Chapter 2

As the middle-grade classroom becomes more culturally and linguistically diverse, studies on practices that promote student engagement have become increasingly critical (Ladson-Billings, 2021). Teaching practices that facilitate student engagement go beyond providing information and materials to include interactions with students and consideration of their identities and backgrounds in instruction (Gay, 2021; Hammond, 2021). Student engagement, in turn, has been conceptualized as a multidimensional construct that includes a student’s behavioral, emotional, and cognitive response to relationships in the classroom, relevance, and belonging (Fredricks et al., 2023). Each of these areas has been shown to be particularly salient in middle-grade education, as students begin to grapple with questions of identity, navigate complex social groups, and seek a sense of belonging (Byrd, 2019; Wang et al., 2020). Therefore, this literature review aims to provide an integrated synthesis of the research on culturally responsive teaching and student engagement by combining the findings, theories, and methodologies of prior works rather than treating them as individual studies (Booth et al., 2021; Snyder, 2019). While much research has centered on culturally responsive pedagogy as a potential solution to the challenges of teaching diverse middle-grade classrooms, most have focused on theoretical underpinnings and teacher perspectives, leaving teaching practices and student experiences understudied (Anyichie et al., 2023; Franco et al., 2024). Thus, this literature review will serve as a foundation for the study by providing theoretical and conceptual background while also identifying the research gap that the proposed study will address.

A theoretical framework is an integral component of a study, as it helps situate the phenomenon of research within the scholarly context and ensures that the research questions, analysis, and conclusions align with the existing knowledge. It guides the interpretation of findings, provides a conceptual basis for the study, and connects the new research to the broader academic field while preventing theoretical or ideological biases (Mertler, 2024). Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP) has been selected as the primary theoretical framework of this study because it provides a comprehensive understanding of how culturally responsive instruction promotes student engagement while advancing equity by taking into account students’ diverse cultural backgrounds and worldviews (Ladson-Billings, 2021). A sociocultural learning theory serves as another theoretical framework for the study because it views learning as a socially mediated and socially patterned process, thus supporting the CRP-informed instruction’s focus on interactions between students and teachers (Vygotsky, 1978).

CRP is grounded in the scholarship of Gloria Ladson-Billings who identified that successful teachers could facilitate positive learning outcomes for African American students using culturally responsive practices, despite the social and economic disadvantages these pupils faced (Ladson-Billings, 2021). By shifting the focus from why culturally diverse students were not meeting grade-level expectations to how students could succeed academically while embracing their cultural identity, Ladson-Billings moved away from “deficit thinking” and began asking more equitable questions about the role of curriculum, instruction, and classroom interactions in learning (Gay, 2021). As such, CRP is more than just a set of strategies; it is an educational worldview that champions inclusiveness and celebrates diversity, which has broader pedagogical implications (Ladson-Billings, 2024).

Since its initial conceptualization, the focus of CRP has expanded to include ways in which educators can go beyond merely enhancing academic outcomes to also ensuring equitable pedagogy that promotes cultural responsiveness in the classroom as well as broader educational engagement (Franco et al., 2024). Culturally responsive pedagogy is therefore both a process and a practice that draws on classroom interactions and relationships, as well as reflective self-inquiry, in an effort to transform teaching and learning (Franco et al., 2024). Although inconsistent in its implementation, CRP has been associated with improved instructional support practices, classroom management, and increased indicators of student engagement (Debnam et al., 2024). This has occurred despite the complexity associated with implementing comprehensive, multidimensional CRP across different educational settings and contexts. In general, the research presented highlights the relevance of CRP as an overarching theoretical framework for interrogating the engagement of culturally and linguistically diverse students in middle-grade learning (Debnam et al., 2024).

Culturally Relevant Pedagogy rests on three principles, namely, academic success, cultural competence, and critical consciousness (Ladson-Billings, 2021). These principles inform CRP’s emphasis on creating learning environments that promote student academic success while affirming cultural identities and encouraging critical understandings of the sociohistorical contexts in which education takes place (Gay, 2021). The three principles that define Culturally Relevant Pedagogy are interconnected while also informing distinct aspects of teaching and learning that must be present for students to experience success in school. They represent a more holistic view of education that goes beyond simply acknowledging the learning needs of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds to transforming teaching and learning environments in ways that validate students’ identities while also empowering them to transform society for the better (Ladson-Billings, 2021; Gay, 2021; Lozano Castillo, 2024).

Academic Achievement Through Culturally Relevant Pedagogy

The principle of academic success is concerned with providing high academic expectations while also ensuring relevance whereby learning is contextualized in ways that connect it to students’ personal aspirations and cultural beliefs (Ladson-Billings, 2021). In general, CRP rejects the notion that high expectations lead to low achievement for culturally and linguistically diverse students and argues that these learners can achieve positive learning outcomes when provided with the resources and support they need (Gay, 2021). Research indicates that culturally responsive pedagogy facilitates higher levels of engagement, persistence, and hope as well as positive academic expectations, with learners being more likely to participate actively in the learning process when they recognize the relevance of what is being taught to their lives (Hammond, 2021). This principle is especially pertinent in middle-grade education where identity formation and affiliative social connections are key developmental concerns that influence students’ affective and behavioral responses to school and learning (Eccles & Roeser, 2023). From a similar perspective, learners who perceive school lessons as irrelevant become disengaged and subsequently have poorer overall educational experiences (Byrd, 2019).

Cultural Competence Through Culturally Relevant Pedagogy

The principle of cultural competence emphasizes the importance of validating students’ cultural identities and supporting them to become more successful in mainstream society (Ladson-Billings, 2021). By helping learners to embrace their own cultures and encouraging them to operate in a manner that affirms their identities, CRP challenges the notion that assimilation into mainstream culture is necessarily a good outcome (Gay, 2021; Hammond, 2021). Student engagement research highlights the motivational role of identity affirmation in promoting educational success, particularly in adolescence when students begin navigating complex social dynamics that affect their sense of belonging (Byrd, 2019; Eccles & Roeser, 2023). As such, CRP encourages teachers to become more conscious of how their attitudes and actions can be used to affirm students’ cultural identities, with benefits accruing to all parties involved as learners are then more likely to meaningfully engage in teaching and learning (Ladson-Billings, 2021; Gay, 2021).

Critical Consciousness Through Culturally Relevant Pedagogy

The tenets of CRP encourage educators to move beyond academic success and cultural competence to challenge learners to become critically conscious (Ladson-Billings, 2021). In this regard, CRP calls on teachers to facilitate students’ critical analyses of the sociohistorical factors that contribute to unequal educational outcomes and learning opportunities (Gay, 2021). Asking these “big questions” allows learners to become more empowered because they begin to understand the mechanisms that create and sustain social inequities and how these relate to their own lived realities (Lozano Castillo, 2024). In particular, critical consciousness helps students to recognize social, historical, and political contexts in their communities and connect them to classroom learning (Lozano Castillo, 2024). Discussing social justice issues in the classroom can help facilitate more meaningful educational experiences for middle-grade students who are interested in activism and community improvement, as engaging in such activities makes classroom learning more relevant to them (Eccles & Roeser, 2023)

Although the proposed study focuses on Culturally Relevant Pedagogy as its theoretical backdrop, another conceptual framework that supports the mechanisms by which CRP can promote positive outcomes in the classroom is Sociocultural Learning Theory (Vygotsky, 1978). The theory by Vygotsky highlights the learning mechanism that takes place among students in culturally diverse classrooms (Vygotsky, 1978). It has been a foundational background in which learning is argued to take place through social interactions among students in a classroom. The theory has been applied extensively by modern researchers since learning is inherently social and takes place in a specific cultural background (Kilag et al., 2024). This perspective is related to the proposed study since students’ learning processes involve the interaction with the content as well as teachers and peers to gain knowledge (Osher et al., 2020).

Furthermore, sociocultural learning theory suggests that learning takes place through dialogue as well as participation as well as collaboration between the student and peers (Vygotsky, 1978). The student’s mind is constructed by the interactions of people with different backgrounds and perspectives (Alkhudiry, 2022). Language plays a pivotal role in learning as it is used for sharing information and facilitating the assimilation of new concepts (Daniels, 2023). Therefore, communication in the classroom is key to engaging students and influencing their interactions (Hammond, 2021). Communication becomes more relevant in a classroom with students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds where each one brings in their communication styles and linguistic competence (Gay, 2021). This premise is relevant to the current proposed study since it focuses on middle school where students come with a variety of social interactions and communication styles.

Moreover, sociocultural theory postulates that there is a zone of proximal development that is relevant when a student is interacting with a more knowledgeable member of society. Vygotsky (1978) argued that scaffolding in the context of learning takes place when teachers or peers help students learn and develop concepts. In addition, scaffolding is relevant in a CRP context since it involves leveraging on the strengths of the students and using their linguistic and cultural backgrounds to promote education, highlighting the strengths-based approach used in CRP (Hammond, 2021). Indeed, evidence shows that students with strengths-based teaching are more likely to participate than when teachers focus on their gaps in learning (Anyichie et al., 2023; Gay, 2021).

Additionally, sociocultural learning theory highlights that culture and cognitive development are deeply intertwined. Students interact with knowledge using the cultural tools they use in their lives to navigate the different aspects of life. Therefore, if a teacher fails to use appropriate context, they might fail to engage the student in learning (Vygotsky, 1978). Culturally relevant pedagogy aims to leverage the students’ social backgrounds to facilitate conceptual learning (Gay, 2021; Hammond, 2021). Recent findings indicate that CRP leads to more engagement, especially for learning-oriented culturally diverse students (Anyichie et al., 2023; Franco et al., 2024). Therefore, these findings can be used to argue that sociocultural learning theory has merit in classroom interactions.

Finally, sociocultural learning theory is relevant in understanding the mechanisms that influence student engagement in learning in the middle school context where the students are navigating complex social relationships while building their identities. Thus, the interactions in classrooms and school settings need to be conducive to promoting healthy relationships and a safe learning environment (Byrd, 2019; Osher et al., 2020). In addition, engagement is not only a product of the student or teacher’s attributes, but rather it is argued to be a dynamic process whereby the interactions between them are key to influencing student engagement (Alkhudiry, 2022). This perspective is relevant and provides a theoretical background for the proposed study. This is because it can help argue that in attempting to address the student engagement issue, teachers’ behavior and the students’ cultural backgrounds must be considered (Byrd, 2019; Osher et al., 2020).

