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CHAPTER 14

Crisis Intervention and Prevention in Higher Education

Nathaniel Ivers

For many students, college and university campuses may be viewed as bastions against many of the ills and plights common to society—places where enlight- enment and transcendence occur unabated. Although such a vision of higher

education as sanctuaries nestled among manicured campuses appears idyllic and ideal, it does not recognize many realities faced by many students, staff, faculty, and administrators in these settings. For other students, they may have little time to enjoy campus communities and resources as they balance full-time work; family obligations; and the stresses of class attendance, homework, and the inevitable life stressors. These stressors are prevalent in college populations. In a recent study of more than 53,000 presenting concerns at college counseling centers, Pérez-Rojas et al. (2017) found that students listed their top concerns as anxiety, depression, stress, family issues, academic performance, relationship problems, self-esteem, adjust- ment, and sleep problems. Students, faculty, and staff at colleges and universities navigate these academic and vocational transitions and stresses while often facing incidents of bullying, sexual harassment, sexual assault, and physical violence.

Higher Education Settings and Contexts There are more than 4,500 college and university communities in the United States (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019) and nearly 20 million students en- rolled in these institutions in the fall of 2019. Given the unique campus contexts, student demographics, and institutional supports available in higher education settings, students, faculty, and staff may enjoy ready access to prevention resources and campus climates supportive of mental health needs. Other higher education systems may be woefully underfunded and unable to support their community

Introduction to Crisis and Trauma Counseling, edited by Thelma Duffey, and Shane Haberstroh, American Counseling Association, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/amridge/detail.action?docID=6173695. Created from amridge on 2024-03-30 02:36:04.

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during times of routine stresses and crises (Katz & Davison, 2014). For example, students attending community colleges had access to fewer mental health services when compared with peers at 4-year universities (Katz & Davison, 2014). They also presented with more pressing mental health concerns, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and substance use disorders (Katz & Davison, 2014), and reported lower frequencies of professional care for these concerns. Given that community college populations represent people who are first-generation students, are single parents, and have limited social economic resources, these students could benefit from extra support and targeted services from counselors and professionals in lo- cal communities (Kalkbrenner, Brown, Carlisle, & Carlisle, 2019). As you consider working with students in higher education settings, it is important to assess the availability of on-campus resources with a recognition that the programs may be limited. In this chapter, I explore crises and traumas in these myriad higher educa- tion contexts. I also discuss preventative measures and interventions that may be used to address these concerns.

Relational Foundations for Work in Higher Education Settings

I frame these crises and traumas experienced on college and university cam- puses from a relational-cultural lens. In Chapter 2, Jordan and Duffey provide a thorough and clear overview of the core principles of relational-cultural the- ory (RCT). I highlight a few principles salient to college and university cam- puses. RCT discusses the importance of authentic connection, recognizing that relationships continuously shift between connection and disconnection. College students, especially those in their first year of college and those who recently transferred colleges, can be particularly susceptible to feelings of disconnection as they attempt to create new friendships and social networks in their new set- ting. This sense of disconnection may contribute to loneliness, homesickness, and isolation.

Bullying in Higher Education A common image of bullying is that of elementary school children on a playground at recess being harassed, intimated, or physically attacked by one or more of their peers. However, bullying can happen at all ages and in every setting where people interact, including higher education settings. On college and university campuses, bullying takes many forms and can cause a great distress for those who are targets of such intimidation, harm, or coercion.

The Many Forms of Bullying on Campus

Bullying may occur between and among students, professors, staff, and ad- ministrators. It can rise on an individual level, such as when an administrator intimidates or coerces a faculty member, or it can occur on an organizational level, such as when faculty members within a department intimidate, harm, or attempt to coerce members of another department. Bullying can occur between individuals sharing similar levels of power and prestige (e.g., assistant profes-

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sor to assistant professor, sophomore student to sophomore student, depart- ment chair to department chair) as well as between individuals in which a clear power differential exists (e.g., professor to student; wealthy, popular student to poor, unpopular student). See Sidebar 14.1 for information on bullying in higher education.

Bullying can take many diverse forms, including overt and covert bullying; di- rect and indirect bullying; on-ground and online bullying; and physical, psycho- logical, and social bullying. Overt bullying can be physical, verbal, or social, such as hitting, kicking, name calling, or deliberately excluding others. Covert bullying in- cludes subtle acts of aggression or intimidation, which may take many forms, such as nonverbal gestures, threatening looks, gossiping, divulging secrets or private information, furtive attempts to exclude or isolate, and microaggressions (Lloyd- Hazlett, Pow, & Duffey, 2016). Direct bullying consists of intimidation that occurs directly between the aggressor and the target, whereas indirect bullying involves multiple people, usually to harm another person’s reputation, exclude him or her from social groups, and damage his or her sense of self-worth. On-ground bullying involves subtle or overt acts that occur in person. Cyberbullying (or online bullying) involves the use of electronic devices to harm others and can take many forms. Some common experiences, according to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2018, para. 1), include the following:

