· LO1Identify strategies that promote strong partnerships and effective relationships between families and schools and examine the importance of such collaborations.

· LO2Understand and value the complexity of today’s families and demonstrate skills necessary to collaborate with diverse family situations.

· LO3Demonstrate effective strategies that enhance communication between teachers and families through the separation process and family/teacher conferences.

Competency Areas

Standards for Professional Development

The following NAEYC Standards for Initial and Advanced Early Childhood Professional Preparation are addressed in this chapter:

· Standard 1 Promoting Child Development and Learning

· Standard 2 Building Family and Community Relationships

· Standard 4 Using Developmentally Effective Approaches to Connect with Children and Families

· Standard 6 Becoming a Professional

· Field Experience

Code of Ethical Conduct

These are the sections of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct that apply to the topics in this chapter:

Core Values: We appreciate and support the bond between the child and the family. We recognize that children are best understood and supported in the context of their family, culture, community, and society.

Section II:

· I-2.2

We shall develop relationships of mutual trust and create partnerships with families we serve.

· I-2.4

To listen to families, acknowledge and build upon their strengths and competencies, and learn from families as we support them in their task of nurturing children.

· I-2.5

We respect the dignity and preferences of each family and to make an effort to learn about its structure, culture, language, customs, and beliefs to ensure a culturally consistent environment for all children.

· I-2.6

We acknowledge families’ child-rearing values and their right to make decisions for their children.

· I-2.7

We will share information about each child’s education and development with families and help them understand and appreciate the current knowledge base of the early childhood profession.

· P-2.4

We shall ensure that the family is involved in significant decisions affecting their child.

8-1Promoting Strong and Effective Partnerships

Working with families can be one of a teacher’s most satisfying responsibilities, or it can be one of the most frustrating. The potential is present for a dynamic partnership between the most important adults in a child’s life because they have the common goal of nurturing the young child.

Note: Throughout this chapter, the terms parents and parenthood are meant to include mothers and fathers, as well as other extended family members and caretakers who have the responsibility for raising a child.

8-1aHistorical Overview

There is a historical precedent for the partnership between families and teachers. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Friedrich Froebel, early 18th-century educators, detailed many of their procedures for home use (as noted in Chapter 1 ). The involvement of the mother in the education of the child was considered important even then. When kindergartens were organized in the United States, classes for parents and mothers’ clubs were started. The National Congress of Mothers evolved from that movement; today, it is the National Parents and Teachers Association (PTA). This well-known organization is an integral part of most school systems and continues to promote a union between school and home, teachers and parents.

During the 1930s, parent involvement in education was actively discouraged. Teachers were seen by society as experts who wanted to be left alone to do their job, and in many cases, they felt that they did little but remedy parental mistakes. That trend ended in the 1940s, when the need for parent support and encouragement was recognized and closer relationships between teachers and parents were established. More than 70 years later, this partnership stands as a commonly accepted principle. By the 1960s, Head Start programs required parental involvement and set about developing parent education and parent training programs. A commitment to teaching children included a commitment to the families of those children.

A true partnership happens when parents and teachers share their strengths with one another for the benefit of the children they care for and love.

Parent involvement and education were largely ignored in the education reform movement of the 1990s. That omission was addressed as parents became empowered with the creation of charter and magnet schools , a mid-1990s phenomenon that has created greater parent involvement in public schools.

Collaborating with parents and working within the family context are significant in today’s early childhood programs. The standards for professional preparation of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) underscore parents’ right to be involved in their child’s learning, and the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct clearly outlines a range of ethical responsibilities that families have. Learning outcomes designated by individual states also mandate partnerships with the family, child, and community. This family-centered approach ensures a more equal and consistent partnership between home and school.

8-1bStrengthening the Partnership

The early childhood professional and the child’s family have knowledge, skills, and a sense of caring to bring to the relationship. Each has a need for the other. Partnerships usually begin with such a need, so families and teachers become coworkers and colleagues in a joint effort to help each child reach full potential.

What Families Contribute to the Partnership

Families have a unique contribution to make in their child’s learning. They know the child’s physical, medical, social, and intellectual history. They know the child as a member of a family and the role that child plays in the family dynamic, the extended family, and the community.

Families provide the context with which the teacher can view the whole child. They already know what makes their children happy or sad and how they react to changes in routine. Thus, families have a wealth of intimate knowledge about their children that the teacher is only just beginning to discover. Figure 8-1 highlights strategies for effective interactions that strengthen the family–school partnership.

Figure 8-1

All families are interested in the education and well-being of their children. Nurture the relationship through effective interactions that benefit everyone.

Strategies for Strengthening the Partnership

Treat all families with dignity and respect their differences.

Listen to—and learn from—families. Ask, don’t tell.

Clarify and articulate expectations of one another.

Share the responsibility and power of making decisions about the child’s needs and concerns.

Identify and articulate your values and beliefs.

Keep an open mind; move out of your comfort zone in your approaches and attitudes.

Keep informed and stay informed, maintaining frequent communication with families.

Educate families about their children’s needs at each stage of development.

Demonstrate your understanding of the feelings that families express. Be empathetic.

Find common ground for agreement when discussing differences.

How Families Benefit One of the greatest values of a strong family–school partnership is the opportunity for families to meet each other. They find that they share similar problems and frustrations and that they can support one another in finding solutions. Friendships based on mutual interests and concerns about their children can help them forge new relationships.

Through positive home–school relationships, families find ways to become more effective as their children’s first and most important teachers. Families benefit from involvement in their children’s education in many ways:

· They observe teachers model successful techniques when working with children.

· They learn what behaviors are appropriate at certain ages.

· They begin to know how their children make friends and extend their social relationships.

· They become more aware of school and community resources that are available to them and, in the person of the teacher, they have access to a consultant who knows and understands their child and can help them when they need it.

Family members teach by word and example—by everything they do and say. Through closer home–school relationships, families can be helped to see that their everyday experiences with their children provide teachable moments, those spontaneous opportunities for educating children.