The choice of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and Sociocultural Learning Theory as the theoretical framework is justified by their emphasis on the role of the context of learning in student engagement (Gay, 2021; Hammond, 2021). The two theories are similar in that they do not view engagement as an exclusive characteristic of students but as something that emerges through the relationships between students, teachers, curricula, and the classroom environment (Ladson-Billings, 2021; Vygotsky, 1978). This perspective is relevant to the proposed study because it views engagement as a consequence of instruction that recognizes cultural contexts and encourages meaningful interactions (Osher et al., 2020). Therefore, the aim of this paper is to explain the relationship between the proposed study and the chosen frameworks.

CRP is the preferred framework for analyzing the problem because it highlights the importance of learning environments that promote student engagement through culturally relevant teaching practices. CRP suggests that teachers can increase student engagement by providing academic rigor while also validating students’ cultures and worldviews (Gay, 2021; Ladson-Billings, 2021). This approach is appropriate for the current study because it helps understand how teachers can use their instructional interactions to create classroom environments that recognize students’ identities and encourage behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement (Hammond, 2021; Byrd, 2019).

Sociocultural Learning Theory complements CRP by providing an explanation of how classroom relationships influence student engagement. Unlike CRP, which focuses on the goals of culturally relevant teaching, Sociocultural Learning Theory highlights the mechanisms by which engagement emerges. It views learning as a socially mediated process, which means that students engage with the curriculum through interactions with teachers and peers (Vygotsky, 1978). This perspective is relevant to the current study because it explains how teachers can facilitate engagement by building relationships with students and encouraging collaborative learning (Alkhudiry, 2022; Eccles & Roeser, 2011). Both theories are integral to understanding the research problem because they demonstrate how teachers can use culturally relevant practices to build relationships with students and thereby increase their engagement. Such an approach is appropriate for the current study because it acknowledges the role of interactions in engagement while also recognizing the importance of validating students’ cultural identities (Gay, 2021).

The two frameworks also contribute to the understanding of student engagement in the proposed study. They help expand the perspective on student engagement beyond attendance and participation because they highlight the importance of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement (Fredricks et al., 2019). According to CRP, students are more likely to be behaviorally and emotionally engaged when they see their cultures reflected in the curriculum (Ladson-Billings, 2021). At the same time, Sociocultural Learning Theory suggests that cognitive engagement emerges from instruction that facilitates positive interactions and encourages students to build on their cultural worldviews (Vygotsky, 1978). Therefore, analyzing the study through the lens of these frameworks can provide a more comprehensive understanding of student engagement.

Finally, the chosen frameworks are integral to the current study because they align with the proposed methodology. Action research is appropriate for this study because it allows for examining how teachers can use CRP to facilitate student engagement (Mertler, 2024). This approach is consistent with the two frameworks because they both emphasize the teacher’s role in instruction while also acknowledging the importance of students’ cultural contexts (Gay, 2021; Mertler, 2024). As a result, the current study can rely on these frameworks to ensure that the action research methodology is appropriate for examining how teachers can use CRP to increase engagement.

In conclusion, the integration of CRP and Sociocultural Learning Theory is essential for this study because it allows for examining how teachers can use culturally relevant practices to build relationships with students and thereby increase their engagement. While CRP emphasizes the importance of validating students’ cultures, Sociocultural Learning Theory highlights the role of relationships and interactions. The combination of these perspectives is crucial for the current study because it recognizes the complexity of the relationship between student engagement and culturally responsive teaching practices. Overall, the proposed study aims to contribute to the discussion of student engagement in culturally and linguistically diverse middle school classrooms by demonstrating how CRP can be implemented in actual teaching practices. This study will complement previous research on student engagement and CRP, which primarily consists of conceptual discussions and quantitative studies, by generating qualitative insights into how teachers can implement culturally relevant practices (Franco et al., 2024; Gay, 2021). Indeed, while CRP has been shown to be a useful framework for understanding student engagement, most of the discussion centers on its theoretical and policy implications (Anyichie et al., 2023). The current study will fill this research gap by generating qualitative data on how CRP can be used in actual classrooms to facilitate student engagement in culturally and linguistically diverse middle school classrooms.

The reviewed literature in this chapter is related to each other in a number of ways. First, they are all concerned with culturally responsive teaching, student engagement, classroom relationships, and equity. Second, the literature reviewed here have focused their studies on understanding how instruction, students’ lived experiences, classroom practices, and contexts influence students’ engagement in learning. Third, all the reviewed literature agree that culturally responsive teaching is more likely to contribute to student engagement among linguistically and culturally diverse students (Gay, 2018; Osher et al., 2020). Additionally, the reviewed literature has identified both the areas where there are convergence and contention in the research findings. Lastly, the literature highlights the limitations in the studies conducted so far, which form the basis of addressing the research gap proposed in this study (Anyichie et al., 2023; Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). The discussion examines how these practices relate to student engagement and the broader middle school learning environment.

Culturally responsive teaching (CRT) has emerged as one of the most promising new frameworks for addressing the needs of an increasingly diverse classroom. However, researchers have used it interchangeably with other terms, and it has evolved significantly over time (Gay, 2021; Hammond, 2021). The main concepts are similar but were developed by different scholars who approached the problem from different angles. Overall, CRT is a broad term that includes a number of related approaches to teaching that acknowledge and account for cultural differences among students (Ladson-Billings, 2021).

Gay (2018) was one of the first researchers to formally propose the concept of CRT. She defined it as using students’ cultural knowledge, experiences, communication styles, and preferences to improve learning outcomes. In her view, diversity was an asset that could be leveraged to improve education, as opposed to a characteristic to overcome (Gay, 2018). Hammond (2021) later added that incorporating cultural considerations into teaching actually capitalized on years of cognitive science research about the role of culture in developing trusting relationships and promoting higher-level thinking. Gay and Hammond used different frameworks to describe CRT, but both agreed that culture played a critical role in learning.

Gay (2018) and Hammond (2021) are not the only voices in the conversation about culturally responsive teaching. Ladson-Billings (2021) developed the concept of culturally relevant pedagogy, which later evolved into CRT. She argued that teachers needed to be aware of the need to help students achieve academic success while also embracing their culture and empowering them. Unlike previous approaches to multicultural education, culturally relevant pedagogy did not require students to renounce their cultural identities to conform to the dominant one. The need to balance these objectives has remained at the forefront of discussions about CRT, with researchers such as Pathak et al. (2024) noting that it has become increasingly complex in the context of classrooms with multifaceted diversity.

The evolution of CRT has been nonlinear. Early initiatives such as multicultural education were largely superficial, only scratching the surface of necessary changes (Banks, 2008). The initial emphasis was on ensuring that the curriculum included materials and subjects relevant to diverse groups of students (Byrd, 2019). Sleeter (2018), however, pointed out that multicultural education often failed to question or change the status quo in education, making it difficult to address systemic issues. Researchers therefore began looking for ways to go beyond representing diverse groups in the curriculum and start transforming classroom relationships and instruction in ways that acknowledged diversity (Gay, 2018). These ideas eventually led to culturally relevant pedagogy and then to the current understanding of CRT.

Another important development in the discussion of culturally responsive teaching was the emergence of the concept of culturally sustaining pedagogy. Paris & Alim (2017) argued that educators should acknowledge and sustain the linguistic and cultural diversity of their students as opposed to trying to assimilate them into the existing monolith. Researchers have since begun advocating for nurturing diverse cultures within the school environment (Pathak et al., 2024). Paris & Alim (2017) proposed that education must evolve to meet the needs of minorities as opposed to the other way around. It is important to note that most scholars, including Pathak et al. (2024), agree that culturally sustaining pedagogy is an extension of the earlier concepts of multicultural education and CRT.

Regardless of the variations in definitions, several themes relating to principles appear to be common to most discussions of culturally responsive teaching. Byrd (2019) and Hammond (2021) highlight the importance of building good relationships with students since trust and a sense of belonging promote engagement and learning outcomes. Scholars such as Gay (2018), Hammond (2021), and Pathak et al. (2024) all stress the importance of making learning relevant to students’ cultural lives and community experiences. Similarities can also be drawn in their emphasis on encouraging student voice, collaboration, reflection, and high expectations. Hammond (2021) explicitly states that successful CRT is teacher-centered but promotes academic rigor. Researchers therefore seem to agree that CRT entails making learning accessible and inclusive while also maintaining high standards of achievement (Camiring-Picpican et al., 2025; Pathak et al., 2024).

While several studies describe the general principles of CRT, scholars differ significantly in their views on what constitutes its successful implementation in practice. Some researchers such as Gay (2018) focus on classroom practices, suggesting that educators can enhance learning outcomes by incorporating more culturally relevant materials and methods into instruction. Others argue that successful CRT requires teachers to undergo a long-term introspection about their role and responsibility in education (Ladson-Billings, 2021). Hammond (2021) takes a different angle and proposes that implementation should be informed by recent neuroscience research that examines how culturally responsive relationships enhance learning readiness and engagement. Cantrell & Powell (2021), on the other hand, emphasize the need for leadership to be involved in the process of reviewing the school’s culture, learning environment, and related aspects. Overall, researchers seem to agree that teaching and learning within a culturally responsive framework require a multifaceted approach but differ in their views on the specific steps that need to be taken (Hammond 2021; Ladson-Billings, 2021).

Although considerable research has been done to demonstrate the benefits of CRT, there are still several questions that warrant further investigation. Most studies, including those by Dee & Penner (2017) and Hammond (2021), demonstrate the potential of such an approach to improving student outcomes. However, many of these studies are conceptual or based on surveys and fail to analyze its long-term effects (Hammond 2021; Ladson-Billings (2021). There is a need for more empirical, qualitative studies, particularly in the context of middle school education, to evaluate how CRT can be successfully implemented in practice (Hammond 2021). In particular, there is a lack of studies on students’ perceptions of CRT and its impact on their engagement and learning outcomes (Caingcoy, 2023). This information is critical in understanding how culturally responsive practices affect learning in a middle school setting where adolescents begin to develop deeper relationships with their peers and become increasingly aware of their place within their community (Byrd, 2019). Addressing this gap in research would help explain how teachers can benefit from adopting a more culturally responsive approach.