1. Posting comments or rumors about someone online that are mean, hurtful, or embarrassing

2. Threatening to hurt someone or telling them to kill themselves 3. Posting a mean or hurtful picture or video 4. Pretending to be someone else online to solicit or post personal or false infor-

mation about someone else 5. Posting mean or hateful names, comments, or content about any race, reli-

gion, ethnicity, or other personal characteristics online 6. Creating a mean or hurtful webpage about someone 7. Doxing, an abbreviated form of the word documents, is a form of online ha-

rassment used to exact revenge and to threaten and destroy the privacy of individuals by making their personal information public, including address- es; social security, credit card, and phone numbers; links to social media ac- counts; and other private data

Sidebar 14.1 • Bullying in Higher Education Have you ever thought about the bullying experience in higher education? There are several power dynamics at work within a university setting. This chapter talks about some of them (e.g., professor vs. student, department chair vs. professor, supervisor vs. supervisee). Most individuals in universities or community colleges are striving for academic success; however, bullying behaviors occur. How do you navigate the system? Are there times when you have seen (or experienced) bullying in higher education?

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Physical bullying involves acts of violence toward another person, such as push- ing, punching, or kicking. Psychological bullying, also called verbal bullying, includes name calling and using threatening remarks. Relational bullying (or social bullying) includes attempts to sully individuals’ reputations, rupture their relationships, ex- clude them from social situations, and isolate them (Chester, Spencer, Whiting, & Brooks, 2017).

Frequency and Consequences of Bullying

Limited studies have provided some insight into the frequency of bullying in high- er education settings. Chappell et al. (2004) sampled 1,025 undergraduate students and reported that 25% witnessed on occasion a student bullying another student, 5% had occasionally been bullied by a fellow student, 13% witnessed an instruc- tor bully a student, and 4% reported that they had been bullied by an instructor. Although cyberbullying was occurring when the aforementioned study was pub- lished, access to and use of electronic devices to communicate have proliferated greatly since 2004. Exploring bullying in online settings, MacDonald and Roberts- Pittman (2010) surveyed 439 college students and found that 38% knew someone who was cyberbullied, 22% were targets of cyberbullying, and 8.6% engaged in cyberbullying themselves. The most prevalent media forms used to bully online were social media networks, followed by text messages, email, instant messaging, chat rooms, and websites.

Consequences of bullying for students on college campuses may include low academic motivation and success, feelings of anxiety and depression, relational difficulties (e.g., inhibition, shyness in intimate relationships), alcohol and drug abuse, aggressiveness, nonsuicidal self-injury, and suicidal thoughts and behav- iors (Young-Jones, Fursa, Byrket, & Sly, 2015). Bullied university employees expe- rience lower productivity, psychological pain, loneliness, and job resignation (Hol- lis, 2015). Employees of color and sexual minorities may be particularly vulnerable to persistent acts of harassment, intimidation, and threats. These may be overt acts, such as disrespectful hand gestures and racial epithets, or covert acts, such as microaggressions. It is important to note as well that bullying on college campuses is not always a unidirectional process from individuals with more power bullying those with less power. Bullying also may occur in the other direction, particularly with faculty of color, such as when students group together to harass or intimidate the professor.

Bullying on college campuses, although similar in many respects to bullying in other settings, may have some important differences to consider. First, in contrast to elementary and secondary school settings, college instructors may be less at- tuned to classroom management issues, particularly interpersonal dynamics be- tween and among students. Moreover, for some students, it is the first time they have been away from home for an extended period of time. They may have fewer supports and opportunities to nurture their relational resilience (Jordan, 2018) as they face overt and subtle forms of bullying in a new and unfamiliar context. Ad- ditionally, when bullied by a roommate, people may feel trapped in an abusive relational living situation.

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Sexual Harassment Sexual harassment permeates the social context on many higher education cam- puses (Wood, Hoefer, Kammer-Kerwick, Parra-Cardona, & Busch-Armendariz, 2018). Although it has been prevalent for years, it has received heightened atten- tion in the last few years because of the Me Too Movement. The toxicity of sexual harassment can sap relational and cognitive reserves and lead to impaired aca- demic performance, isolation, and increases in the use of alcohol and other sub- stances (Wood et al., 2018). College faculty, staff, and administrators also can be targets of sexual harassment, which can create an unsafe and hostile work envi- ronment, resulting in lower work satisfaction, decreased productivity, increased distress, and higher employee turnover. Inappropriate or negligent responses by institutions relative to sexual harassment claims also may have legal and accredi- tation ramifications.