A family-centered approach to school relationships supports the growth of the family as well as the child. When families have a meaningful partnership with their children’s teachers, it raises their sense of importance and diminishes some of the isolation and anxiety of child rearing. By empowering families to participate in decisions affecting their children’s education, teachers can help families see themselves as a vital part of the education process.

Family Cultural Influences Families represent a wide range of cultural backgrounds, so it is important that their contributions be sought out, acknowledged, and used. All the subtle communication styles that exist within various cultures can be barriers to good family–school relationships, or they can be the basis on which teachers and families connect with each other. This is one of the most pressing issues in teaching effectively today. In Figure 8-2 , Bradley and Kibera (2007) explore four different characteristics of family culture to consider when working with families from diverse backgrounds.

Figure 8-2

Exploring the cultural dimensions of families is part of an ongoing process to develop greater cultural awareness.

Cultural Dimensions of Families

Cultural Dimension	Questions for Reflection
Values and beliefs	How is family defined? What roles do adults and children play? How does the family make sense of the child’s behavioral difficulties? How does culture inform the family’s view of appropriate and inappropriate ways of dealing with problem behavior and guidance? What is most important to the family?
Historical and social influences	What strengths and stressors does the family identify? What barriers do they experience?
Communication	What is the family’s primary language? What support is required to enable communication? How are needs and wants expressed? How are unhappiness, dissatisfaction, and distress experienced or expressed?
Attitudes toward seeking help	How does the family seek help, and from whom? How do members view professionals, and how do professionals view them?

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(From Bradley & Kibera, 2007.)

Families whose linguistic and cultural backgrounds are different from the teacher need to share their perspectives so that issues relating to basic routines such as eating and sleeping may be understood in their cultural context. The same is true for a family’s expectations about their child’s experiences in the classroom. Only through forging such a partnership can families of diverse cultural backgrounds become true contributors to their children’s education and care. Chapter 10 discusses culturally responsive teaching.

What Teachers Contribute to the Partnership

Early childhood professionals share similar goals with families but come from a different perspective. Teachers see a child in relation to normal milestones and appropriate behaviors. They notice how each child plays with other children, what seems to challenge Mickey, and when Ramon is likely to fall apart. Unlike families, teachers see individual children from a perspective that is balanced by the numerous other children they have taught. They observe how the child behaves with a variety of adults, sensing children’s ability to trust other adults through interactions with them at school. When families need help, teachers become resources and work with families to find behavioral specialists, psychologists, hearing and speech specialists, or other educational programs as warranted.

Look at the excerpts from NAEYC’s Code of Ethical Conduct at the beginning of this chapter to review the ethical responsibilities to families. Note the ideals and principles stated in Section I, P-1.4, and Section II, I-2.5 and 2.6. These three passages call for building mutual trust, communicating children’s progress in developmentally appropriate terms, and acknowledging the right of parents to participate in decisions that affect their child. Supporting and encouraging families is part of the teacher’s role. Good teachers are sensitive to parents’ concerns and understand their needs.

Families want to learn the best ways to raise their children and to improve their child-rearing skills. There are numerous opportunities for the early childhood teacher to help families achieve these goals. Figure 8-3 cites a multitude of ways that a school, center, or family child care home can become a family-friendly early childhood program.

Figure 8-3

A checklist for a family-oriented approach to meeting children’s needs.

A Checklist for Making Your School “Family Friendly”

Hold an orientation for families at a convenient time.

Provide a place for families to gather.

Create a parent/family bulletin board.

Give annual awards for family involvement.

Create a family advisory committee.

Allow families to help develop school policies and procedures.

Schedule events on evenings and weekends.

Provide child care for meetings.

Establish a book or toy lending library.

Make informal calls to families, especially to share a child’s successes.

Provide transportation for families who need it.

Provide translators for families who need them.

Send appropriate duplicate mailings to noncustodial parents.

Survey families for issues of interest and need.

Develop links to health and social support services.

Provide resource and referral lists.

Publish a school newsletter on a regular basis.

Provide multilingual written communications as needed.

Hire teachers with a strong commitment to supporting families and parents.

Provide in-service training for teachers about working with families and parents.

Hire teachers who are respectful of social, ethnic, and religious backgrounds of families.

Hire staff that is reflective of the cultural background of students and families.

Encourage regularly scheduled conferences between parents/family and teachers.

Offer a variety of family support programs.

Provide many opportunities for family members to volunteer.

Provide frequent opportunities for parents/families to air their concerns.

Encourage parents/families to ask questions, to visit, and to call.

Encourage families to know what goes on in the classroom.

Encourage families to report back on what works well.

Encourage families to attend social events.

Encourage teachers to make home visits.

Professional Resource Download

What Children Gain Children reap the rewards of parent involvement. Decades of research show the positive effects on achievement when children’s families are involved in their education. The family is the primary source from which the child develops and grows and is needed to reinforce the learning, attitudes, and motivation that are required if children are to succeed. Family visibility is especially important for low-income and minority children; their family’s presence can heighten a sense of belonging. Children gain when families are able to monitor their children’s progress and reinforce the educational goals at home.

Families appreciate their culture being represented in all areas of school life.

Families come to an early childhood program looking for teachers who know about children and who will help them in raising their children. Children benefit when teachers respond to family concerns with caring and encouragement.

8-1cBecoming Full and Equal Partners

Families and schools are natural allies; together, they claim the primary responsibility in educating and socializing children. They can and should be equal partners in that effort.

Early childhood educators have long recognized the importance of providing families with child-rearing information and support to strengthen families to meet the challenges of parenting in the years ahead. The early childhood program is often the first time that a family has the opportunity to collaborate in their child’s education, so it is important that the experience be meaningful and effective.

The high divorce rate, the growing number of single-parent families, families in which both parents work, and increasing numbers of immigrant families all support the need for a more family-centered approach. (See the section entitled “ The Complexity of Today ’s Families,” and Chapter 15 for examples and discussion.) Long-held perceptions of what constitutes a family may no longer correspond to the reality of today’s families. Family support takes on new meaning when differences in family styles are acknowledged and supported.