The reviewed literature demonstrates that the academic field has made considerable progress in embracing diversity by evolving from multicultural education to CRT (Hammond 2021; Ladson-Billings, 2021). Various scholars have made significant contributions to the discussion by examining different aspects of the issue. It is apparent that diversity and cultural awareness are critical considerations in education (Hammond 2021; Ladson-Billings, 2021). At the same time, the literature makes it clear that there is a gap between theory and practice, with researchers failing to sufficiently address how schools, in general, and teachers, in particular, can successfully incorporate CRT into their practices (Caingcoy, 2023; Idrus, & Sohid, 2023). Identifying practical solutions to this challenge is the focus of the proposed qualitative action research study.

Student engagement has been one of the most widely researched phenomena in the field of education since it has been proved that student engagement positively correlates with academic achievement, school retention, class participation, and other important variables (Fredricks et al., 2016). The term student engagement is multifaceted and context-dependent as the majority of studies highlight the tripartite nature of engagement that simultaneously comprises behavioral, emotional, and cognitive subtypes (Fredricks et al., 2016). Subsequent investigations have expanded this notion to highlight how students’ behavioral, emotional, cognitive responses to the school environment emerge through reciprocal interactions with peers, teachers, curriculum, and other factors (Kahu, 2013). As a result, there is a growing body of evidence that highlights the focus of scholars’ attention to student participation in the learning process as a context-dependent and multifaceted construct (Skinner et al., 2009).

The simplest way to conceptualize behavioral engagement is to think of it as the extent to which a student demonstrates adherence to classroom expectations, participation in class, attendance, persistence, and other similar behaviors (Fredricks et al., 2016). Behavioral engagement was the focal point of a number of initial investigations into the nature of student engagement and was frequently used as the sole indicator of students’ participation levels (Skinner et al., 2009). However, the reliance on behavioral indicators as the sole determinant of student engagement is now viewed with skepticism because compliance with classroom rules does not necessarily equate with positive attitudes toward learning (Appleton et al., 2008). This line of reasoning has gained traction in recent years as a number of scholars have noted that behavioral compliance as a demonstration of student engagement is especially prevalent among culturally diverse student groups (Byrd, 2019). As such, the shift has occurred in the last two decades or so that has seen emotional engagement increasingly prioritized in the literature as a key component of student engagement.

Emotional engagement is characterized by students’ sense of belonging, enjoyment, interest, trust, and other similar positive emotions in the school environment (Skinner et al., 2009). Students that feel that they are genuinely cared for by the adults in the school building tend to report the highest levels of emotional engagement as they feel included and supported throughout the learning process (Byrd, 2019). In contrast, students that are not viewed as deserving of the school’s resources often develop feelings of isolation that undermine their emotional engagement in learning (Osher et al., 2020). Hammond (2021) stated that positive emotional engagement plays a critical role in student learning as it lowers students’ levels of cortisol, promotes trust between students and teachers, and facilitates deeper learning. Indeed, a number of recent papers have argued that emotional engagement is the vital element in determining whether culturally responsive education initiatives will gain traction among students because students are more likely to be emotionally engaged when they see elements of their culture in the curriculum (Anyichie et al., 2023; Wang & Hofkens, 2020).

Finally, cognitive engagement is best described as the extent to which the students utilize higher-level cognitive processes to actively try to understand and make sense of new information they are exposed to in the classroom (Fredricks et al., 2016). Cognitive engagement practices typically include such behaviors as deep processing of the material, elaboration, regulation of learning, and strategic behaviors to overcome the challenges posed by the course content (Appleton et al., 2008). The majority of scholars have concluded that cognitive skills and attitudes are not taught explicitly but rather emerge in contexts when learners are intrinsically motivated to learn for the sheer joy of learning (Kahu, 2013). Hammond (2021) held that culturally responsive teaching was uniquely suited to facilitate cognitive engagement because it allowed the students to build upon their pre-existing cultural schemas to truly understand the academic material.

Rather than operating independently, the three components of classroom engagement constantly affect each other. Students who feel emotionally connected are more likely to participate behaviorally (Byrd, 2019). In turn, the discussion and collaboration inherent in such participation allow them to engage cognitively (Fredricks et al., 2016). On the other hand, a lack of emotional connection often leads to reduced behavioral and cognitive engagement over time (Skinner et al., 2009). These connections suggest that engagement should be regarded as a process stemming from students’ classroom experiences and not as an intrinsically formed trait (Appleton et al., 2008). The next several paragraphs will discuss how the multidimensional nature of student engagement can be better understood by taking developmental characteristics into account.

The developmental stage of middle childhood is linked to increased complexity in students’ cognitive, emotional, social, and psychological domains, and their relationships with others (Wentzel, 2017). As such, it is a critical period for understanding how children begin to engage in learning. For example, students who transition from elementary to middle school often have to deal with higher academic demands, additional teachers, larger social circles, and increased independence compared to earlier grades (Eccles & Roeser, 2011). Such changes often create opportunities for heightened levels of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive participation while also presenting challenges to students’ engagement with learning.

According to developmental theory, early adolescents begin to explore their emerging identities, which in turn affects their relationships with their peers, teachers, and classrooms (Erikson, 1968; Eccles & Roeser, 2011). During this period, students begin to think about whether their classrooms recognize and accommodate their developing identities, which in turn affects their behavioral, emotional, and cognitive participation (Wentzel, 2017). For instance, if students begin to feel that their cultural identities are respected and accommodated in the classroom, they are more likely to experience higher levels of behavioral participation, emotional attachment, and cognitive investment (Byrd, 2019). However, an inadequate recognition of their cultural identities may lead to becoming disengaged later on, despite high abilities (Osher et al., 2020).

Furthermore, peers become increasingly important for students during early adolescence (Wentzel, 2017) and play a crucial role in their engagement. For example, when interacting with peers in class, students will think about their social acceptance in the group, as well as what norms of conduct and discussion are acceptable therebefore participating (Ryan & Deci, 2020). The role of teachers remains important, as students’ relationships with them affect their confidence and participation levels (Wentzel, 2017). Recent research also suggests that positive peer relationships are particularly likely to develop in culturally responsive classrooms because they make students feel welcome and encourage inclusive collaborations (Debnam et al., 2024; Pathak et al., 2024).

According to motivation theory, students are more likely to experience enhanced behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement when their basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are met in school settings (Ryan & Deci, 2020; Wentzel, 2017). A number of researchers have found that culturally responsive teaching can facilitate such processes by creating the conditions needed for students to develop psychological needs and feel supported in pursuing their goals (Hammond, 2021; Gay, 2018).

As discussed, the literature points to a general consensus among researchers that engagement is better understood as a process stemming from relationships between students and the classroom. However, few studies have highlighted how this idea may be particularly relevant for middle school students. Indeed, most scholars have acknowledged the uniqueness of adolescence while also suggesting that engagement is more complex than just observable behavior or even students’ academic performance (Fredricks et al.,2016; Byrd, 2019). Researchers note that engagement is a multi-faceted concept best understood through the interaction of developmental characteristics, classroom behavior, instruction, and students’ perceptions in culturally responsive classrooms (Byrd, 2019). Nonetheless, few studies have attempted to examine how such processes operate within the contextual reality of culturally and linguistically diverse middle school classrooms (Caingcoy, 2023; Carey et al., 2018). This gap in the literature highlights the need for the current qualitative educational action research study seeking to understand student engagement from a multidimensional perspective, which takes developmental characteristics into account.

It is common knowledge that middle school is a period of profound cognitive, relational, and identity exploration (Barksdale et al., 2021). Researchers note that students entering early adolescence begin to construct a sense of self while also becoming more concerned about how they are perceived by others (Eccles & Roeser, 2023). Such developmental patterns impact both social and classroom behavior since students start to interpret teacher behaviors and classroom conduct through a personal lens (Skinner & Pitzer, 2012). In this regard, contemporary studies highlight the role of middle school as a context within which student engagement should be examined (Wang et al., 2020; Wang & Hofkens, 2020).

Student identity plays a critical role in classroom dynamics in middle school, as adolescents begin to negotiate their social, cultural, and academic identities (Eccles & Roeser, 2011). Accordingly, researchers note that students start to critically evaluate how their classroom experiences affirm or negate their cultural identity (Eccles & Roeser, 2023). For instance, a study by Gay (2021) shows that students who feel affirmed in the classroom have positive academic identities, whereas those who are dismissed have negative academic identities. In addition, findings indicate that adolescents who do not see their cultures reflected in the classroom environment have lower self-concept and participate less in class (Hammond, 2021). Identity affirmation is vital to promoting engagement as a social outcome and a process. Jagers et al. (2025) and Andrews & Wright (2024) note that identity affirmation has a positive role in encouraging academic persistence, confidence, and participation among culturally diverse adolescents.

Peer relationships is another critical aspect of student engagement and is especially relevant in early adolescence. At this stage, students begin to focus on developing friendships, and peer norms increasingly influence their behavior (Wentzel, 2017). For example, adolescents may be encouraged or deterred from participating or even attending school based on interactions with peers (Andrews & Wright, 2024). Research indicates that culturally responsive classrooms foster peer connections while also highlighting cultural differences as assets (Gay, 2021). Therefore, such classrooms encourage collaborative approaches that allow students to participate more actively in learning (Andrews & Wright, 2024; Eccles & Roeser, 2023). Overall, the topic of peer relationships is considered by researchers to be an essential engagement mechanism that is influenced by culturally responsive teaching (Hammond, 2021).

Motivation is a critical factor in student engagement since it impacts students’ perceptions of classroom experiences (Eccles & Roeser, 2023). The traditional view of motivation held that it was an individual phenomenon, but researchers note that it may also be collective (Ryan & Deci, 2020). As such, students’ motivation is dependent on classroom context, peer relations, teacher feedback, and perception of relevance among other factors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). According to Self-Determination Theory, motivation is enhanced through autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Such themes are reflected by culturally responsive teaching, which emphasizes affirming students’ identities, collaborating with them to enhance learning, and sharing power (Gay, 2021). Culturally responsive classrooms may motivate students to learn since they feel heard and respected in the classroom (Aronson & Laughter, 2020). Furthermore, since such classrooms emphasize relevance, they also increase the possibility of enhancing engagement by making students connect course material to their experiences (Hammond, 2021).

Another theme recurring in the reviewed literature is the developmental characteristics typical of the middle grades (Nelemans et al., 2018). Transitions to higher levels of education often involve challenges such as increased school size, multiple teachers, and changing social and academic expectations, which may lower students’ engagement and sense of belonging (Andrews & Wright, 2024). The literature confirms that adolescents tend to become less motivated and involved if their teachers do not provide sufficient social and emotional support during the transition to a higher grade (Nelemans et al., 2018; Wang & Eccles, 2013). Instructional strategies are especially important in middle school since learners are faced with new challenges while also dealing with questions of identity (Andrews & Wright, 2024; Osher et al., 2020). Therefore, by focusing on responsiveness to individual needs and promoting positive relationships, culturally responsive instruction can become a protective factor for adolescents facing developmental challenges (Cantrell & Powell, 2021).