The most common form of sexual harassment is sexual remarks, such as sexu- ally implicit or explicit comments about a person’s appearance or vulgar sexual jokes (Yoon, Stiller Funk, & Kropf, 2010). Excessive, unsolicited touching, such as the touching or rubbing of a person’s shoulders, also is a commonly reported form of sexual harassment. Another form of sexual harassment on college cam- puses is quid pro quo harassment (Smith, 2015). In quid pro quo sexual harassment, harassed individuals receive pressure from an individual with evaluative pow- ers over them to engage in sexual behaviors in exchange for some benefit. A com- mon example is a professor giving a student a desired grade on an assignment or in a class in exchange for a sexual activity. For staff and faculty members, super- visors may provide the opportunity for promotion or advancement in exchange for sexual favors.

Up-to-date information is sparse regarding the prevalence of sexual harassment on college campus. However, in 2005, Hill and Silva conducted a study with male and female undergraduates. Results revealed that 62% of female undergraduates and 61% of male undergraduates experienced one or more forms of sexual ha- rassment during college. Moreover, 41% of women and 36% of men experienced sexual harassment in their first year of college. College students are more likely to be harassed by their peers (Cantor et al., 2015), although faculty to student sexual harassment also occurs, as well as work supervisor to student harassment (Wolff, Rospenda, & Colaneri, 2017). In addition, women, sexual minorities, individuals working in low-paying and entry-level jobs, and younger students are more likely to be sexually harassed than men, heterosexual people, individuals employed in professional positions, and older students (Wolff et al., 2017). See Sidebar 14.2 for information on sexual harassment on campus.

Sidebar 14.2 • Sexual Harassment on Campus For some students, living in on-campus housing is their first experience in being away from home. Sexual harassment may be the last thing they expect to happen to them. However, sexual harassment can happen anywhere and anytime. How would you support students in these instances?

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The backdrop of the college experience may contribute to undergraduate stu- dents’ susceptibility to sexual harassment. People newly graduated from high school come together and interact, largely without supervision. Many may con- sume alcohol during social interactions, which may increase the “opportunity for and occurrence of sexual harassment and assault” (Wolff et al., 2017, p. 362). Work- ing college students may be particularly susceptible to sexual harassment because they often work in entry-level, low-paying jobs in which they have little influence or power. The hierarchical nature of higher education also may create an environ- ment in which sexual harassment can thrive (Wolff et al., 2017).

Sexual Assault Sexual assault is also pervasive on college campuses and, like sexual harassment, has received a great deal of recent attention. Sexual assault is defined by a range of nonconsensual behaviors, from touch to rape (Neilson et al., 2018). Recent sta- tistics of sexual assault on college campuses indicate that 11.2% of undergraduate and graduate students experience sexual assault. For undergraduate students spe- cifically, 23.1% of female students and 5.4% of male students are raped or sexually assaulted. Female and male college-age students (ages 18–24) are 78% and 20%, respectively, more likely to be the victims of sexual assault compared with nonstu- dents of the same age. In addition, 21% of college students who identify as trans- gender, genderqueer, and nonconforming have experienced sexual assault (Rape, Abuse, and Incest National Network [RAINN], 2019).

Sexual violence is more prevalent on college campuses than other types of crime, such as robberies. In fact, for every robbery on college campuses, there are two sexual assaults. College student survivors of sexual violence often do not report the offense to law enforcement. Approximately 20% of female students, compared with 32% of nonstudent females who are the same age, report sexual violence to law enforcement. Reasons given for not reporting sexual violence, in order of most frequent, include un- disclosed reasons, the belief that the event was a personal matter, fear of retaliation, the belief that the event was not sufficiently significant as to warrant a report, not wanting the perpetrator to get in trouble, the belief that police are unwilling or unable to be helpful, and the report was given but not to law enforcement (RAINN, 2019).

People who were sexually assaulted may experience anxiety, depression, dis- sociation, eating disorders, sleep disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or other mental health issues. People also may experience relationship difficulties as well as an increased likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors, such as exces- sive alcohol consumption, drug use, self-harm behaviors, and suicide. Survivors of sexual assault also may struggle academically. Although the effects of sexual assault can be serious and debilitating, it is important to note the strengths of sur- vivors, encourage relational resiliency, and understand that not all survivors of sexual assault experience PTSD or other mental health disorders (Bryant-Davis, Ullman, Tsong, & Gobin, 2011).

Title IX, established as part of the Education Amendments of 1972, requires that all educational institutions that receive federal funding respond to and correct all forms of discrimination in educational settings, which includes sexual offenses. This means that institutions are responsible for stopping the discrimination, in- cluding sexually inappropriate behavior, putting into place mechanisms to pre-

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vent the behavior from reoccurring and addressing the negative effects of the dis- crimination. Title IX protects students, staff, faculty, and administrators against sexual harassment, gender-based discrimination, discrimination against pregnant women and parenting students, and sexual assault (Wood et al., 2018).

