California; Lawrence, Kansas; Boston, Massachusetts; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Charlottesville, Virginia; Morganton, North Carolina; Seattle, Washington; and Madison, Wisconsin. During selected sampling periods, all women giving birth in each hospital were screened. Mothers were excluded if they were giving the baby up for adoption, had a known or acknowledged history of substance abuse, were under 18 years of age, did not speak English, planned to move in the next year, or lived outside the area or in a neighborhood considered unsafe for visits; mothers were also excluded if the baby was part of a multiple birth, was not discharged within 7 days of birth, or had a congenital disability (see NICHD ECCRN, 1999, for more details). Of the 1,364 participating mothers, 1,171 completed at least one time-use interview when their infants were 7 months of age. However, the sample for the present paper was further reduced to 326 because it included only (a) mothers who were married or partnered and lived in the same household as the spouse or partner; (b) mothers who completed the time-use interview on two occasions-one weekday and one weekend day (and, if the mother was employed, one of these days had to be a work day and the other a nonwork day); (c) mothers of infants spending 0 hours in nonmaternal child care from birth to 6 months of age (At-Home group; n = 183) or mothers of infants spending an average of 30 or more hours per week in child care from birth to 6 months (In- Care group; n = 143). Fathers also participated in the study at 6 of the 10 sites. Among the 326 families, data were available for 126 fathers (64 in the At-Home group and 62 in the In-Care group). Demographic characteristics of the At-Home group, the In-Care group, and the remaining families whose data were not included (n = 845) are shown in Table 1. Compared with the nonincluded mothers, the mothers in the present report were significantly older (29.27 vs. 28.07 years), t(1,169) = 3.32, p = .001. The groups did not differ in parental education, family income-to-- needs ratio, number of children, child gender, or ethnicity. None of the mothers in the At-Home group was employed or in school from birth through 6 months, and none of the children in this group spent any time in nonmaternal child care. Most of the In-Care group mothers (n = 135)

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were employed or in school at least 30 hours per week (M = 40.42 10.34 hours), and their children were in child care for a mean of 36.01 ( 4.78) hours per week. Demographic Variables When the infants were 1 month old, mothers were interviewed at home to obtain information about the mother's age and parents' education; the infant's gender, birth order, and ethnicity. The family income-to-needs ratio was obtained at 6 months. The income-to-needs ratio is an index of family economic resources, with higher scores indicating greater financial resources per person in the household. Family income (exclusive of welfare payments) was divided by the poverty threshold, which was based on total family size and number of children under 18 years of age. Psychological Characteristics of Mothers The mothers' psychological characteristics were assessed during home visits when the infants were 1 and 6 months of age. Maternal separation anxiety. The Maternal Separation Anxiety Scale is a 21-item questionnaire adapted from Hock, Gnezda, and McBride (1983). Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The items assess the mother's sadness, worry, and guilt about separation from her infant; beliefs about the importance of maternal care and her infant's preference for maternal care; and beliefs about her infant's ability to adapt to nonmaternal care. Cronbach's alphas were .93 at both 1 and 6 months. An average score was computed across ages. Attitudes about maternal employment. At the 1month home visit the mothers completed 11 items of the Beliefs About the Consequences of Maternal Employment for Children (Greenberger et al., 1988). The scale, which uses 6-point Likert ratings (1 = disagree very strongly to 6 = agree very strongly), yields Benefits and Costs scores. A high score on the Costs subscale (Cronbach's alpha = .88) reflects the belief that children are likely to have problems if their mothers are employed (e.g., "Children are less likely to form a warm and secure relationship with a mother who is working full time"). Father Involvement in Caregiving When the infants were 6 months old, fathers at 6 of the 10 study sites completed a set of questionnaires, including one describing their caregiving activities with the study child (NICHD ECCRN, 2000). The 11 caregiving activities (which included items such as bathing, feeding, reading to the infant, attending to the infant when crying) were rated on a 5-point scale (1 = partner's job, 3 = we share equally, 5 = my job) and summed to yield a total score for Father Involvement in Caregiving (Cronbach's alpha = .77).