The literature further suggests that developmental needs should not be viewed separately from instructional practice because the two continually influence one another (Boat et al., 2025). Since different cultures often involve varied approaches to learning, communication, and socialization, culturally responsive teaching is essential in meeting the diverse needs of such a heterogeneous group of students (Gay, 2021). Researchers note that developmental science and culturally responsive pedagogy are similar in several aspects, including an emphasis on relationships, identity, and participation rather than discrete practices (Hammond, 2021). However, there is limited research investigating developmental characteristics in relation to classroom practices, with few articles providing action research or qualitative analysis to explore the connection (Andrews & Wright, 2024; Yelder-Stovall, 2026). Therefore, the proposed study on developmental issues and instructional strategies fits into the existing scholarly conversation by attempting to fill this gap, as it examines whether and how culturally responsive practices affect student engagement.

Student engagement is influenced by both learning processes and their contexts (Monteiro et al., 2021). Educational researchers increasingly conceptualize classroom climate as a critical contextual factor associated with students’ motivation, perseverance in the face of challenges, and general willingness to participate (Wang & Degol, 2016). Engagement is not defined by internal characteristics alone but is instead produced through reciprocal relations between students’ learning processes and the classroom context including teachers, peers, and the overall environment (Monteiro et al., 2021). Such an approach to studying student engagement is particularly relevant for investigations centered on culturally and linguistically diverse populations since students’ experiences within classrooms are often directly linked to their perception of schools as welcoming, inclusive, and conducive to learning (Gay, 2021). The extant literature provides varying conceptualizations of classroom climates, yet most agree that positive relationships within classrooms benefit students’ academic engagement compared to hostile and impersonal settings (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020; Kondo, 2022).

Teacher-student relationships are often highlighted as an essential part of classroom climate and student engagement (Boat et al.,2025). Contemporary researchers increasingly acknowledge the critical role of students’ perspectives on educators, including their perception of support, care, and respect (Lawson & Lawson, 2020; Roorda et al., 2011). Teacher-student relationships become especially important in middle school, where adolescents begin to actively seek acceptance, recognition, and respect from various social groups while also exploring options for their adult lives (Eccles & Roeser, 2023). Students who feel understood and supported by their teachers are more likely to actively participate in classroom discussions, turn to them for help, and persist in facing challenging academic tasks (Barksdale et al., 2021; Wentzel, 2017). The reviewed literature highlights several mechanisms through which educators can enhance such classroom relationships, including demonstrating cultural humility and acknowledging children’s experiences as valid and relevant to instruction (Gay, 2021; Hammond, 2021). Researchers who investigated teacher-student bonds in middle school settings generally agree on their strong association with student engagement, though the long-term nature of such relationships within culturally responsive practices is poorly understood (Anyichie et al., 2023; Franco et al., 2024).

The concept of psychological safety is closely linked to teachers’ ability to foster positive student engagement trajectories (Chang & Viesca, 2022). The term generally refers to the extent to which students feel safe in sharing their ideas, asking questions, and making mistakes inside and outside the classroom (Edmondson, 2018). The concept was originally advanced by organizational behavior scholars who documented its links to innovation and productivity (Edmondson, 2018). Since then, psychological safety has been increasingly operationalized within educational contexts, as scholars note that students benefit immensely from the opportunity to take risks and make mistakes while studying (Edmondson, 2018). Multiple researchers note that culturally responsive classrooms contribute to a sense of psychological safety by validating students’ identities and encouraging open and honest discussions (Hammond, 2021). Students who feel psychologically safe tend to be more willing to participate in class, study challenging subjects, and express their perspectives (Jagers et al., 2025). The reviewed literature rarely discusses opportunities for educators to build psychological safety within their classes, though such a phenomenon may be linked to students’ cultural responsiveness to classroom relationships.

The examined literature highlights student belonging as an essential source of psychological and academic support for students (Allen et al., 2021). The concept generally refers to students’ feelings of being valued, respected, and accepted by their classmates and school staff. Most researchers agree that such an aspect of the classroom climate is strongly associated with students’ behavioral, emotional, and academic engagement (Lawson & Lawson, 2020). For instance, studies have shown that children who feel they belong in school tend to actively participate in educational activities while those who feel like outsiders are less likely to engage (Allen et al., 2021; Lawson & Lawson, 2020). One literature source note that students’ feelings of belonging are particularly salient for culturally and linguistically diverse populations since such children often value inclusion and representation in their academic settings (Osher et al., 2020). Gay (2021) notes that educators can foster such an inclusive school culture by emphasizing their students’ cultural backgrounds in all teaching practices, including communication and curriculum choices. Similarly, Hammond (2021) notes that such inclusivity often leads to better cognitive outcomes for students since they do not need to constantly worry about their acceptance in the classroom. The reviewed research literature generally agrees that classroom belonging is an essential source of academic and psychological support for students, though most scholars note that such a feeling is often cultivated through comprehensive, long-term cultural responsiveness efforts rather than a few carefully selected classroom interventions (Chang & Viesca, 2022; Hernández et al., 2025).

Another theme that emerged in the literature is inclusive classroom environments and classroom trust as factors that influence student engagement (Anyichie et al., 2023). Inclusive classrooms are characterized by instructional practices that recognize, acknowledge, and validate students’ diverse cultural perspectives (Gay, 2021). Within such settings, trust is manifested through teachers’ practices, expectations, communication, and opportunities for sharing (Bryk & Schneider, 2002). While Bryk and Schneider’s work was focused on the reform of schools, other researchers have noted that trust is integral to CRP since students are likely to interact with greater autonomy if they perceive teachers’ conduct as fair (Hammond, 2021; Muñiz, 2020). In turn, inclusive practices promote students’ willingness to share varied perspectives, participate in collaborative activities, and boost their confidence in achieving academic success since differences are reframed as resources (Anyichie et al., 2023). Nevertheless, there are reports that most institutions have adopted formal strategies to inclusiveness while neglecting to implement substantive measures to foster trusting relationships necessary for achieving relationship-centered instruction (Aguayo et al., 2023).

Overall, the reviewed articles reveal that classroom climate, belonging, psychological safety, and trust, as well as teacher–student relationships, are part of the processes by which engagement is manifested and should not be considered as independent influencing factors (Anyichie et al., 2023). This is because students are only able to become actively engaged in learning when they feel that they are being treated with respect and dignity (Osher et al., 2020). In other words, most studies have reported that CRP fosters student engagement by creating the necessary conditions for building relationships, which in turn enable interactive participation in classroom activities (Gay, 2021; Hammond, 2021). However, there is a need for more qualitative action research exploring how educators can integrate relational practices to engage middle school students in instruction. Such studies are rare in the reviewed literature, making the proposed research both relevant and integral to addressing existing gaps. The next section will discuss the instructional practices utilized by teachers to achieve culturally responsive teaching practices.

The need for transforming culturally responsive teaching theory into practice in a classroom has become the focal point in research recently (Anyichie et al., 2023). The researchers allude to Gay’s (2018) view that culture should be regarded not as a peripheral aspect of instruction but rather as a resource for learning. While Gay (2018) views culturally responsive education as the use of students’ culture, experience, and communicative habits, Ladson-Billings (2021) aims to respond to the tripartite educational needs of empowering students academically, culturally, and intellectually. In turn, the recent works claim the need to address classroom relationships, adaptability, and responsiveness (Anyichie et al., 2023; Hammond, 2021;). Overall, all cited works tend to agree, despite some differences, that responsive education should be regarded as extensive and prolonged processes rather than discrete practices of multicultural education (Paris & Alim, 2017).

One of the strongest areas of agreement within the literature concerns the importance of instructional strategies that actively connect curriculum to students' lived experiences (Gay, 2018). Indeed, scholars claim that the critical element of culturally responsive instruction is the teacher’s ability to connect academic subjects with students’ cultural knowledge, community, languages, and experiences (Gay, 2018). Hammond (2021) states that such instructional strategies enhance students’ cognitive engagement as they enable them to connect to cultural knowledge, which, in turn, assists them in acquiring new information. In other words, culturally responsive instruction does not undermine intellectual rigor; instead, it empowers students with tools to learn academic material, which is not the case for traditional approaches (Hammond, 2021). Indeed, recent studies confirm that students are more likely to participate, be motivated to learn, and discuss academic concepts if they can relate it to their experiences (Evans et al., 2020; Franco et al., 2024). Still, several scholars argue that the concept of relevance cannot apply to particular lessons by inserting examples that might resonate with some students (Anyichie et al., 2023). To achieve responsiveness, teachers need to reflect on how much the lesson includes cultural knowledge and whose voices they amplify or fail to amplify (Anyichie et al., 2023; Boat et al., 2025). Thus, although the majority agree that instruction should be culturally relevant and integrated, it is complicated by various factors, including teachers’ and students’ voices in the classroom.

Another common theme is the issue of curriculum relevance (Paris & Alim, 2017). Earlier studies on multicultural education attempted to address the lack of representation by assigning different days/months to cultures, bringing more diverse authors, politicians, and historical figures into the syllabus (Banks, 2019). Scholars believe that while acknowledging the value of increasing representation, its impact on classroom learning is limited since representation is just one element of responsive education (Paris & Alim, 2017). Gay (2018) and Ladson-Billings (2021) argue that for curriculum to be relevant to students, it needs to build on their cultural knowledge, perspectives, and experiences. In other words, a responsive curriculum focuses on students’ exploration of complex realities and their reflections on that exploration (Ladson-Billings, 2021)). Recent studies also note that learners achieve higher rates of classroom participation, confidence, and belonging when the education is relevant to their lives (Boat et al., 2025). However, researchers also stress the difficulty of the task due to the absence of educational policies that allow more flexibility and responsiveness in education (Anyichie et al., 2023). Indeed, standardization resonates with the theme of the absence of student voice in education as students are unable to shape their study schedules/contents and are constantly held accountable for meeting the same goals (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Once again, the scholars agree that curriculum content should include students’ cultural knowledge, but it is unclear how this inclusion should be implemented.