Public Recognition

A growing awareness of the need for a family-centered approach to parent education has been recognized by several government agencies. From its beginning in 1965, Head Start mandated parent involvement as necessary for the health and welfare of many young children. The Education of the Handicapped Amendments (Public Law 99-457) in 1986 required early intervention services aimed at the family, not just the child. Public Law 99-457 includes parents as members of a team of professionals who develop an individualized education plan (IEP) and individualized family service plan (IFSP) related to the child and family’s needs. Some states have developed comprehensive, family-centered early childhood programs funded through local school districts.

Many grandparents are responsible for raising their grandchildren and may need additional teacher support.

iStockphoto.com/Manuela Krause

8-2The Complexity of Today’s Families

The complexity of today’s families reflects the cultural changes in the United States over the past 50-odd years. The nuclear family, made up of a father, mother, and two children, has become blended, mixed, and extended. Look around your neighborhood to see the variety of family units. Parents today may or may not be married to one another, may have a same-sex orientation, and may include foster parents and adoptive parents. Grandparents, aunts and uncles, and siblings may be the parental figures in a household. Two people can be defined as a family, and so can those that include half-siblings, stepsiblings, close friends, and gays and lesbians (Browne & Gordon, 2014).

The term parent usually means a mother, father, or someone who is a legal guardian. That definition, too, has been stretched to accommodate the complexities of today’s lifestyles. Browne & Gordon (2014) define parents as those individuals who are raising biological children, foster children, adopted children, and children of other family members and friends.

Because half of women with children younger than age 6 work outside the home, fathers often bring children to child care.

Picture Partners/Alamy

8-2aUnderstanding Parenthood

The role of a parent is ever-changing. Parents grow and develop along with their children and adapt to the size of their family and the ages and stages of each child. Every family has its own unique systems and patterns for raising their children. Two of them are worth exploring as you focus on working with parents and families.

Patterns of Child Rearing

Baumrind (1972) defined three types of parental styles: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. These styles differ in the ways parents accept the child and are involved in the child’s life, their control of the child, and how much autonomy they grant.

The most successful are authoritative parents, who foster the highest levels of self-esteem, self-reliance, independence, and curiosity in children. They are warm, responsive, attentive to children’s needs, and set clear limits and high expectations. Authoritative parents are consistent in reinforcing rules and allow their children to make reasonable decisions appropriate to their age and experience.

In contrast, authoritarian child-rearing patterns reflect high control and demands combined with relatively low communication and nurturance. They rarely listen to the child’s point of view. Authoritarian parents are strict; they expect and demand obedience and may lack warmth and affection. They exert control through belittling, threats, and criticisms and may resort to force. Children raised by such parents may become hostile when frustrated, anxious, and withdrawn and may resort to force when they do not get their way.

With permissive parents, there is a high level of overindulgence or inattentiveness, warmth, and affection, but little control. Clear standards and rules are not set, nor are they reinforced consistently. Permissive parents allow children to make decisions that are not appropriate for their age. Children of such parents may be impulsive, disobedient, rebellious, overly demanding, dependent on adults, and have poor task persistence.

The positive effects of the authoritative parent model demonstrates that using reason over power, maintaining appropriate limits yet supporting appropriate autonomy, and encouraging give-and-take create more successful children.

Stages of Parent Development

Just as children have various stages of development, parents grow and change throughout the course of raising their children. The parent of one child has different knowledge and feelings than does a parent with three children. Older first-time parents’ experiences differ from those of teenage parents. Galinsky (1987) defined six distinct phases that parents go through. During pregnancy, they fantasize about what kind of parent they would like to be and prepare to include a baby in their lives. During the first 2 years, attachment is a key issue as they reconcile their child-rearing fantasies with their actual experience. From toddler to adolescence, parents establish their authority style and family rules and teach the values, knowledge, and skills that they want to pass on. Rules and authority are renegotiated during the teenage years as parents and children create new relationships with one another. Another redefinition of roles occurs when children leave home and parents reflect on their relationships with their children.

As you work with families, it is helpful to look at the stage or stages that parents might be going through. Depending on the size of the family, they may be going through several stages at once. In some cases, boundaries are being readjusted, relationships are in flux, and issues of autonomy are being questioned, all within the same time period. Each family has different needs, concerns, and experiences depending on the age of their children and their own stage of parent development. The early childhood professional’s role is to support and understand the various forces within the family that affect their journey of parenthood.

8-2bFamilies with Diverse Needs

Parents are parents the world over and have mutual problems and pleasures as they go about bringing up their young. Figure 8-4 lists some types of families who may face additional challenges in child rearing.

Figure 8-4

Today’s families may need additional support to create healthy and successful environments in which to raise children.

Family Structure

Early childhood educators must be sensitive to the special challenges and unique needs of the families they serve. Family situations and structures vary and thousands of children and their families may need different levels of support. Today’s families consist of

· Families with children with developmental delays or disabilities

· Single-parent families

· Families of adopted children

· Foster care families

· Dual-earner families

· Divorced or separated families, with joint custody and coparenting

· Families with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) parents

· Stepfamilies

· Homeless families

· Families with teenage parents

· Families with grandparents raising grandchildren

· Biracial or multiracial families

· Interfaith families

· Families with an incarcerated parent

· First-time older parents

· Families raising children in a culture different from their own

· Families who do not speak English

· Families whose children are in a home where English is not the predominant language

Strategies for Supporting for Families with Diverse Structures

1. Create a caring, safe, and welcoming environment for all.

2. Accept all family units as they are; deal with any biases or stereotypes you may still have; do not judge any family.

3. Heighten your own sensitivity to the broadest definition of what defines a family.

4. Communicate acceptance, approval, and encouragement.

5. Respect each family’s definition of their parenting roles and responsibilities.

6. Encourage parents to visit and participate in school as they are able.

7. Build mutual relationships through positive interactions about their children.

8. Explore any conflicts with an open and sensitive mind set. Learn from the parents as they learn from you.

9. Help families locate community resources to address their needs.

10. Connect families with one another to explore mutual interests and concerns.

The reality of family life for the children you teach may not look like the one in which you grew up. Today’s teacher must be respectful of the family context and unique challenges of each family represented in the early childhood program.