Other laws that protect students against sexual assault on college campuses in- clude the Clery Act of 1990, the Campus Sexual Violence Elimination Act of 2013 (Campus SaVE), and campus climate surveys (Richards, 2016; Wood et al., 2018). The Clery Act is a federal law that overlaps with Title IX. It was named after Jeanne Clery, a student who was raped and murdered on a university campus in 1986. Following their daughter’s murder, Jeanne Clery’s parents lobbied the govern- ment to require schools to provide vital information about campus safety to stu- dents and employees. The act is aimed at promoting awareness of campus crimes by requiring higher education settings to report crime statistics on campus, alert members of the campus community about potential dangers, and publish annu- ally a campus security report that is to be shared with current and prospective students as well as employees of the university (Wood et al., 2018).

Campus SaVE is a 2013 provision of the Clery Act. It states that domestic vio- lence and stalking must also be incorporated into campus security reports. Like Title IX and the Clery Act, Campus SaVE applies to all educational institutions that receive financial aid. Under this act, higher education institutions must keep records of dating violence, sexual assault, domestic violence, and stalking on cam- pus. Colleges and universities also must ensure that victims of violence receive appropriate protections and accommodations. These accommodations and pro- tections must be granted even when a survivor does not report the offense to law enforcement. Examples of accommodations may include helping survivors find a new place of residence, different transportation options, a new academic class schedule, and different work situations. Institutions must also ensure that victims are aware of and know how to access supportive services on campus, such as health care, mental health counseling, and legal assistance.

Campus climate surveys, along with providing information about students’ general beliefs and attitudes of campus, provide information about sexual assault and campus violence. These surveys are important because they allow colleges and universities to understand the unique factors that contribute to safety or sex- ual violence on their campuses. The U.S. Department of Justice, Office on Violence Against Women (2016) has provided recommendations for best practices to im- prove the utility of these surveys. These practices include ensuring confidentiality, developing action plans with long-term goals, making the surveys accessible to electronic devices such as tablets and smartphones, providing incentives for par- ticipating in the survey, and developing questions in the survey that allow for the collection of specific data related to sexual violence on campus.

Violence in Higher Education Settings Violent acts such as mass shootings or intimate partner violence (IPV) occur on college campuses and can cause significant emotional, physical, and psychological distress. These events also can greatly affect individuals’ sense of and actual safety, security, and connection to others. In this section, I discuss IPV, also called dating violence or domestic violence, as well as indiscriminate mass shootings.

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Interpersonal Violence

People who inflict IPV may threaten, demean, or control their partners. They may also engage in physical or sexual harm. It is more common among college couples than it is with any other group (Karakurt, Keiley, & Posada, 2013), with the preva- lence of IPV on college campuses being between 21% and 32% (National Coalition Against Domestic Violence, 2016). The physical effects of IPV can range greatly and may include such injuries as bumps, bruises, headaches, broken bones, chronic pain, and death (Anasuri, 2016). Psychological effects of IPV may include depres- sion, anxiety, PTSD, and attachment issues (Sutherland, Fantasia, & Hutchinson, 2016). In addition, IPV victims may engage in self-injury, withdraw from others, and experience suicidal thoughts. They may also engage in smoking, risky alcohol behavior, using drugs, and risky sexual behaviors (Anasuri, 2016; Hays, Michel, Bayne, Neuer Colburn, & Smith Myers, 2015). People with few peer supports are more likely to remain in unhealthy relationships. Reasons why people engage in IPV against their partners are multilayered and complex. However, alcohol and drug intoxication are correlated with IPV, although not necessarily the causes of it. Moreover, unhealthy attachments in childhood, as well as fear of abandonment, may contribute to IPV behaviors (Anasuri, 2016).

Mass Shootings

The term mass shooting has been defined in various ways by different organiza- tions. The Federal Bureau of Investigation defined it as an incident in which four or more people are killed during one event or in multiple places that are in close proximity of each other (Krouse & Richardson, 2015). In 1966, at the Uni- versity of Texas, a gunman shot at individuals indiscriminately for 96 minutes from the observation deck of a tower, killing 14 people on campus and wound- ing 31 others (Neuberger, 2016). This shooter had shot and killed his wife and mother the night before. Forty years later, at Virginia Tech University, a gunman killed 32 students and faculty members and injured another 17 individuals in a classroom and dorms (Hong, Cho, & Lee, 2010). Rampage shootings, which may also be classified as mass shootings, take place on school premises or at functions connected with a school. They are carried out by a current or former student or employee. In these events, the shooters target specific students, staff, or fac- ulty members because of some type of symbolic significance these individuals have to the shooters (Newman & Fox, 2009). Between 2002 and 2008, there were five rampage shootings that occurred on college campuses in the United States (Newman & Fox, 2009).