Another common theme is the student voice in education (Aguayo, 2024). Indeed, culturally responsive education seeks to empower students by engaging them in instruction and allowing them to bring their voices into the classroom (Gay, 2018). As such, the student voice refers to both classroom participation and collaboration with the teacher in constructing the learning process (Aguayo, 2024). Scholars find that students who can influence the educational process develop higher levels of engagement, confidence, and willingness to participate in class discussions/study groups (Boat et al., 2025; Chang & Viesca, 2022). However, the other authors note that student voice is limited by the traditional teacher-centered instruction when teachers, not students, design the course and determine student learning (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). In other words, students have voices, but they are muffled due to the education system that is not set up to hear and benefit from those voices. Therefore, the concept of student voice highlights the need to transform the classroom into a place where the teacher shares responsibility for learning with students (Aguayo, 2024). Such a learning environment helps achieve responsiveness and empowerment, which are essential for student success.

Overall, the literature combines several topics addressed by scholars in the field. The main themes are student empowerment through responsive instruction, curricula built on students’ experiences (not just representation), and students’ voices in the educational process (Boat et al., 2025; Chang & Viesca, 2022). All themes share the focus on student needs and the ability of teachers to address these needs within the classroom. Most scholars agree that it is necessary to transform the traditional roles and build more cooperative, responsive learning settings (Chang & Viesca, 2022). However, several factors, including institutional flexibility, hinder such transformations (Franco et al., 2024). It is also unclear exactly how such processes as student voice, cultural responsiveness should be implemented by teachers.

Besides curriculum design and instruction, the reviewed literature highlights relationship-centered practices as a key domain for cultivating teaching practices that respond to cultural and other individual differences among students (Gay, 2021). Historically, scholars focused on addressing gaps in curricula, materials, and representation (Franco et al., 2024). Recent studies, however, highlight that CRP also involves building relationships with students based on trust, respect, empathy, and open communication (Gay, 2021). Students need to feel understood and appreciated by their teachers in order to be motivated to participate, question, and pursue challenging tasks (Wentzel, 2017). Consistent with this idea, studies conducted in culturally heterogeneous settings found that positive teacher-student relationships enhanced students’ behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement due to their sense of classroom belonging (Chang & Viesca, 2022; Choe, 2021). At the same time, several scholars have argued that relationships are not an end in themselves but should serve to complement CRP practices that directly address students’ cultural contexts (Franco et al., 2024).

A rising number of studies have explored CRP in the context of assessment, highlighting its critical role and the need for innovative approaches to grading and evaluation (Chang & Viesca, 2022). The traditional emphasis on standardized procedures and generic rubrics has been challenged, with scholars advocating for alternatives that allow demonstrating proficiencies in multiple formats, collaborative settings, performance-based tasks, and reflective formats (Hammond, 2021; Walker et al., 2024). Allowing multiple modes of demonstrating competence does not lower standards but instead creates more opportunities for students to show what they know and do not know while addressing cultural bias and imbalances in typical assessment practices (Nortvedt et al., 2020; Walker et al., 2024). At the same time, multiple researchers note that standardized assessments currently dominate school settings, often with high stakes, limiting the scope for CRP (Aguayo et al., 2023; Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Thus, there is an inconsistency across studies in terms of the practical implementation of assessment practices that respond to students’ cultural backgrounds.

Collaboration with families and broader communities is another important theme in CRP that has drawn increasing attention from scholars (Gay, 2021). Earlier works highlight the importance of building alliances with families as centers of cultural capital that can help enhance learning and engagement (Gay, 2018). More recent studies have provided evidence in support of this claim, demonstrating that collaborative approaches improve parent-school communication, cultural responsiveness, and student engagement across diverse settings (Gay, 2021; Ishimaru, 2019). Notably, scholars have argued that family involvement should not be limited to participation in formal school events but should also consider their diverse social, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds (Ishimaru, 2020). By building partnerships with families and drawing on their cultural knowledge, schools create more inclusive and equitable learning environments where students feel genuinely engaged (Daniel et al., 2019; Herrera, 2022). At the same time, a number of studies have argued that such collaborations are often limited by teachers’ lack of time, preparation, and capacity (Anyichie et al., 2023).

Overall, many of the reviewed studies have demonstrated the general benefits of CRP for engagement while also noting certain contradictions and limitations. Some works highlight the importance of specific areas of CRP, such as culturally relevant curriculum, as the main drivers of increased student engagement (Ladson-Billings, 2021). Others stress the importance of building relationships with students in order to enhance trust and psychological safety (Hammond, 2021). Finally, a number of scholars argue that CRP should not be reduced to particular areas but should be implemented as an integrated framework where curriculum, instruction, assessment, communication, and classroom dynamics are all considered (Anyichie et al., 2023; Gay, 2021). Each of these perspectives provides a useful understanding of how CRP can be used to enhance student engagement, but the cumulative evidence suggests that this approach to instruction has a broad effect in this area (Gay, 2021). In addition, although scholars agree on the benefits of CRP, they also highlight the need for further research on how it can be implemented in practice.

The reviewed literature includes a number of limitations in terms of the design and scope of the studies. First, many works provide general descriptions of CRP, such as cross-sectional surveys or analyses of the correlation between CRP and engagement, without exploring classroom dynamics in sufficient detail (Mertler, 2024). Second, a number of studies examine the role of CRP at elementary and secondary levels without focusing on the specifics of middle school students, who tend to be especially culturally heterogeneous (Eccles & Roeser, 2023; Portes et al., 2018). Finally, the literature lacks in-depth qualitative action research studies that could explore how CRP practices are implemented, perceived, and adjusted by teachers in order to enhance engagement (Aronson & Laughter, 2016; Franco et al., 2024). Therefore, the current literature provides a general consensus on the importance of CRP for student engagement but does not provide sufficient details about the practical aspects of implementing such practices with middle school students.

The effectiveness of culturally responsive pedagogy relies on teachers’ beliefs about equity and inclusivity as well as teachers’ level of preparedness to implement such beliefs in practice (Gay, 2021). Literature highlights contradictions in teachers’ perceptions of culturally responsive education. The majority perceive its importance but also admit uncertainty in its application; they see the need for validating culturally diverse students’ identities but lack the confidence to implement it (Gay, 2018). Researchers also note a gap between teachers’ recognition of the role of acknowledging their students’ cultural backgrounds and their readiness to employ such approaches (Hammond, 2021). These contradictions are deeply embedded in debates on culturally responsive pedagogy, making it one of the most pressing issues explored in teacher education research (Khalifa et al., 2020).

Teacher efficacy is a critical factor in addressing the issue of contradictions between teachers’ beliefs about culturally responsive pedagogy and their ability to employ it effectively. Studies show that teachers who adopt culturally responsive pedagogical approaches are confident in their capacity to deliver these approaches (Siwatu, 2007). Researchers also note that efficacy beliefs affect teachers’ ability to engage in classroom practices that embrace cultural diversity, as well as their attitudes and behaviors towards implementing culturally responsive practices (Siwatu, 2007). Recent studies explore the connection between culturally responsive pedagogy and teachers’ level of educational competency, finding the latter to contribute more to their effectiveness in teaching culturally diverse student populations compared to theoretical understanding (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). However, literature also reveals that efficacy is not innate but rather emerges through practice and reflection (Ciampa & Reisboard, 2024). As such, many scholars highlight the need to focus on professional learning in teacher education to equip these professionals with the necessary skills to implement culturally responsive pedagogy (Gay, 2018).

Professional learning is thus a key component of teacher education (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Earlier literature focused on developing educators’ multicultural awareness or provided general diversity-related professional learning (Hammond, 2021). However, later studies highlight the significance of classroom teaching and practice and place a strong emphasis on professional learning to facilitate teachers’ engagement with culturally responsive education (Hammond, 2021). Researchers argue that professional learning should encourage inquiry, collaboration, and coaching to affect sustainable changes in educators’ approaches (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Studies also show that teachers benefit more from ongoing and continuous professional learning experiences, during which they can further their understanding of students’ diverse backgrounds, rather than a one-day workshop (Anyichie et al., 2023). Moreover, teachers state that they need continuous professional learning and collaboration to acquire knowledge about culturally responsive education; a one-time experience does not suffice (Nganga & Kambutu, 2024).

Professional learning in culturally responsive pedagogy is also closely intertwined with reflective practices and coaching (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Researchers highlight reflective practice as a critical aspect of educators’ experiences, during which they assess their practices, thoughts, and beliefs about teaching (Muñiz, 2020). Reflective practice encourages teachers to evaluate culturally responsive pedagogy, including assessing which voices are heard in the classroom, how their perspectives affect students’ experiences, and how they can alter the status quo (Gay, 2021). Coaching processes that promote reflective practices allow educators to connect theory to practice and are essential in affecting sustainable changes because they enable individuals to engage in dialogues that relate to their professional work (Lundgren et al., 2025). However, studies note that coaching in culturally responsive pedagogy is unavailable to the majority of educators (Lindsey et al., 2019).

Teacher Preparation is another aspect of research on culturally responsive education. Even though most teacher preparation programs now provide appropriate classroom preparation for students in diverse settings, many studies have shown its inadequacy for learning to teach in culturally responsive ways (Sleeter, 2018). Researchers agree that preservice preparation focuses too much on conceptual knowledge and not enough on practicing culturally responsive skills (Milner, 2021). Therefore, it leaves new teachers with an optimistic view of culturally responsive teaching but unaware of their own abilities to effectively engage in it (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). This study’s findings are consistent with others’ in that they show that preparation is only a part of a much larger system that requires professional development and adequate support in actually implementing new teachings, regardless of the setting, to promote success (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Teacher readiness seems to be the common theme in most of the research conducted on culturally responsive education (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). However, despite the apparent agreement on the importance of training in implementing culturally responsive pedagogy, few studies provide an in-depth understanding of what kind of teacher preparation is most needed for teachers who work with culturally and linguistically diverse students in middle school settings to promote successful learning (Franco et al., 2024).

Although the notion of culturally responsive teaching has become widely recognized as an effective way to provide education, there is a substantial amount of literature shedding light on its inconsistent implementation (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). There is no doubt that it has become a popular approach to improve the quality of learning and promote equality in education (Hammond, 2021). Nevertheless, the researchers underline the fact that the failure to deliver it consistently derives from multiple factors associated with teachers’ practice, as well as external policies and organizational issues they face (Gay, 2018). More recent articles attempt to go beyond the debate on whether it should be implemented and begin exploring possible reasons why it has not been fully integrated into the educational practice yet (Hammond, 2021). Such attention to this issue is crucial because it helps understand that not only teachers’ beliefs influence their capacity to transform the teaching process but also the overall system within which they operate (Khalifa et al., 2020).