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8-2cValuing Family Culture

One of the most important things that teachers can do when working with nontraditional families and families from cultures different from their own is to recognize that they share many of the same values and aspirations as other families and that there are commonalities among them. All parents want their children in environments that value and accept their family.

Depending on the family’s situation, communication may be difficult. In many instances, nontraditional families and families from some other cultures may not want to divulge personal information. They may be influenced by previous negative experiences when they have talked about their lifestyle, values, or culture. In these cases, the early childhood educator must work hard to assure these families of confidentiality, stressing the concept that when we know more about a child’s family situation, we are in a better position to support and help the child and the family.

Families sense whether an early childhood environment is truly inclusive and supports and celebrates all varieties of families. The inclusive environment is explored further in Chapter 9 . In Chapter 10 , curriculum is viewed from an inclusive and culturally appropriate point of view. Dealing with attitudes and biases among staff members is discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 9 . These are all important considerations for working with families with sensitive issues as we help their children achieve their potential. Eisenbud (2002) suggests some ways to create an environment that supports family diversity:

· Ask family members what names the child has for their caregivers, and use these names with the child.

· Create enrollment forms that allow for answers other than “mother” or “father” to indicate the person who is legally responsible for the child and child custody arrangements.

· Find out what the child has been taught about his or her family situation and discuss with the family how you can support their position.

· If one or the other parent is absent, find out if and how that parent is involved with the child’s life.

· Be aware of any drug use/addiction related to the child’s health and welfare.

· Treat all adults who care for the child, such as grandparents, guardians, caregivers, or adoptive parents, as the child’s parents.

· Review the curriculum, books, and physical environment on a regular basis to ensure that all types of families are represented in the classroom.

· Adapt your conversations with children to reflect the diversity of families; for instance, “two mommies, stepbrother, foster dad,” and so forth.

Look around at the classroom where you are teaching and add other suggestions to strengthen all family units, no matter their makeup.

8-2dFamilies of Dual-Language Learners

Many young children are learning English as they continue to learn and speak their native home languages. This presents a challenge to early childhood teachers, who much collaborate with families to help children learn both languages in developmentally appropriate ways.

Maintaining a home language while learning English supports a child’s self-esteem and cognitive development along with strengthening family ties and promoting social interactions (Nemeth, 2012). To this end, teachers’ professional development and in-service should include learning more effective strategies for working with dual-language-learning (DLL) students and their families. See also Chapter 13 for more discussion of DLL.

Diversity

Immigrant Families

In 2012, nearly 13 million children in the U.S. were from immigrant families (KidsCount, 2014), and they come from a wide variety of nations and cultures.

Nearly 50 percent of immigrants are from Latin America, 41 percent are from Asia, and 8.5 percent are from Europe. The largest individual populations of immigrants come from Mexico, China, India, and the Philippines (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2012). Nearly 17 percent of all immigrants are children under age 16 (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2012).

The percentage of children who are Hispanic has increased faster than that of any other racial or ethnic group and will continue to reach 25 percent of the school-age population by 2020. Asians are also are a fast-growing ethnic group (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012).

These data, added to existing ethnic populations already present in the United States, challenge the early childhood teacher to a multicultural sensitivity not yet realized. A willingness to learn various cultural norms and a knowledge of languages will be helpful for teachers to communicate with children and parents whose primary language is not English.

Miscommunication may be a problem when teaching a classroom of children with such diverse backgrounds. When cultural perspectives of the family and the school differ markedly, teachers can easily misread a child’s attitude and abilities because of different styles of languages and behaviors. For example, in some preschool settings, children are encouraged to call their teachers by their first name. This informal style of addressing authority figures may make some parents uncomfortable. Learning the meaning of behavior from another perspective will help expand our own view of the world.

The early childhood professional must aggressively recruit and train early childhood professionals within the immigrant cultures. Communicating across cultures is a challenge early childhood teachers will need to meet.

U.S. Bureau of the Census (2012). Population estimates and projection). Washington, D.C.DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved January, 2015.U.S. Department of Homeland Security (2013). Yearbook of immigration statistics: 2011. Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security Statistics, 2013. Retrieved January, 2015.

8-3Enhancing Communication to Support Learning

Families can be an invaluable source of information, support, and affirmation to the teacher and to the school. There are many ways to foster effective communication between home and school that contribute to a caring learning community.

8-3aEducation and Involvement

Almost any contact between the teacher and the family can be perceived as parent/family education. Teachers interpret children’s behavior to their family, suggest alternative ways for dealing with problems, show them toys and games that are appropriate, hold workshops on parenting skills, mention books and articles of interest, and reinforce family interest in and attention to their children’s education. All of these activities are considered parent/family education. Some are planned; others are spontaneous.

Parent/family education happens frequently, whether in a meeting that focuses on positive discipline or in an informal chat about car seat safety. Many early childhood settings offer family support programs based on the needs of families and their children. Again, the Code of Ethical Conduct in Appendix A can be useful, especially the sections that outline the teacher’s professional role to families.

Family involvement may range from high to low, depending on the family’s availability. Some family members may stay and observe before or after school; visit the class and help with an activity; attend school events; collect and make materials for classroom use; help with school events; work in the office or library; write the class newsletter; participate weekly in the classroom; and, for the greatest involvement, take a leadership position.

8-3bStrategies for Keeping in Touch

Personal communication through phone calls, e-mails, notes, home visits, conferences, and day-to-day interactions help to maintain the close contact that strengthens the relationship between home and school. Five of the most common ways teachers can involve and inform families are:

· Classroom newsletters provide information on what the children are doing in class, any special events taking place, personal information about new babies, vacations, or other important events in the lives of the children. Be sure that the newsletter is written in the language or languages of the families in the class. See Figure 8-5 for some examples of information that can be provided in a newsletter.