Prevention and Intervention Strategies Strategies that institutions of higher education can use to prevent and intervene in crisis situations will vary on the basis of the crisis under consideration. However, what is important is that colleges and universities develop strategic and compre- hensive initiatives that focus on both prevention and treatment. In this section, I discuss preventative approaches and interventions that universities may con- sider related to bullying, sexual harassment, sexual assault, IPV, and other forms of physical violence.

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Bullying Prevention

Bullying is underemphasized on university and college campuses. Bullying on university campuses, compared with elementary and secondary school campus- es, is frequently complex, indirect, and subtle, making it more difficult to observe and treat compared with bullying occurring in elementary and secondary school settings. Given that bullying on campuses involves adult-to-adult interactions, these power-over dynamics can threaten academic achievement and career pro- gressions and can profoundly undermine the learning process. Many schools lack clear policies, definition, and sources for support to help people find relief from this form of abuse (American Educational Research Association, 2013).

Individual and organizational preventative measures can be used to curtail bul- lying on college campuses. On the individual level, students, staff, and faculty may consider the following recommendations:

1. Talk with a trusted friend, family member, or mentor about the threatening, intimidating, or coercive behavior.

2. If the threatening behavior is from a roommate, consider discussing concerns with a resident adviser or a residence life official.

3. Consult a Title IX officer if the behavior is discriminatory or may be consid- ered sexual harassment.

4. If the behavior is cyberbullying, consider ways to reduce exposure to the behavior, such as temporarily suspending social media sites, increasing pri- vacy settings on these sites, or reporting the offensive and inappropriate behavior to the social media sites. If the cyberbullying is occurring via cell phone, consider blocking the phone number.

5. Consult a counselor to process the emotional and psychological effects of the bullying as well as to discuss and possibly role play helpful methods of responding to the bullying.

6. If the behavior is illegal, consider reporting it to law enforcement. 7. If the behavior is between employees at the university, the target of the bul-

lying should consider contacting human resources for support.

On the organizational level, the following recommendations may be helpful:

1. Consider the hierarchical structure and power imbalances of the institution as a whole and of individual programs and departments. Discuss ways to reduce in- stitutional injustices that may advantage some individuals or groups over others.

2. Ensure that intimidating, threatening, and coercive behavior is clearly ad- dressed in policies and procedures at the university and that violations of such conduct will not be tolerated.

3. Develop safe and simple strategies for students and employees to reach out for assistance should they experience bullying.

4. Provide periodic trainings on bullying for students, faculty, staff, and ad- ministrators that explicitly address diverse forms of bullying and ways to intervene should it be observed.

5. Initiate an antibullying campaign on campus that sheds light on its diverse forms and provides recommendations for creating a culture in which bully- ing is not supported (Everfi, 2019).

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Prevention and Intervention Strategies for Sexual Harassment and Sexual Assault

Prevention and intervention strategies for sexual harassment and sexual assault share some commonalities with those of bullying. However, there are additional campus resources available for bullying that takes the form of sexual harassment or sexual assault. First, the Title IX office is available to students, staff, and faculty who experience gender-based discrimination, of which sexual harassment and sexual assault are an important part. The Title IX coordinator can help the individ- ual determine whether the behavior constitutes sexual harassment and help the individual connect to helpful resources, such as the counseling center or human resources. The Title IX coordinator will also help survivors of sexual assault reach out to and connect with campus and community resources, such as law enforce- ment, legal representation, health care workers, and mental health counselors. The Clery Act also requires that colleges and universities report crime statistics, includ- ing sexual assaults, annually to prospective and future students as well as campus employees. These reports not only help individuals know what crimes are being committed on or around campus but also give campus leaders important informa- tion on which policies and procedures to develop to make campuses safer. The fol- lowing recommendations can help institutional leaders reduce sexual harassment and sexual assaults on university campuses:

1. Raise awareness of the problem and provide education on what constitutes consent. The Me Too Movement has greatly increased the collective aware- ness of sexual harassment and sexual assault, but the education needs to continue. Awareness campaigns tied to Sexual Assault Awareness Month can help, but it is important to raise awareness throughout the year. In fact, the peak times for sexual assault on college campuses is between August and November of each year (RAINN, 2019), whereas Sexual Assault Awareness Month occurs in April.

2. Know the resources available to survivors of sexual harassment and sexual assault as well as to allies and supporters. A few helpful resources include the following: a. Culture of Respect (https://cultureofrespect.org/)—this organization is

dedicated to reducing sexual violence in higher education settings. b. It’s On Us (https://www.itsonus.org/)—this national movement is dedi-

cated to eliminating sexual violence. c. National Sexual Violence Resource Center (https://www.nsvrc.org/)—

this center provides resources and education to help survivors of sexual assault.

d. RAINN (https://www.rainn.org/)—among other things, this website provides a 24/7 online hotline, safety and prevention tips, as well as warning signs for students and loved ones.

e. SAFER (http://safercampus.org/)—this group is dedicated to helping student organizations combat sexual violence on university campuses.