To begin with, most of the reviewed articles highlight the teachers’ perception of the conflict between standard curriculum and their desire to provide education relevant to students’ culture and lived experience (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Researchers argue that the current tendency towards standards-based reform made teachers stick to prescriptive curricula, depriving them of the opportunity to adjust the teaching process according to students’ needs (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). For instance, some participants in the study revealed the pressure to comply with the standard pacing guides, benchmarks, assessments, and exams (Anyichie et al., 2023). Despite the opportunity to make the curriculum relevant to students’ cultural backgrounds, many participants agreed that the teaching practice did not allow them sufficient flexibility to adjust lessons and include various cultural phenomena (Gay, 2021). Experienced teachers, however, could comment on their ability to negotiate the use of culturally relevant pedagogies within the framework of the standard curriculum (Ciampa & Reisboard, 2024). The participants revealed that their flexibility was based on their own agency rather than the support of the established system. Thus, the reviewed literature confirms the persistent contradiction between standardized instructions and teachers’ need to deliver education that respects students’ cultural backgrounds (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020).

The discussed contradiction between standard curriculum and culturally responsive teaching could be explained by the fact that school organizational cultures play a critical role in teachers’ willingness to transform their practice (Muñiz, 2020). Recent research has devoted special attention to this issue, emphasizing that culturally responsive teaching requires educators to be committed to school-level initiatives aimed at sustaining such pedagogy (Khalifa et al., 2020). For instance, participants in the study revealed that school leadership, through its inclusive and equitable behavior, could create the necessary environment to adjust the teaching process according to students’ cultural backgrounds (Muñiz, 2020). On the contrary, the absence of supportive school culture and ineffective leadership hampered the participants’ efforts to implement culturally responsive strategies (Ciampa & Reisboard, 2024). Thus, the researchers argue that achieving school-level organizational change plays a pivotal role in teachers’ attempts to make the curriculum more relevant to students’ lived experiences.

In addition, limited resources and multiple educational policies also serve as factors influencing teachers’ choices and behaviors (Muñiz, 2020). The reviewed articles confirm that teachers need sufficient support, planning time, and instructional resources to provide culturally appropriate education (Hammond, 2021). However, as the researchers note, such resources as time and financial support are not always available, especially in marginalized communities (Franco et al., 2024). Besides, participants argue that the tendency to address numerous educational concerns makes it difficult to meet the students’ diverse needs (Milner, 2020). Educational policies related to learning recovery, improvement, safety, digitalization, and multiple other issues add to the growing demands on educators (Ciampa & Reisboard, 2024). The researchers note that, instead of prioritizing one over the others, education policymakers should be aware of the need to consider various aspects of learners’ experience s(Muñiz, 2020).

Another issue reviewed in the articles is the teachers’ beliefs about themselves, their students, and the educational process. Even though most participants in the study expressed a positive attitude towards the concept of culturally responsive teaching, the scholars argue that it was not always easy for the teachers to embrace it (Gay, 2018). For instance, educators mentioned multiple issues that prevented them from using the strategies that would be beneficial for their students (Aguayo et al., 2023). Although the researchers did not indicate the details of the discussed barriers, there is a notion that teachers were unsure of their ability to make choices that would support both students’ cultural backgrounds and the necessity to adhere to the standard curriculum (Gay, 2021). On the other hand, scholars underline that education policymakers and school leaders face serious challenges addressing the issue of inequality while complying with the idea of diversity (Ciampa & Reisboard, 2024). There is a concern that educators are uncertain whether any adjustments to the standard curriculum should be regarded as acceptable. Although the reviewed literature does not cover this topic in detail, it certainly draws attention to the fact that most teachers feel that implementing culturally responsive teaching is rather challenging. The majority of articles do not go beyond the idea of the need for culturally responsive education but do not address how teachers could integrate such approaches into the existing system, especially at the middle-school stage.

Across the literature, therefore, it should be evident that much of the research undertaken to date highlights potential areas of difficulty in implementing culturally responsive teaching practices, whereas limited scholarly work examines the actual instructional actions teachers take in their teaching practice to overcome challenges and engage students in their learning in a culturally and linguistically diverse classroom (Mertler 2024). Most of the reviewed studies concentrate on documenting the obstacles, whereas teachers’ instructional decision-making processes in implementing culturally responsive practices remain understudied despite the complexity of the decisions they have to make within the confines of the school system (Darling-Hammond et al. 2020). The relevance of the proposed study is justified by the findings of the review, which highlight barriers that impede the adoption of culturally responsive teaching by educators across schools, including standardized curricula, accountability, organizational constraints, resources, leadership, and policy (Darling-Hammond et al. 2020). Concurrently, the review highlights the need for more empirical studies on the strategies teachers use to modify instruction and engage students in their learning processes when using culturally responsive practices in actual classroom settings to overcome the identified barriers. This consideration is critical for action research, which presupposes continual reflection on actions taken and their impact on the targeted issue (Mertler 2024). Therefore, the analysis of the ways of responding to challenges in implementing culturally responsive teaching provides an opportunity to generate knowledge beyond the identification of barriers and focus on processes applicable in actual practice.

Diversity, equity, and inclusion have become increasingly critical areas of research in education, as they guide both policy and practice in teaching in diverse settings (Geesa et al., 2021). While these terms are often used interchangeably, recent studies highlight the differences in their definitions and implementation. Diversity is manifested in the presence of students who differ in race, culture, socio-economic status, and other characteristics, whereas equity stresses the need for providing individualized opportunities and resources for achieving success (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). In turn, inclusion presupposes both physical and social aspects of access to education, meaning that it goes beyond diversity by calling for creating positive social environments where all members feel engaged and empowered (Osher et al., 2020). These concepts are interrelated but cannot be separated when discussing education, since it is through equity that diversity is promoted and inclusion is reached (Gay, 2021). Considering that middle school is when students explore and accept their identities, it is evident that diversity, equity, and inclusion guide their interactions and engagement.

According to the review, the majority of the researchers agree that representation can improve student engagement, as it validates their identities and enables them to see themselves in the curriculum (Geesa et al., 2021). Students feel more involved when they understand that their voices matter and that the materials and resources reflect their lives and perspectives (Ladson-Billings, 2021). Indeed, the inclusion of diverse perspectives facilitates deeper learning by enabling students not only to accept but question different worldviews, which is linked with enhanced learning and social acceptance (Paris & Alim, 2017). However, representation can fail if it is reduced to a superficial inclusion of diverse topics and characters without addressing related issues, such as challenging students to think critically and empathize with others (Hammond, 2021). This is why diversity has to permeate through all levels of curricula and teaching practices, including communication, assessment, participation, and leadership (Franco et al., 2024). This consensus underscores the importance of incorporating diverse perspectives in classroom practices to ensure student involvement and empowerment by affirming their identities in learning (Hammond, 2021).

Another critical issue that affects engagement is related to language diversity, since many students live in linguistically diverse settings and speak more than one language (Schanding et al., 2023). While the early studies addressed language diversity as a deficit, recent research highlights its potential to enhance learning if harnessed properly (Paris & Alim, 2017). When teachers engage students’ linguistic diversity, they can actually promote their participation in the learning process and encourage collaboration with peers (Hammond, 2021). Nevertheless, there is also evidence that educational settings fail to support language diversity, which limits students’ opportunities to succeed (Caingcoy, 2023). Particularly, the tendency to follow the same instructional practices undermines students’ opportunities to learn and participate, which is why teachers need to develop multilingual competence and rethink their practices accordingly (Schanding et al., 2023).

Several studies discussed in the article indicate that the factors associated with educational inequity contribute to the lack of engagement in learning among culturally and linguistically diverse middle school students (Schanding et al., 2023). Indeed, the differences in disciplinary outcomes along racial lines, disparities in academic performance, unequal access to advanced classes, and differences in attachment to schools continue to impede the progress of culturally and linguistically diverse students (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Although some of the researchers argue that student engagement is influenced by a range of factors, it is evident that the inequities in classroom practices, including the presence of teachers’ expectations, representation, relationships, and participation opportunities, affect students’ opportunities to learn (Milner, 2021). At the same time, several studies question the emphasis on achievement as the central aspect of equity, arguing that social and emotional dimensions, such as mutual respect and responsibility, also contribute to students’ ability to participate and succeed (Osher et al., 2020). While the reviewed articles discuss the role of diversity, equity, and inclusion in education, few actually address how middle school teachers can incorporate these themes to ensure successful and engaged learning in everyday practice (Aguayo et al., 2023). This is why the next section will focus on social-emotional learning, which can build students’ skills and competencies that will help navigate diverse settings and feel empowered.

Social-emotional learning (SEL) has become increasingly conflated with culturally responsive instruction in recent years because the concepts have been found to intersect with regards to learning outcomes (Yang et al., 2018). Students benefit from emotionally supportive environments where their identities are recognized, accommodated, and affirmed to feel safe (Cavioni, 2024). Studies confirm that social-emotional skills, identity, relationships, and decision-making all combine to improve engagement and performance in school (Mahoney et al., 2018). However, researchers note that these skills are only valuable when taught in contextually appropriate ways that recognize students’ cultural identities (Jagers et al., 2018). Programs that promote social-emotional learning must acknowledge students’ varied backgrounds to be truly effective (Mahoney et al., 2018; Singha et al., 2025).

While the topic of culturally responsive instruction and social-emotional learning seems to have arisen independently, the literature on both is becoming increasingly convergent (Yang et al., 2018). Culturally responsive teaching practices prioritize learning through a cultural lens, seeking to establish affirming, collaborative, and inclusive learning environments (Gay, 2021). By contrast, social-emotional learning practices emphasize developing interpersonal competencies to function effectively in society (Cavioni, 2024). Both concepts, however, have been found to have overlapping components that promote student engagement and achievement through identity affirmation, mutual respect, empathy, and collaborative problem-solving (Osher et al., 2020). Classrooms that integrate both social-emotional learning and culturally responsive strategies have been found to foster stronger connections to learning than those that employ either method in isolation (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020; Singha et al., 2025). This synergy can be seen as both concepts complementing each other’s strengths to create a holistic approach to education.