Figure 8-5

Classroom newsletters enlarge a family’s understanding of what their child is experiencing and extends the learning between home and school.

The Importance of a Classroom Newsletter

Why	Newsletter Example
To keep families	Next Thursday is our first nature walk around the school and the neighborhood.
informed	Make sure that your child wears boots or waterproof shoes to keep feet dry while we explore. Join us on our walk, if you can.
For insights into learning	The nature walk is part of our science curriculum. We want the children to explore the outdoors to stimulate their natural curiosity and delight in their discoveries. Firsthand experiences with the texture of tree bark or bird’s nests help children create a base of knowledge on which to build their understanding of the natural world around them.
To bring learning home	You might want to try this at home with the whole family. Walk around your neighborhood and look at what is growing. Take a bag or basket to collect leaves and other natural materials. The children can make a collage out of them when you return home. Comment as the children make discoveries: “I wonder what makes the leaves so green.” “What do you think happens to that flower when it snows?” Open-ended questions such as these help children clarify their own thinking and learning.
To keep communication flowing	Several questions about our guidance philosophy came up at the last family meeting. We are putting together an insert for next month’s newsletter, and we would like your help on one of the topics. How do you deal with bedtime situations (delaying tactics, such as one more story, another glass of water, and other issues) in your home? What works for you? Talk with Mrs. Olga or Miss Leona if you want to participate.

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· Bulletin boards, posted where families can see them, contain notices about parent/family meetings, guest speakers, community resources, child care, babysitting, clothing and furniture exchanges, and library story hours. Information regarding health programs, automobile and toy safety, and immunization clinics can also be provided this way, as can information on cultural events appropriate to the ethnic makeup of the school community.

· Classroom website/blogs are common avenues on which to post pictures and updates, field trip notices, and other information that also might be part of a newsletter. A classroom website keeps families aware of daily activities and curriculum. Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and other apps provide yet another way to communicate in this world of technology and social media.

· A parent/family place may be provided in an area or room at the school set aside for family use, and this can be an important way to let families know that they are wanted and needed. Some schools provide space for a parent/family lounge, complete with a library of resource books on child rearing. If there is no available space, set up a coffee bar in the office or hall. The smallest amount of space—even a countertop with magazines—can be a start.

· Informal contacts are the easiest and most useful lines of communication with families. All it takes is a phone call, a note, an e-mail, or a brief talk on a daily basis. For families who have difficulty attending meetings or who do not accompany their child to and from school, teachers can send home a note along with a sample of artwork, a story the child has dictated, or a photograph of the child with friends.

· Home visits can be useful, depending on their purpose. The visit might be set up to focus only on the relationship between the teacher and the child.

Informal connections can be made when a parent picks a child up at school.

DAP

Scaffolding Parent Involvement

Scaffolding is a developmentally appropriate technique to support learning by giving advice or help on mastering a skill. For families who may feel uneasy about getting involved in the program, scaffolding their experience may offer needed reassurance. From low to high levels of involvement, teachers ( in italics) support families’ involvement (in regular type) by scaffolding their participation (Adapted from Browne & Gordon, 2013):

Or the visit might have a purely social function—a way for teachers to meet the whole family and for all the family members to get acquainted with the teachers. In any event, teachers can use this as a bridge to build a pleasant, casual beginning with a family.

8-3cThe Separation Process: Learning to Trust One Another

Each year, as school begins, a child enters a classroom and says good-bye to a loved one. This is a new experience for that child, no matter how long he or she might have been enrolled in school. Even children returning to the same classroom find some changes. There may be new teachers and new children, along with some familiar faces, or the room, the teachers, and the children may all be strangers. Some children have had previous group experience to draw on; others have never before have been part of a group. It is usually the younger children, who may be starting a program for the first time, for whom separation is the hardest.

Each child reacts differently, and it is difficult to predict how a child will respond. Marco clings to his dad’s leg; Sherline bounces in and runs off to play, leaving her grandmother standing alone; while Taryn is crying and clutching a stuffed dog as her mother carries her into the toddler room. The toddler teacher greets them and spends a few minutes talking to Taryn before her mother leaves. Every child has a natural way of dealing with the anxieties of separating from someone they trust. Their behavior is as varied as they are.

Brain Research Says …

What Shall We Tell the Parents?

What do families really need to know about their children’s brain development? Thanks to the media and popular press, brain research stories abound, and parents’ interest is captured by headlines that call out, “Make your baby smarter through Mozart!” and “These toys will increase your child’s brain power!” We can help families understand what they most need to know by telling them a few simple facts.

First, families need to know the significant role of the parent/family/caregiver in providing the kind of stimulation and care that babies and young children need for their brains to grow and be healthy. Parents are the child’s first caregivers and teachers, and through their sensitive nurturing, they build secure attachments with their children. Babies are wired to feel, think, respond, and move, and the gestures, reactions, and touching they receive from their families are critical to their brain development and learning. Parents need to respond quickly to their children’s cues when they cry for attention or support because this builds children’s trust in their caregivers, in themselves, and in the world about them. Touching is important. Children feel more secure and reassured when they are held, cuddled, and snuggled.

Too much stress elevates cortisol levels in the brain to a degree that can destroy or reduce brain cells. Encourage families to reduce or remove as much stress from their children’s lives as possible. This often means that families need to address their own stressful situations as well.

Second, families need to know the significant role of the environment. Nature and nurture do not operate separately, but as partners in the brain’s architecture. Genes and the environment work together to influence learning. The brain is in constant motion, growing new connections based on the activities and experiences of the child.

Families can be encouraged to provide an enriched learning environment that offers hands-on activities that include the five senses. Daily activities offer challenges for growth. When a parent asks, “How can we make more room for your new puzzles?” this helps children learn to think, solve problems, and listen to other people’s suggestions. Children love repetition (How many times have you read Goodnight Moon or sung “Eensy Weensy Spider”?). The brain loves repetition too, because it creates more neural pathways for learning. Language—and lots of it—also help the brain grow new connections, so parents should talk, sing, make up silly songs, recite poetry, talk, chat, and play language games with their young children. Music—all kinds of music—stimulates all aspects of the brain. Art activities prompt the part of the brain that deals with cognition, memory, and emotion. Any kind of physical activity stimulates brain growth and helps to fight obesity.