3. Consider a comprehensive approach to preventing sexual violence on cam- pus, such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Compre- hensive Campus-Based Prevention Strategy (Dills, Fowler, & Payne, 2016).

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https://cultureofrespect.org/

https://www.itsonus.org/

https://www.nsvrc.org/

https://www.rainn.org/

http://safercampus.org/

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In this model, preventative approaches are considered from all levels of a social-ecological model, including the individual, relationship, community, and societal levels. For example, on the individual level, approaches include helping students develop healthy interpersonal and relationship skills and educating them on appropriate attitudes and beliefs about gender, sex, and violence. On this level, a multisession intervention for incoming students also is recommended. On the community level, campus leaders are engaged to promote a culture of respect and safety. At this level, hot spot mapping occurs to identify areas on campus that may be unsafe (Dills et al., 2016).

Strategies Addressing IPV

Much of the information related to sexual violence provided earlier can be trans- lated to physical violence. It is important that a comprehensive approach that in- cludes preventative measures and interventions be implemented at all social and ecological levels. Title IX coordinators are important resources on IPV because they can help survivors tap into resources to keep them safe as well as to help them deal with the potential psychological and social effects of the violence.

Preventing and Responding to Mass Shootings on Campus

The recent shooting at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte where two people were murdered is another stark reminder that university settings are not immune to senseless acts of violence. Because of that shooting and others, campus leaders on many college campuses worked to develop strategies for dealing with rampage shootings and mass shootings. Regarding prevention, it is important that university faculty and staff be trained in recognizing signs that people are in crisis and ways to compassionately respond to them. In the event of an active shooting, it is important that individuals consider safety options, such as knowing where exits are in their classrooms or buildings as well as determining appropriate steps such as fleeing, hiding, or fighting. See Sidebar 14.3 for information on campus safety.

Emergency Operations in Higher Education In 2013, the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, Office of Safe and Healthy Students published guidelines for developing emergency and crisis response protocols and systems for institutes of higher education. The first step to prepare for emergencies and crises on campuses

Sidebar 14.3 • Campus Safety Mass shootings may be debilitating for students, staff, professors, and college counselors. Just as college students may not think about violence or other traumatic events happening on their campus, college counselors may not either. However, it is important that college counselors remain knowledgeable about the campus safety plan, examine their campuses and learn the most effective method for escape, identify the safety annexes on campus, and provide psychological first aid when needed.

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is to develop a threat assessment team composed of representatives from various departments and programs within the institution. Given that the scope of a campus emergency may include destabilization related to academic, legal, psychosocial, public health, infrastructure, transportation, and housing sections, this team provides buy-in and representation from individuals representing these areas.

Once assembled, this team develops a comprehensive plan to assess potential threats, risks, and annexes for campus community members to shelter in place or receive care; the team then develops lockdown protocols and plans to maintain com- munications and operations and to account for community members. Next, the col- laborative planning team develops training protocols to disseminate this informa- tion to relevant stakeholders. Once implemented, the campus safety and emergency response team follows up and modifies the campus safety plans as new hazards emerge or become prioritized. The team also reviews processes used during drills and actual crisis and emergency situations (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, Office of Safe and Healthy Students, 2013).

Conducting Threat Assessments To learn of a campus community member or other person who threatens violence to themselves or others can be a frightening situation. In that moment, you will need to conduct a threat assessment, involve other entities as needed, and determine immediate and short-term safety issues. Van Brunt (2015) described the various methods in which threats are made on campuses. For example, leakage can occur during an intake session or counseling session with a client. The client may share plans to hurt others. In other instances of leakage, students may become concerned about a peer’s text messages or social media content. Van Brunt has contended that many violent acts toward others are often premeditated, and when this information leaks to others, a potentially dangerous situation can be prevented from occurring.

Determining the lethality and potential of a threatening comment, or indirect behavior, can seem elusive in some instances. Some people may use threatening language as a form of catharsis or emotional processing but will not actually fol- low through with their thoughts and feelings (Van Brunt, 2015). Others, however, do initiate their attacks and may follow a process in which they justify to them- selves the need for violence following a perceived grievance. Van Brunt (2015) has outlined the pathway to violence that perpetrators often take, beginning with a perceived grievance and ideation, as noted earlier. After a person has convinced themselves of the need to act out, they begin to plan their retribution and seek out the means to do so. In the actual act of violence, these perpetrators may attempt to circumvent procedures and physical contexts that keep people safe. They then attack in these vulnerable spaces (Van Brunt, 2015). When working with students and others expressing violent ideation, we can work with the behavioral and cri- sis response teams on campus to assess the severity of an individual’s threats to others and the campus community. We then work with people in counseling who have been targeted and hurt by those with malintent and violent actions using strategies discussed in Chapters 5 and 6.