The intersection between social-emotional learning and culturally responsive instruction has been further advanced by the concepts’ shared emphasis on identity affirmation (Singha et al., 2025). Students thrive when their classroom experiences reflect their cultural perspectives and validate their identities (Ladson-Billings, 2021). In fact, researchers note that social-emotional skills in culturally responsive classrooms only emerge as students interpret the emotional meaning behind events in their lives (Hammond, 2015). This perspective is especially relevant in middle school, where students grapple with questions of identity, belonging, and self-discovery (Eccles & Roeser, 2011). As such, identity affirmation is inextricably linked to students’ emotional well-being and ability to perform academically during this developmental period (Osher et al., 2020). Students need to feel safe and supported in affirming environments if they are to be receptive to learning and meaningfully engage with their peers (Osher et al., 2020).

The concepts of social-emotional learning and culturally responsive instruction each have substantial bodies of supporting research, yet both have limitations in the literature. Studies investigating both concepts mostly examine their use in isolation, with few exploring how they combine to influence student learning (Mahoney et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2018). Meanwhile, researchers note that the intersection between the two is understudied, particularly in terms of how teachers can implement them together in middle school contexts (Singha et al., 2025). Specifically, little qualitative research has investigated how students respond to lessons that integrate both SEL and culturally responsive practices to improve engagement and learning outcomes. The present study seeks to address this gap in the literature by investigating how culturally responsive instruction supports student engagement through classroom relationships and belonging in culturally diverse middle school settings.

The reviewed literature highlights a general agreement among researchers that developing education using culturally responsive teaching methodologies is one of the most effective ways to ensure the quality education of culturally and linguistically diverse students(Gay, 2018; Ladson-Billings, 2021). In particular, over decades of research, scholars have identified the importance of validating students’ cultural backgrounds (Gay, 2018). Ladson-Billings (2021) suggested that learning is most effective when students achieve academic success and develop cultural competence and critical consciousness, and Gay (2018) added that the recognition of students’ unique cultural backgrounds facilitates the teaching-learning process. Most recently, studies demonstrated that culturally responsive pedagogy promotes student participation, belonging, and engagement (Franco et al., 2023). However, the reviewed literature indicates that despite the scholars’ interest in exploring the concept, there are still gaps in the understanding of what happens in real educational settings.

First, many studies focus on identifying teachers’ attitudes, beliefs, or perceptions about implementing culturally responsive pedagogy rather than exploring actual implementation (Parkhouse et al., 2021). For instance, studies demonstrated that teachers are generally positive about using culturally responsive methods in education and recognize its potential benefits for achieving equity and increasing student participation (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). However, researchers also noted that teachers’ positive perceptions do not always translate into practice (Anyichie et al., 2023). Scholars have acknowledged the complexity of the processes that contribute to teachers’ decisions to adopt culturally responsive methods in their classes (Mertler, 2024; Parkhouse et al., 2021). Therefore, despite the vast amount of research indicating teachers’ positive perceptions of using culturally responsive methods, the reviewed literature highlights the need for more research on how exactly teachers implement such strategies in real-life settings (Franco et al., 2024).

This inconsistency between teachers’ beliefs and behaviors may explain why many studies investigating culturally responsive pedagogy rely on qualitative methods such as interviews, focus groups, or surveys to understand participants’ perceptions (Mertler, 2024; Parkhouse et al., 2021). Although these methodologies have allowed researchers to gain insight into teachers’ attitudes towards implementing culturally responsive methods, the reviewed literature indicates that these methodologies may not be entirely accurate in depicting the current reality. For instance, because culturally responsive pedagogy is now recognized as an essential strategy for achieving equity in education (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020), teachers may be aware of the need to promote such practices regardless of their actual implementation. Therefore, the researchers’ reliance on quantitative methods highlights the possibility of overestimated results, with teachers’ responses biased due to the desire to meet the researchers’ expectations (Caingcoy, 2023). Thus, many researchers emphasize the need for more in-depth qualitative and quantitative studies that go beyond the collection of perceptions and attitudes (Anyichie et al., 2023).

Another gap in the reviewed literature pertains to the lack of studies focusing on the implementation of culturally responsive pedagogy in middle school. Although the examined studies highlight the importance of engaging both teachers and students in the process of educating culturally and linguistically diverse students, many researchers utilized mixed samples that combined elementary, middle, and high school teachers(Parkhouse et al., 2021). At the same time, there are limited studies discussing the role of culturally responsive pedagogy in middle school education. Gay (2018) demonstrated that students’ developmental stages are an essential factor to consider when choosing the most appropriate educational approaches. The transition to middle school is associated with students’ increased awareness of their social interactions, relationships with peers, and roles in classrooms (Boat et al., 2025). Therefore, it is essential to understand how students engage with teachers and learning materials at this stage in particular.

As studies demonstrated, middle schoolers face significant developmental changes that may make it more difficult for them to participate and succeed academically (Eccles & Roeser, 2023). Researchers indicate that these shifts are related to students’ behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement and suggest that middle school is one of the most critical stages in terms of engagement development(Boat et al., 2025). Therefore, investigating culturally responsive pedagogy in this setting is essential to ensure that it is indeed beneficial for these students. The reviewed literature, however, highlights the lack of empirical research addressing this issue specifically. Although some studies note the changes that students experience when transitioning to middle school (Eccles & Roeser, 2023), most research includes data across K-12, making it difficult to identify the trends specific to middle school.

Lastly, the reviewed literature indicates that most studies investigating culturally responsive pedagogy relied on quantitative methods rather than in-depth qualitative designs. The majority of the reviewed articles focused on studying teachers’ perceptions of culturally responsive teaching practices (Kihwele 2026) or investigated the impact of these practices on students’ academic and social outcomes, utilizing survey or interview data (Osher et al., 2020). Although these methodologies are beneficial in understanding general trends associated with the topic, they do not allow researchers to follow the process and identify the changes experienced by teachers and students. It is important to recognize that implementing new teaching strategies, such as those rooted in culturally responsive pedagogy, is not a short-term event (Kihwele 2026; Mertler, 2024). Instead, it is a prolonged process that requires teachers’ continuous reflection, revision, and adaptation of their approaches in accordance with their observations and students’ responses(Stringer & Aragón, 2020). Thus, the reviewed literature highlights the need to focus on quantitative data that can help identify the patterns associated with the teaching-learning process.

In particular, there is a need for more action research studies that utilize qualitative data to explore teachers’ experiences with implementing culturally responsive pedagogy in real-life settings. Such studies are essential for several reasons. First, action research investigates a variety of factors that contribute to solving an education-related problem as they emerge in practice rather than being predetermined by the researchers (Stringer & Aragón, 2020). Second, it recognizes the teachers’ role as agents of change, which is particularly important for the topic under investigation since teaching practices can only be effective if teachers choose to implement them (Mertler, 2024). Finally, researchers utilizing this methodology focus on actual classroom practices rather than analyzing the impact of these practices on post-intervention outcomes(Stringer & Aragón, 2020). However, the reviewed literature indicates that few studies utilized qualitative action research, and fewer emphasize this methodology’s significance in understanding educational change (Caingcoy, 2023). Moreover, studies examining the implementation of culturally responsive pedagogy rarely specify the target population, which suggests that researchers may study the same group throughout the process and report their results as findings applicable across educational settings(Mertler, 2024).

Another issue associated with the reviewed literature pertains to the researchers’ focus on individual aspects of the process rather than examining the connection between teachers’ practices and students’ responses. Most studies highlight either teachers’ beliefs and attitudes toward using culturally responsive practices or students’ outcomes, such as attendance or engagement. Few studies attempt to address the link between these two areas, despite their interdependence. For instance, scholars analyzing teachers’ engagement in implementing culturally responsive pedagogy focus on identifying their beliefs and attitudes (Anyichie et al., 2023; Darling-Hammond et al., 2020;). Similarly, many researchers highlight students’ attendance and positive attitudes towards school but do not attempt to find out how these factors are related to their teachers’ behaviors(Byrd, 2017; Osher et al., 2020). However, there is a growing body of evidence highlighting the importance of examining how teachers’ behaviors affect students’ responses as well as the interactions between the two that lead to positive change (Franco et al., 2023). Engagement, in particular, is a complex construct that encompasses a range of behaviors, emotions, and cognitive processes that are affected by students’ interactions with peers, teachers, and classrooms (Boat et al., 2025). Therefore, investigating the link between educators’ behavior and students’ responses is essential for truly understanding the mechanisms behind the process.

Finally, as mentioned above, the reviewed literature demonstrates that scholars pay significantly more attention to individual components of students’ engagement in learning rather than exploring the concepts collectively. Researchers investigating engagement often rely on the theoretical framework in which the construct is comprised of three interrelated dimensions: behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement (Fredricks et al., 2016). Some researchers demonstrate that each of these components can be a predictor of students’ academic success. For instance, studies note that behaviorally engaged students are more likely to attend classes regularly and participate, thus enhancing their chances of achieving good grades (Chang & Viesca, 2022), while emotionally engaged students feel more connected to their peers and teachers, increasing their likelihood of graduating from school(Chang & Viesca, 2022). Finally, scholars highlight that cognitively engaged students are more likely to experience academic challenges, motivation, and higher-order thinking patterns(Fredricks et al., 2016). However, few studies attempt to identify the impact of culturally responsive pedagogy on these areas of engagement as they occur in actual educational settings. In addition, few studies focus on the interactions among these components rather than analyzing them independently (Chang & Viesca, 2022).

The reviewed literature also demonstrates that the factors associated with contexts are poorly understood, despite there being an established consensus about the importance of connecting culturally responsive pedagogical initiatives with their contexts (Kihwele 2026; Parkhouse et al. 2021). This is evident in the fact that classroom environment, school culture, leadership, colleague collaboration, community connections, and school demographics are different factors that influence teachers’ use of culturally responsive practices (Darling-Hammond et al. 2020). However, with the exception of few studies (Anyichie et al. 2023), these factors are usually considered as given circumstances against which teachers implement their pedagogical decisions without exploring dynamic relationships that shape implementation processes. In other words, contextual variables such as collaborative opportunities and supportive school cultures mediate the process of reflective instructional adaptation, which is critical to achieving the desired outcomes (Hammond, 2015; Mertler, 2024). Therefore, it is important to conduct further studies in actual educational settings to understand the mediating role of these factors.