Families are fundamental teachers in everyday situations. They need to know that much of what they are already doing is helping their children’s brain activity in just the right way. They should feel confident that they are able to provide the stimulation for brain growth. Expensive toys and CDs are not the answer; parents are.

Questions

1. What do you think of the claims being made about enhancing a child’s brain power? Which ones make sense to you after reading through the articles in this text?

2. How would you encourage families to support their child’s expanding brain?

The transition from home to school or child care settings is an important time for children and their families. Leaving familiar adults and learning to trust other adults is a major milestone in a child’s life. The separation process is often as hard on the parents or family members as it can be on the child. Emotions run high as the time comes to say good-bye. Feelings of guilt, sadness, anger, and unhappiness may emerge as the parent/family member and child deal with the pain of separation.

A well-placed bulletin board with helpful information provides a resource for children and their families.

In Chapter 4 , Figure 4-5 presents a helpful reminder of how patterns of attachment affect the separation process. For most children, the separation is a struggle between their natural desire to explore the world and their equally natural resistance to leaving what is “safe.” It is during these years that children are learning to move about under their own power and trust themselves. Coming to school or child care provides each child with the opportunity to grow, starting with the separation from their family. Through careful planning, close communication, and sensitivity to one another, families, teachers, and children master this task.

Written school policies and procedures for separation are helpful so that families know what to expect and can go over the information with a teacher one on one or at a general parent meeting before the child enters the program. Separation time is when families and teachers must be especially clear with one another.

8-3dParent/Family–Teacher Conferences

Parent/family–teacher conferences are the backbone of any good family–school relationship. A conference is a mutually supportive link between the adults who are most concerned about a child and should be a regular part of the communication process in all early childhood programs.

Conferences are held for many reasons. The initial conference, when the child first enrolls in school, may focus on the child’s development, daily habits, and interests, as well as the family’s hopes and expectations. Further into the school year, the teacher shares observations and assessments of the child and works with the family to develop mutual goals that are reinforced at home and at school. Individual conferences may be called at any time by the family or the teacher to express concerns, resolve conflicts, and problem solve together.

Every occasion when families and teachers get together to talk about a child is a step toward building trusting relationships between home and school. A successful conference is the result of good planning and clear communications, such as:

· Be prepared, organized, and have a clear purpose. Use a written format to maintain focus. Ask for other staff input and up-to-date examples. Invite the family to help set the agenda.

· Put the family at ease with a warm welcome and thanks for their time. Help them relax by stating some of their child’s strengths, citing examples. Compliment them on something you have noticed, either with their child or when in the classroom with other children. Be sensitive to any cultural differences that may arise.

· Ask—don’t tell. Begin with open-ended questions (“How is that new bedtime schedule working out?” or “Can you tell me more?”). Learn how to listen carefully to what is being said.

· Keep the focus on the child. Keep the conversation based on mutual concerns and how to help each other. Make a plan of action together and discuss ways to follow through and stay in touch.

· Write a brief report after the conference. Make a special note of the important issues that were discussed, solutions that were agreed on, and dates for checking progress. Many of the child assessment forms used in early education programs require teachers to keep these records, along with information about child progress.

· Student and beginning teachers should find a good role model in a more experienced teacher who acts as a mentor. Ask that person to sit in on a conference with you and afterward have them reflect on it with you. Learn from your experiences.

The separation process is successful if the parents and children know that teachers are there when children need comfort and support.

Teaching with Intention

Saying Good-Bye

The key to a successful separation process is a trusting and respectful relationship between the teacher and the family. This relationship is intentionally heightened during the time that the child and family are trying to separate from one another. This adjustment is a gradual process, and families need encouragement and guidance as their child moves toward independence.

Hint: Listen carefully to the family’s concerns and assess the kind of support that they need to help them through this transition. Adrienne’s mother worries, “I’m afraid Adrienne won’t stop crying when I leave. I don’t want her to cry for hours.” The teacher responds, “She may cry for a little while, but I will stay with her until she stops. Adrienne and I will find a great place to play in a few minutes. I will phone or e-mail you in a while to tell you how things are going. Don’t worry. We will stay in touch.”

It can be helpful if the teacher and the child can spend some time getting to know each other before the child enters the program. Sometimes teachers can make home visits.

Hint: The parent introduces the teacher: “Mrs. Hernandez has come to our home to meet you today, Carlos. When you feel comfortable, why don’t you get your favorite book and show it to her.” The teacher responds: “I would love to look at your book with you or anything else you might want to show me. You and I can have this time all to ourselves.”

Another way to accomplish the initial meeting is a special orientation before school starts, where children can come to the school and meet their new teachers. In some settings, the children are scheduled for half-day sessions in small groups that allow teachers to have more individual time with a child and observe his or her interactions with others. The other half of the class comes in the second part-time session. This schedule may continue throughout the first week, during which many separations take place.

The best way to accomplish the actual separation is for the teacher and family member to meet ahead of time and talk about what will happen during the first few weeks. This is especially important for infants and toddlers.

Hint: The teacher to child’s mother: “I know you need to be at work by 8:30 am, so I suggest you bring Trey into the center by 8. That way, we’ll have some time together with him before you have to leave. If he has a favorite blanket or security toy, please bring that too.” Trey’s mother responds: “But what do I do? Just walk out when it is time?” The teacher reassures Trey’s mother that a well-thought-out, step-by-step process takes place and that they will create the timetable together.

Trey’s mother carries him into the infant room at 8:00 on his first day at the center. The teacher immediately makes contact with Trey while he is still in his mother’s arms. They walk about the classroom, showing Trey’s mother where to put his belongings.