Quantity of Mother-Infant Interaction Quantity of mother-infant interaction was assessed when the infants were 7 months old, using a telephone time- use interview with the mother on two occasions-one describing the immediately prior weekday-workday (Monday through Thursday) and the other, the prior weekend-nonwork day (Saturday or Sunday). The interview is a chronological account of what the mother did during the entire 24-hour period beginning at 1 minute after midnight on the previous day. The mother identified (a) her primary activity, (b) activity beginning and end times, (c) her location, (d) the infant's location, and (e) any secondary activity. Activity codes included Caring for Child (instrumental care, interaction, supervision or discipline, helping or teaching, organized outings,

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outdoor play, other child care), Paid Work, Household Activity, Travel, Personal Care, Education/Training, Organizational Activities, Social Activity, Quiet Leisure. The activity codes yielded two summary variables, computed separately for weekdays and weekends: Instrumental Care consisted of the total amount of time per day that the mother engaged in instrumental care, supervision or discipline, and other child care with the study child as either primary or secondary activities. Social Interaction consisted of the total amount of time per day that the mother spent interacting, helping, or teaching, and being on organized outings with the study child as primary or secondary activities. The validity of short-term recall methods of time-use data collection has been demonstrated via comparison with a variety of other methods (Juster &Stafford, 1985; see Robinson, 1999). Within the NICHD data set, validity data were obtained at one of the sites by use of the Experience Sampling Method (Larson &Csikszentmihalyi, 1983) at 7 months of age for 48 families who were called 60 times over 4 weeks. The percentage of calls in which the mother was interacting with the child correlated at r = .56 with the total amount of mother-child interaction (instrumental care plus social interaction) assessed via the time-use calls. Quality of Interaction Sensitivity in the HOME. The Infant/Toddler Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME; Caldwell &Bradley, 1984) was administered during the 6-month home visit. The HOME is a semistructured interview/observational procedure in which a home visitor answers a set of binary questions based upon maternal response to specific queries and makes observations of materials in the home and the mother's behavior toward the child. Factor analysis of the items on the HOME yielded two relevant factor scores, Positive Involvement and Lack of Negativity. The former scale comprised six items assessing the extent to which the mother was positively responsive and affectionate to her infant during the home visit. The latter scale comprised five items measuring the extent to which the mother refrained from behaving in a negative manner toward her infant (e.g., shouting, spanking, annoyance, restriction) during the visit. The two scale scores were summed to produce a composite score for Sensitivity in the HOME. Child Outcomes The specific child outcomes were selected to broadly represent important areas of development at 15 months- cognition, language, social engagement, and attachment security. Bayley Mental Development Index. The Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI) (Bayley, 1969) is the most widely used measure of cognitive developmental status for children in the first 2 years of life. The assessment measures sensory perceptual acuity and discrimination; memory, learning, and problem solving; early verbal communication; and the ability to form generalizations and classifications. The MDI was administered in a laboratory playroom setting at 15 months of age by trained examiners. MacArthur Communication Development Inventory. The Communication Development Inventory (CDI) (Fenson, Dale, Reznick, Thai, &Reilly, 1991) assesses early language development via a 493-item inventory that was completed by the mothers when their children were 15 months old. The infant version of the CDI includes a 396- item vocabulary checklist on which the mother indicates which words her child uses and which words her child understands. Separate percentile scores for vocabulary production and vocabulary comprehension were computed.