Overall, based on the discussed information, it is possible to formulate the rationale for the study. The reviewed literature provides sufficient justification for implementing culturally responsive practices and ample evidence of their positive impact on student engagement and empowerment (Gay, 2018; Ladson-Billings, 2021). However, there is limited information on how these practices are implemented in middle school settings, particularly in terms of how teachers use reflection to adapt their approaches and how student engagement is impacted by these processes (Franco et al. 2024; Mertler, 2024). Therefore, the current qualitative action research will contribute to filling this gap by exploring how teachers can use reflective practices to implement culturally responsive lessons in a middle school classroom. By focusing on actual processes used in a classroom context and student engagement as a measure of success, the study will complement the literature by generating new insights that could be used to improve practice. In particular, the rationale for the research aligns with the goals of reviewing the literature to identify a gap to be filled by the current study. This is evident in the connection between the need to study contextual factors and the proposed research question related to reflective adaptation of instruction and actual engagement processes (Kihwele 2026; Parkhouse et al., 2021). Thus, this section highlights the importance of the study, which builds upon the findings of the review of literature, while establishing logical connections with the following section, which discusses the methodology used in the research.

Action research stands out among educational research methodologies by focusing on conducting research that creates knowledge and improves practice (Mertler, 2024). Action research takes place in real-life classroom settings where educators identify problems, take action, evaluate the effectiveness of this action, and reflect on the entire process (Parkhouse et al., 2021; Stringer & Aragón, 2020). Developed by Lewin who proposed a cycle of action encompassing planning, action, observation, and reflection, the methodology has since improved but retained its dual emphasis on the production of knowledge and improvement of practice (Lewin, 1946; Mertler, 2024). As such, action research now recognizes the need for interventions to take place in contexts where those interventions will occur and for educators to take the lead in improving their practices (Stringer & Aragón, 2020). These attributes of action research make it particularly appropriate to the classroom contexts requiring improvement of instruction or understanding of students (Stringer & Aragón, 2020).

Firstly, action research has been conducted in classroom settings because it views teachers as practitioners who have knowledge of their practices, and it seeks to improve instruction based on this knowledge (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2015). In other words, it acknowledges that teachers can contribute to research, not just be subjects of research conducted by others (Mertler, 2024). As such, it empowers teachers to conduct investigations that can help them make scientifically-sound decisions (Dana & Yendol-Hoppey, 2009). In practice, this means that teacher researchers can take the lead in examining their instructional practices based on their understanding of their own classrooms (Mertler, 2024). It also means that the findings from these investigations can then inform professional decisions that improve their practice (Mertler, 2024). This approach to research closely aligns with culturally responsive teaching (CRT) in its recognition of the need for educators to understand their contexts better and make decisions about teaching and learning based on this understanding (Canaras, 2022).

Secondly, reflective practice has been a key component of action research. Schön (2017) argued that reflective practice is at the core of professional development, as it involves questioning of one’s assumptions and thoughts, thus enabling the researcher-instructor to improve their practice. Similarly, more recent reviews highlight that reflective practice helps educators to recognize issues (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). In CRT, reflection has been emphasized as a way for teachers to become attuned to the backgrounds and contexts of their students in order to respond more effectively to these backgrounds and contexts (Gay, 2021). For instance, reflective practice helps instructors to evaluate whether their pedagogy supports student engagement, belonging, identity exploration, and inclusion and whether it allows for meaningful participation, as opposed to marginalizing or excluding particular students by virtue of their belonging to a certain group (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020; Gay, 2021). In this sense, reflection becomes a strategy by which teachers can continuously enhance their understanding of their students and their contexts. As such, action research is a reflection-driven professional learning process (Mertler, 2024).

Finally, collaborative inquiry is yet another attribute of action research that makes it relevant to CRT. Rather than relying on leadership, action research promotes the idea of collaboration, as teachers, administrators, and stakeholders can come together to investigate problems (Parkhouse et al., 2021; Stringer & Aragón, 2020). The collaborative nature of this type of inquiry fosters professional learning by making teachers’ voices heard which, in turn, supports the sustainability of the improvements being pursued to address a particular issue (DuFour & DuFour, 2013). Collaboration has become increasingly relevant in contemporary educational contexts where there is a need to improve the school culture and environment in order to advance student engagement and address educational inequalities (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020; Hine, 2013). By relying on collaboration, action research facilitates addressing of these complex issues.

Although action research has been reviewed as an effective approach to investigation, it is also associated with a number of limitations. To begin with, collaboration and reflection take time, and teachers’ time is limited given the number of responsibilities they have to address while also being accountable for meeting the needs of their students (Mertler, 2024). Additionally, teachers may need to acquire additional skills in research and inquiry in order to engage in action research that can actually improve their practices (Dana & Yendol-Hoppey, 2009). Finally, the school culture that does not view reflective practice as a priority may prevent the conduct of this type of research (Fullan, 2007). Despite this, the literature highlights action research as the best option for teachers who want to connect professional learning with inquiry and improvement because it allows them to actually conduct investigation in their own contexts (Parkhouse et al., 2021; Stringer & Aragón, 2020).

It is this emphasis on inquiry and improvement that makes action research ideally suited for investigating culturally responsive practices. In particular, both methodologies share reflective practice, collaborative approach to research, and responsiveness to the context rather than reliance on the universal approach. In fact, the literature on CRT is rife with suggestions of using action research to improve culturally responsive practices, specifically with regard to engagement in middle school settings in particular (Parkhouse et al., 2021). The value of action research in addressing issues specific to particular contexts is well recognized in the literature (Mertler, 2024; Parkhouse et al., 2021). In particular, educators have argued that CRT requires context-specific consideration due to the fact that student engagement is contingent on students’ sense of identity, belonging, and inclusion and the extent to which these aspects of experience are supported by classroom relationships, teachers’ worldviews, school environment, and community contexts (Gay, 2021). For this reason, researchers argue that CRT needs to be investigated in real contexts where the same approaches may not yield the same results for students with similar backgrounds because of differences in classrooms, teachers, and communities (Hammond, 2021; Stringer & Aragón, 2020).

Even though action research has been suggested as the best approach for investigating CRT, the literature makes it clear that, for it to be a viable option, there is a need for administrative support, time to engage in this form of inquiry, a collaborative school culture, and a willingness on the part of professionals to engage in reflective practice (Cantrell & Powell, 2021; Parkhouse et al., 2021). In other words, collaborative reflective practice is the ideal approach for improvement, but it is only available to educators who have the luxury of time that action research requires. Teachers who are accountable for meeting the needs of their students in a context that is driven to meet standardized expectations and timelines cannot afford to use this approach to improvement (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020; Mertler, 2024). Therefore, the literature is limited in its discussion of how educators can investigate CRT despite these limitations.

One of the limitations of this research agenda is the fact that, despite the focus on investigating teachers’ reflective practice, very little attention has been paid to students’ perspectives on culturally responsive instruction. While many studies highlight the importance of reflecting on one’s beliefs and attitudes, little is said about how students perceive CRT practices and whether these perspectives contribute to their engagement (Cook-Sather, 2020; Parkhouse et al., 2021). In other words, students’ identities and sense of belonging are often overlooked (Osher et al., 2020). In fact, the literature highlights the need to pay more attention to how students perceive their engagement, as it cannot be determined through objective measures (Aguayo et al., 2024). This perspective on engagement closely aligns with CRT which has recognized the value of listening to students’ voices as important contributors to instructional improvement (Ladson-Billings, 2021).

Collaborative approaches to action research have dominated the literature on this methodology. The literature suggests that collaborative inquiry can help educators investigate particular issues by sharing their experiences (Parkhouse et al., 2021). Collaborative action research can be conducted among teachers, administrators, stakeholders, and students. In other words, collaboration allows each party to see through the eyes of others, thereby supporting reflective practice and professional learning (Mertler, 2024). Even so, little is known about collaborative action research in middle school education, specifically in regard to CRT (Franco et al., 2024). In fact, much of the research on action research has focused on elementary school contexts rather than middle and high schools, which have distinct developmental needs (Eccles & Roeser, 2023). In general, the literature discusses various aspects of action research, including its collaborative nature, but few studies have concentrated on how it can be used to investigate CRT in the middle school setting.

Overall, the literature demonstrates that action research can be a valuable approach to investigation in the fields concerned because it focuses on research in practice (Mertler, 2024; Parkhouse et al., 2021). Similarly, CRT has been discussed in terms of the teacher’s need to recognize the importance of building understanding about their contexts rather than relying on universal approaches to instruction (Gay, 2021). However, the literature contains some limitations regarding the discussion of both topics. Firstly, much of the discussion of action research concentrates on the individual rather than collaborative practice, and little is said about investigating CRT. Secondly, the literature rarely discusses both simultaneously in regard to the middle school context, as most studies have focused on other aspects of either topic. Finally, while the literature has addressed the reflective practice of teachers, the role of students in investigating their own engagement in regard to CRT has received little attention. All of these limitations present rationale for the current study and serve as a springboard for its discussion.

This chapter reviewed the literature on culturally responsive teaching, student engagement, and middle school education to provide the background for the proposed study. The reviewed articles revealed that culturally responsive pedagogy has emerged from multicultural education through various forms, including culturally relevant pedagogy and sustaining pedagogy, to demand a more inclusive approach to instruction that promotes identity affirmation and academic excellence (Gay, 2018; Ladson-Billings, 2021; Paris & Alim, 2017). The literature also demonstrated that student engagement is a multidimensional construct that emerges from behavioral, emotional, and cognitive processes that take place in classrooms through student-climate interactions, relationships, psychological safety, and belonging (Fredricks et al., 2019; Osher et al., 2020). Therefore, the reviewed literature highlighted the need to promote culturally responsive practices in classrooms to ensure that students feel included and engaged.

Furthermore, the chapter provided the theoretical and conceptual foundations of the proposed study. Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and Sociocultural Learning Theory were reviewed to reveal how they inform the research question. The two frameworks are foundational to the study because they postulate that learning is a socially and culturally mediated process that takes place in classrooms through teachers’ engagement with students’ cultural knowledge and lived experiences (Ladson-Billings, 2021; Vygotsky, 1978). The chapter also identified various research gaps related to the research question, including the tendency of the existing literature to emphasize teachers’ perceptions of culturally responsive teaching practices rather than the processes themselves. There was also a need to focus on middle school education, which was not the case with previous studies on culturally responsive pedagogy, and utilize a qualitative approach to examine the construct in depth (Mertler, 2024; Darling-Hammond et al., 2020; Franco et al., 2024). Therefore, the need for this study became evident from the body of knowledge presented in the chapter, which created a solid foundation for proposing the qualitative action research study examined in this paper. The next section of this paper will present the methods that will be used in the proposed action research study, including the research design, setting, participants, procedure, data analysis plan, and ethical considerations.