Counseling Approaches for Students Experiencing Crisis or Trauma

Several counseling approaches may help students or campus employees who expe- rienced crises and abuse. Using a biopsychosocial framework may be particularly

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helpful because it allows counselors to consider clients’ presentation from multiple perspectives. With many of these crises, biological, psychological, and sociocultur- al effects are operative. Cognitive-behavioral approaches also may be helpful for individuals whose experiences have caused behavioral excesses or deficits as well as cognitive distortions associated with themselves and others. Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy may be indicated for individuals who exhibit symp- toms of PTSD (Cohen, Deblinger, & Mannarino, 2018). Narrative therapy, which focuses on clients’ strengths and resources as well as a constructivist approach to understanding situations, also may be helpful because it empowers individuals to rewrite their narrative, or their way of viewing and responding to situations (Den- borough, 2014). Humanistic-existential approaches also could be valuable because they can help individuals consider ways to increase their internal locus of control as well as process existential meanings that they have derived from their situations (Schneider, 2016). Most important, when working with college students or college employees who are experiencing or have experienced crises, it is important that counselors work diligently to develop a strong therapeutic alliance that is built on trust, nonjudgment, authenticity, and mutual empathy. The therapeutic relation- ship will be essential to the healing process, especially for individuals who were hurt by trusted peers, mentors, or supervisors.

According to RCT, relational connections enhance resilience, which can facili- tate healing and growth. Discussing relational and controlling images can help people process how they view themselves in relationship with others and within a sociocultural context. An authentic and mutually empathic relationship can be a grounding, orienting, and corrective experience for clients. Many people enter the counseling space with controlling and negative relational images associated with the traumas they have experienced. Our emphasis on empowerment brings truth and connection in disempowering relationships with peers, roommates, intimate partners, mentors, or individuals in positions of authority and trust.

Case Example and Applications for Hope and Healing

Maria is in her sophomore year of college and is hoping to be accepted into the engi- neering program. Maria identifies as Hispanic and heterosexual. Her parents are first- generation U.S. citizens, having immigrated to the United States as adults from Chile.

Six months ago, Maria began seeing a counselor at the college counseling center. Her initial presenting concern was roommate and friendship difficulties. How- ever, after a few months of meeting, Maria disclosed that she was in an unhealthy, intimate relationship with a fellow student. After some gentle probing questions from the counselor, Maria shared that her boyfriend, Martin, would yell at her when he perceived that she was “overly friendly” or “flirtatious” with other men. She also shared that Martin pushed her and threatened to hit her recently. After Maria expressed her thoughts and feelings about the relationship, the counselor gently asked Maria how she would like to proceed in the relationship. She an- swered that she would like to end the relationship but that she was too afraid. She said she cares about Martin and worries that, if she breaks up with him, he will hurt himself or try to hurt her.

The counselor expressed empathy for Maria’s situation and provided her with resources, including helplines she can call and online information related to IPV.

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The counselor also shared with her legal recourses she could take, such as getting a restraining order against him. The counselor also introduced Maria to the Title IX office on campus and noted that the office was available to help students navigate situations similar to hers.

After a few additional weeks, Maria reported that she was still dating Mar- tin and that he again pushed her, this time knocking her to the ground. She also shared that, on a different occasion, he had not stopped touching her and trying to kiss her, although she told him she was not in the mood for physical contact. She said that it had not been the first time that he had pressured her to engage in sexual activities after she had said no. Maria also reported that her grades were slipping and that she was feeling more and more isolated, depressed, and anxious.

In the following session, Maria presented as agitated and fatigued, and she re- ported that she had broken off the relationship with Martin. She reported feeling a wide variety of emotions, ranging from sadness, depression, and anxiety to relief, embarrassment, shame, and exhaustion. The counselor asked Maria whether she felt safe, to which she answered that she did. She said that she had blocked Mar- tin’s phone number so that she would not receive any more harassing text mes- sages and that she had unfriended him on her social media sites. She also said that she had talked with the Title IX coordinator, as suggested by the counselor, but did not want to file a report of sexual assault because she did not want to harm Martin.

The principal concern in Maria’s situation was the abuse she experienced in re- lationship to her boyfriend, Martin, in which he verbally, physically, and sexually assaulted her. Although Maria’s desire was to end the relationship, she struggled with fear that Martin would hurt himself or exact reprisal on her. As the relation- ship continued, Maria’s sense of self-worth, mood, and academic performance dwindled. Moreover, because of the abuse, Maria was unable to be fully authentic in her relationship with Martin, or with others, for fear that she might upset him.

I also sensed this pulling away at times, as Maria appeared guarded and selec- tive at times with the feelings and information she would share in session. As Ma- ria’s relationship with Martin became increasingly abusive, she struggled with the idea that she was to blame for his anger and violent behavior. She grappled with controlling images she had learned about women’s roles in relationships. More- over, as her support network became smaller, she began to feel increased isolation.