Trey begins to warm up to the teacher. She sits down on the floor with Trey and his mother and talks with Trey about his “blankie.” “Oh, that is a nice warm blankie you have, and we’ll keep it right next to you. Here’s a ball. Can you push it on the floor?” Trey grabs the ball and begins a short interaction with the teacher. After a few minutes, the teachers tells Trey’s mother: “I think you could say goodbye in a couple of minutes if Trey keeps playing with me this way. I’ll pick him up, and you can tell him you’ll be back soon. I’ll reassure him that I will stay with him until you return. Keep your goodbye short and sweet and then leave immediately. Are you okay with this? Do you think it would be a good time to try it?” Trey’s mother nods her agreement.

When the teacher gives Trey’s mother the signal, she rises from the floor and lets the teacher pick Trey up. “Goodbye, Trey. I love you and I’ll see you in a little while.” She hugs him, turns, and leaves the room.

As Trey begins to cry, the teacher soothes and holds him, telling him she will stay with him until his mother returns. His crying persists until he catches the eye of another baby on the floor. “That is Jackelin, Trey. Let’s sit down by her and see if she wants to roll the ball to us.” Trey is quiet for a time, cries a little more, and then begins to watch the other children. Later, the teacher calls Trey’s mother to let her know that he has eaten his lunch and is napping. They agree that if she could pick him up a little early that day, it will help him realize that she is indeed coming back for him. They also agree to repeat this process for another few days and then see if they have to make any adjustments.

The teacher’s intention is to help the parents assess the situation and come to an agreement on when to actually separate. When a teacher acts with warm conviction, families appreciate the firmness and confidence at a time when their own feelings may be ambiguous. At times, separation may take longer, and a family member may have to stay for a little while for several days or a week, taking longer and longer breaks away from the child. Children begin to realize that their family member does return each day, and they become more and more trusting.

Although this process is a good model to follow, there are times and situations when family members do not have the time to help the child make the adjustment readily. Separations are particularly hard on working parents, many of whom have only a short period of time to leave the child and get to work on time. During those times, the teaching staff take on extra responsibility while one teacher who has made a connection with the child works through the separation process with the family.

Think about This

1. What are your feelings about parents leaving crying children?

2. How would you describe your approach to helping a child and parent separate?

3. Why do you think a separation process is valuable for families?

4. 8-3eMaintaining Privacy and Confidentiality

5. The more involved that families are in the workings of the school, the more important it is to establish guidelines for protecting the privacy of everyone concerned. Family members who volunteer in the office, the classroom, or on a field trip must understand that they cannot carry tales out of school about any of the children, the teachers, the administration, or other parents. The school must be clear about its expectations for ensuring such privacy and communicate policies directly and openly to families. Family members who work on advisory boards, planning committees, or other activities that allow them access to the school office should be sensitive to the confidentiality issue and respect the privacy of every family enrolled in the school.

6. Professional Resource Downloads

7. The following Professional Resource Downloads are available for this chapter:

8. Figure 8-3: A Checklist for Making Your School “Family Friendly”

9. Figure 8-4: Family Structure

CH. 10

Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning

· Chapter Introduction

· 10-1 Curriculum: The Framework for Teaching and Learning

· 10-1a What Is a Curriculum?

· 10-1b Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum

· 10-1c Culturally Appropriate Curriculum

· 10-1d Quality Curriculum: Five Basic Essentials

· 10-2 High-Quality Curriculum: Developing Skills, Knowledge, and Learning

· 10-2a The Teacher’s Role in Learning through Play

· 10-2b Setting the Stage for Play

· 10-3 Planning High-Quality Curricula: Engaging Teaching and Learning

· 10-3a Culturally Responsive Teaching

· 10-3b Dual Language Learners

· 10-3c Children with Special Needs

· 10-3d Integrating Learning Standards

· 10-3e Planning for Quality

· 10-3f Teacher-Directed Learning

· 10-3g Group Times

· 10-3h Creating Written Curriculum Plans

· 10-3i Webbing

· 10-3j Themes

· 10-3k The Project Approach

· 10-3l Using Technology in the Classroom

· 10-4 Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum Models

· 10-4a High/Scope: Cognitively Oriented Model

· 10-4b Bank Street: Developmental-Interaction Model

· 10-4c The Schools of Reggio Emilia

· 10-4d Waldorf Schools

· 10-4e Montessori Schools

· 10-5 Chapter Review

· 10-5a Summary

· 10-5b Key Terms

· 10-5c Review Questions

· 10-5d Observe and Apply

· 10-5e Helpful Websites

· 10-5f References

Chapter Introduction

Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning

Enlarge Image

Learning Objectives

· LO1Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the framework for creating a curriculum that is developmentally and culturally appropriate, and identify essential elements that engage children of all ages and abilities to learn on many levels.

· LO2Articulate the relationship between a play-based curriculum and the development of skills, knowledge, and learning.

· LO3Describe techniques that foster development and learning, including written curriculum plans, and how they are supported through learning standards, goal setting, and teacher-directed activities.

· LO4Investigate curriculum models that support play-based learning and describe their specific strengths and characteristics.

Competency Areas

Standards for Professional Development

The Following NAEYC Standards for Initial and Advanced Early Childhood Professional Preparation are Addressed in this Chapter:

· Standard 1 Promoting Child Development and Learning

· Standard 2 Building Family and Community Relationships

· Standard 3 Observing, Documenting, and Assessing to Support Young Children and Families

· Standard 4 Using Developmentally Effective Approaches to Connect Children with Families

· Standard 5 Using Content Knowledge to Build Meaningful Curriculum

· Standard 6 Becoming a Professional

· Field Experience

Code of Ethical Conduct

These are the Sections of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct that Apply to the Topics of this Chapter:

· I-1.2

To base program practices upon current knowledge and research in the field of early childhood education, child development, and related disciplines, as well as on particular knowledge of each child.

· 1-1.3

To recognize and respect the unique qualities, abilities, and potential of each child.

· 1-1.10

To ensure that each child’s culture, language, ethnicity, and family structure are recognized and valued in the program.