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Child engagement. During a home visit, mothers were asked to have their infants play with ageappropriate toys in three containers in a set order for 15 minutes. Mother-infant interaction was videotaped, and the tapes from all sites were shipped to a central location for coding. A series of 4-point ratings was used to characterize the behaviors of the mothers and infants separately. Two of the ratings of child behavior--child engagement and positive mood-were summed to yield a child engagement composite. Cronbach's alpha for the composite at 15 months was .58, and reliability was .74. CONCLUSION In summary, our results indicate that among mothers whose infants were in 30 or more hours per week of child care, the "cost" in terms of reduced mother-infant interaction time was considerably less than expected, and the quality of mother-infant interaction did not appear to be affected by the amount of time spent apart. It is likely that these mothers attempted to compensate for time spent apart by focusing increased attention on their infants during the weekend, and this was especially true if the mother was concerned about her separation from the infant and the effects of her employment on the child. Fathers, as well, may have attempted to compensate for maternal employment hours by being more involved with their infants. Compared with prior maternal time-use studies, our investigation focused on a number of unique areas. Namely, we addressed psychological predictors of the quantity of time mothers spent interacting with their infants, the relation between quantity and quality of interaction, and the consequences for the infant's development of the quantity and quality of maternal care. Additionally, we identified the importance of considering weekday and weekend time separately. It is clear that the data in this report have provided a first step toward expanding the study of maternal time use, but it is also clear that the results have raised additional questions that can be answered only in the context of longitudinal in-depth research that includes more extensive time-use data and that includes both parents. Perhaps the most important of these questions is the extent to which the quantity of parent-child interaction is related to child outcomes over time and at older ages. Although time-use researchers have tended to assume that parents who spend a lot of time with their infants are providing high-quality parenting that will promote optimal development, our results suggest the need for careful consideration of the complex relations between the quantity of interaction, the quality of parenting, and child outcomes. Footnote NOTE Footnote The authors are investigators in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and acknowledge the generous support of their time by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (Grants HD25447, HD25456, HD27040, HD25451). The study is directed by a steering committee and supported by NICHD through a cooperative agreement (UlO) that calls for scientific collaboration between the grantees and the NICHD staff. The authors would like to thank the coinvestigators who worked with them on the design of the larger study, the site coordinators and research assistants who collected the data, and the families and teachers who continue to participate in this longitudinal study. References REFERENCES Ainsworth, M. D., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., &Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological References study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Baumrind, D. (1989). Rearing competent children. In W Damon (Ed.), Child development today and tomorrow (pp. 349-378). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Baydar, N., Greek, A., &Gritz, R. M. (1999). Young mothers' time spent at work and time spent caring for

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children. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 20, 61-84. References Bayley, N. (1969). Bayley Scales of Infant Development. New York: Psychological Corporation. Bianchi, S. M. (2000, March). Maternal employment and time with children: Dramatic change or surprising continuity? Presidential address at the meeting of the Population Association of America, Los Angeles, CA. Bradley, R. H., Whiteside-Mansell, L., Brisby, J. A., &Caldwell, B. M. (1997). Parents' socioemotional investment in children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 59, 77-90. References Brazelton, T B. (1986). Issues for working parents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 56, 14-25. Bryant, W. K. (1992). Human capital, time use, and other family behavior. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 13, 395-405. Bryant, W. K., &Zick, C. D. (1996). An examination of parent-child shared time. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 227-237. Caldwell, B. M., &Bradley, R. H. (1984). Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment. Little Rock: University of Arkansas at Little Rock. Clarke-Stewart, K. A., Gruber, C. P., &Fitzgerald, L. M. (1994). Children at home and in day care. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. De Wolff, M. S., &van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68, 571-591. Douthitt, R. A. (1989). The division of labor within the home: Have gender roles changed'? Sex Roles, 20, 693- 704. References Fagan, J. (1994). Correlates of maternal involvement in on-site and off-site day care centers. Child and Youth Care Forum, 23, 275-290. Fenson, L., Dale, P S., Reznick, J. S., Thai, D., &Reilly, J. S. (1991). Technical manual for MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories. San Diego, CA: San Diego State University. Greenberger, E., Goldberg, W., Crawford, T J., &Granger, J. (1988). Beliefs about the consequences of maternal employment for children. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 35-59. Hill, R. C., &Stafford, E P (1980). Parental care of children: Time diary estimates of quantity, predictability, and variety. Journal of Human Resources, 15, 219-239. References Hilton, J. M. (1990). Differences in allocation of family time spent on household tasks among single-parent, one- earner, and two-earner families. Lifestyles: Family and Economic Issues, 11, 283-298. Hochschild, A. (1989). The second shift: Working parents and the revolution at home. New York: Viking. Hock, E., Gnezda, M. T, &McBride, S. L. (1983). Mothers of infants: Attitudes toward employment and References motherhood following birth of the first child. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46, 425-431. Hofferth, S. L., Brayfield, A., Deich, S., &Holcomb, P (1991). National child care survey, 1990. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press. Juster, F T, &Stafford, F P (Eds.) (1985). Time, goods, and well-being. Ann Arbor, MI: Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research. Kelly, J. E, &Barnard, K. E. (2000). Assessment of parent-child interaction: Implications for early intervention. In J. P Shonkoff &S. J. Meisels (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (pp. 258289). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lamb, M. E. (1998). Nonparental child care: Context, quality, correlates. In W. Damon, I. E. Sigel, &K. A.