In counseling, we cultivated a relationship of trust, mutual empathy, empower- ment, and authenticity. This relationship contrasted the painful relationship she experienced with Martin. Through our relationship, we explored the relational images she had about herself. She considered ending the relationship with Martin. We discussed resources related to IPV, which helped her consider new perspec- tives. Following the breakup, Maria began to reconnect with friendships she had neglected and developed new friendships that would empower and strengthen her. I also periodically checked in with Maria to assess her sense of safety, and we brainstormed strategies she could use to remain safe.

Future Directions and Emerging Research Many crises and traumatic events occur on college and university campuses, includ- ing bullying, sexual harassment, sexual assault, IPV, and other acts of violence. For each of these concerns, a comprehensive response, reflective of work proposed by

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Dills et al. (2016) for sexual violence, is needed. In that model, specific preventions and interventions associated with social and ecological levels, including the individual, relationship, community, and societal levels, are listed and addressed in counseling.

Much of the research and resources on bullying focus on elementary and sec- ondary school settings or work settings. Research on bullying at colleges and universities is sparse, notwithstanding the unique aspects of bullying in higher education settings. More research exists related to sexual harassment on campus, but much of that research combines sexual harassment with sexual assault. Al- though a correlation exists between the two concepts, clear differences also exist. A vast amount of research and resources are available related to sexual violence, including sexual assaults and rape on college campuses. However, because of the high prevalence of sexual violence on campuses, more research needs to be done that will facilitate the development of more effective preventative approaches and intervention models. Research regarding interpersonal violence on college cam- puses is strong, but more information is needed to counteract the high prevalence of IPV for couples in higher education settings. Lastly, in the age of mass shootings and rampage shootings, research is sorely needed to better understand how to identify individuals in crisis who may be susceptible to acts of violence. Moreover, additional knowledge needs to be developed and trainings done on how individu- als can protect themselves and others in active-shooter events.

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Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Bullying occurs with

a. K–12 students. b. Staff and administers. c. Faculty members. d. All of the above

2. Covert bullying can be a. Nonverbal gestures. b. Gossiping. c. Excluding people. d. All of the above

3. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2018), cy- berbullying does not include a. Posting rumors about someone. b. Posting mean pictures of someone. c. Asking others to join in a group. d. Posting a mean comment on a webpage about someone.

4. What type of bullying focuses on excluding others from social situations? a. Relational bullying b. Physical bullying c. Violence d. Excluding bullying

5. Chappell et al. (2004) reported that _____ of 1,025 undergraduate students witnessed bullying. a. 10% b. 80% c. 25% d. 2%

6. What is the most common form of sexual harassment? a. Sexual assault b. Sexual remarks c. Small talk d. Quid pro quo

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7. _____ female and _____ male undergraduate students experience one or more forms of sexual harassment during college. a. 50%, 50% b. 62%, 61% c. 30%, 20% d. 85%, 5%

8. Female undergraduate students are _____ more likely to experience sexual assault when compared with nonstudents. a. 20% b. 50% c. 3% d. 78%

9. What is a reason, according to the Rape, Abuse, and Incest National Network (RAINN), for a student to not report sexual assault? a. Belief that the event was a personal matter b. Memory loss c. Grades d. Society

10. The Clery Act requires schools to a. Provide students and employees with classes. b. Provide students and employees with information about campus safety. c. Accept all students. d. Provide grants to students.

11. A 2013 provision of the Clery Act is known as the a. Campus Sexual Violence Elimination Act. b. Campus Awareness Project. c. Violence Elimination Project. d. None of the above

12. The prevalence of IPV on college campuses is a. Highly reported. b. Underreported. c. Unfairly reported. d. Never reported.

13. What is correlated with IPV, although not necessarily the cause of it? a. Anxiety b. Alcohol and drug intoxication c. Depression d. All of the above

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14. Which office on a college campus can help a student determine whether a behavior is sexual harassment? a. Title IX b. Title X c. Office of Violence d. Campus Title IV

15. What is/are courses of action that a university can take to reduce sexual assault? a. Raise awareness about the problem. b. Know the resources available to survivors of sexual assault. c. Visit www.itsonus.org. d. All of the above

Essay Questions 1. If you were a counselor on a campus, how would you work with a student

that confided in you about sexual harassment?

2. In this chapter, you learned about Title IX, the Clery Act, and Campus SaVE. Were you aware of these responses to sexual harassment? How do you feel your university does at educating students about their rights?

3. Creating a supportive and inclusive university setting is no easy feat. Students, staff, and professors all come from different backgrounds and worldviews. If you were a university president, how might you create change and promote a safe environment for the university community?

4. After reading this chapter, what are your thoughts or feelings about the vio- lence and harassment that can take place in higher education settings? Do you know of peers who experienced bullying or harassment of some kind? If so, how did the university respond?

5. Many students do not report sexual harassment. The chapter gives some rea- sons as to why this is. What other factors do you think can lead to a student deciding not to report?

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