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Renninger (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 4, 5th ed., pp. 73-134). New York: Wiley. Larson, R., &Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1983). The experience sampling method. New Directions for Methodology of Social and Behavioral Science, 15, 4156. References NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (1997). The effects of infant child care on infant-mother attachment security: Results of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. Child Development, 68, 860-879. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (1999). Child care and mother-child interaction in the first three years of life. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1399-1413. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2000). Factors associated with fathers' caregiving activities and sensitivity with young children. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 200-219. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (in press). Parenting and family influences when children are in child care: Results from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. In J. G. Borkowski, S. Ramey, &M. Bristol-Power (Eds.), Parenting and the child's world: Influences on intellectual, academic, and social-emotional development. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Nock, S., &Kingston, P W. (1988). The division of leisure and work. Social Science Quarterly, 70, 2439. References Rachlin, V. C. (1987). Fair vs. equal role relations in dual-career and dual-earner families: Implications for family interventions. Journal of Applied Family and Child Studies, 36, 187-192. Robinson, J. P (1999). The time-diary method: Structure and uses. In W. E. Pentland, A. S. Harvey, M. P Lawton, &M. McColl (Eds.), Time use research in the social sciences (pp. 47-89). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Sanik, M. M. (1990). Parents' time use: A 1967-1986 comparison. Lifestyles, 11, 299-316. Thompson, R. A. (1998). Early sociopersonality development. In W. Damon &N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 3, 5th ed., pp. 25104). New York: Wiley. Walker, K. E., &Woods, M. E. (1976). Time use: A measure of household production of family goods and services. Washington, DC: Center for the Family of the American Home Economics Association. Weinraub, M., Jaeger, E., &Hoffman, L. (1988). Predicting infant outcome in families of employed and nonemployed mothers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 3, 361-378. AuthorAffiliation CATHERINE L. BOOTH University of Washington K. ALSION CLARKE-STEWART University of California-Irvine* DEBORAH LOWE VANDELL University of Wisconsin** KATHLEEN MCCARTNEY Harvard University*** MARGARET TRESCH OWEN University of Texas-Dallas**** AuthorAffiliation Department of Family &Child Nursing, University of Washington, CHDD 106 South Building, Box 357920, Seattle, WA 98195-7920 ([email protected]). AuthorAffiliation *Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California-Irvine, 3340 Social Ecology 11, Irvine, CA 92697-7085. **Department of Educational Psychology, University of Wisconsin, 1025 West Johnson Street, Room 467, Madison, WI 53706. AuthorAffiliation ***Harvard Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, 704 Larsen Hall, Appian Way, Cambridge, MA 02138. ****School of Human Development, University of Texas-- Dallas, P 0. Box 830688, Mail Station GR 41,

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Richardson, TX 75083-0688. Subject: Comparative studies; Mothers; Babies; Child care; Publication title: Journal of Marriage and Family Volume: 64 Issue: 1 Pages: 16-26 Number of pages: 11 Publication year: 2002 Publication date: Feb 2002 Year: 2002 Publisher: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Place of publication: Minneapolis Country of publication: United Kingdom Publication subject: Public Health And Safety, Matrimony, Education, Sociology, Children And Youth - About Source type: Scholarly Journals Language of publication: English Document type: Feature ProQuest document ID: 219764964 Document URL: http://nclive.org/cgi- bin/nclsm?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/219764964?accountid=11330 Copyright: Copyright National Council on Family Relations Feb 2002 Last updated: 2014-06-21 Database: ProQuest Central

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