· 1-1.8

To support the right of each child to play and learn in an inclusive environment that meets the needs of children with and without disabilities.

· I.4.1

To provide the community with high-quality early childhood care and education programs and services.

10-1Curriculum: The Framework for Teaching and Learning

Ira, a 2-year-old, is more interested in the process of pouring milk (especially what happens after the cup is filled) than in eating and conversing at snack time. Kindergartners Bert and Leo become absorbed in watching a snail make its way across the sidewalk while taking a group field trip to the fire station. In the second grade, Hema draws pictures on her paper while the teacher outlines the daily schedule. Each of these children are involved in—and are working to create—the curriculum of an early childhood program.

10-1aWhat Is a Curriculum?

In an early childhood setting, the curriculum includes all developmental areas of children’s growth, addressing the needs of the whole child (as described in Chapter 3 ). A curriculum is more than a lesson plan, a dinosaur project, or a trip to the museum. A curriculum moves and flows with children’s attention and needs.

The curriculum is what you teach and how you teach it. It is the language game, the song that accompanies digging in the sand, and the teacher’s explanation of why the hamster died. Since young children absorb everything going on around them, they do not discriminate between what is prepared and structured for them to learn. It is all learning and all part of the curriculum.

A curriculum is the framework around which planned and unplanned activities and lessons are created. Creating a good curriculum for young children is not simply a matter of writing lessons plans; it includes:

· Knowing what needs to be taught and what methods and strategies are most appropriate for teaching it

· Understanding the process of how children interact with people and materials to learn

· Having learning take place both in the planned curriculum and the spontaneous detours that evolve from children’s needs and interests

· The ability to know when to present appropriate concepts and activities and to build on their current knowledge

· Story time, small- and large-group activities, daily transitions from one activity to another

· Free play time and the value to learn through play

· Social interactions with teachers and other children that reflect their current knowledge and understanding

The curriculum should also be relevant to the child. Head Start classes on Native American reservations develop curricula that represent the history and traditions of the tribes that the students represent. A relevant curriculum for a preschool in Seattle may include field trips to the Pike Street Market to see the recent salmon catch, whereas a transportation unit for inner-city Boston children may include subway rides.

10-1bDevelopmentally Appropriate Curriculum

An appropriate early childhood curriculum is based on the theory, research, and experience of knowing how young children develop and learn. As noted in Chapter 2 , developmentally appropriate programs, curricula, or practices are defined by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC; Copple & Bredekamp, 2009) as having the following core considerations:

· What is known about child development and learning of a particular age group so that the curriculum has appropriate experiences and learning activities to help children achieve and to challenge them.

· What is known about each individual child, the individual rate of growth, and the unique learning style so that the curriculum will reflect their needs, interests, and preferences.

· What is known about the social and cultural context of each child so that the curriculum provides meaningful and relevant learning experiences that are respectful of the backgrounds of the children and families in the group.

Children respond to curriculum materials that are inviting and accessible.

The foundation for developmentally appropriate practices (DAP) and curriculum content is historically rooted in John Dewey’s vision that schools prepare students to think and reason in order to participate in a democratic society (see Chapter 1 ). Figure 10-1 lists recommendations jointly endorsed by the NAEYC and the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education (NAECS/SDE) to ensure an developmentally appropriate curriculum. It can be used as a checklist as you move through the next three chapters, which focus on the curriculum.

Figure 10-1

There are core values that NAEYC defines as developmentally appropriate for early childhood curriculum planning.

Recommendations for a Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum

NAEYC and the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education recommend implementing a curriculum that is thoughtfully planned, challenging, engaging, developmentally appropriate, culturally and linguistically responsive, comprehensive, and likely to promote positive outcomes for all young children. The indicators of effectiveness for developing curriculum are:

· Children are active and engaged. Children of all ages and abilities can become interested and engaged, develop positive attitudes toward learning, and be supported in their feelings of security, emotional competence, and links to family and community.

· Goals are clear and shared by all. Curriculum goals are clearly defined, shared, and understood by program administrators, teachers, and families. The curriculum, activities, and teaching strategies are designed to help achieve the goals in a unified, coherent way.

· Curriculum is evidence-based. The curriculum is based on evidence that is developmentally, culturally, and linguistically relevant for each group of children and is organized around principles of child development and learning.

· Valued content is learned through investigation, play, and focused, intentional teaching. Children learn by exploring, thinking about, and inquiring about all sorts of things that are connected to later learning. Teaching strategies are tailored to children’s ages, developmental capabilities, language and culture, and abilities or disabilities.

· Curriculum builds on prior learning and experience. The content and implementation builds on children’s prior individual, age-related, and cultural learning, is inclusive of all children, and is supportive of the knowledge learned at home and in the community. The curriculum supports children whose home language is not English by building a base for later learning.

· Curriculum is comprehensive. All developmental domains are included in the curriculum, such as physical well-being and motor development, social and emotional development, language development, and cognition and general knowledge. Subject matter areas are included, such as science, mathematics, language, literacy, social studies, and the arts.

· Professional standards validate the curriculum’s subject-matter content. Curriculum meets the standards of relevant professional organizations. (For instance, the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, the National Council of Teachers of English, the National Science Teachers Association) and are reviewed so they fit together coherently.)

· Curriculum is likely to benefit children. Research indicates that the curriculum, if implemented as intended, will likely have beneficial effects. These benefits include a wide range of outcomes.

(Source: NAEYC & NAECS/SDE. 2003. Early childhood curriculum, assessment, and program evaluation: Building an effective accountable system in programs for children birth through age 8. Washington, DC: NAEYC. )

10-1cCulturally Appropriate Curriculum

If meaningful learning is derived from a social and cultural context (as Lev Vygotsky asserts), then a multicultural atmosphere must be created in which awareness and concern for true diversity (including ethnicity, gender, and abilities) permeate the program. Multicultural education is about providing equal opportunities for all groups of students.

A culturally appropriate curriculum is also a developmentally appropriate curriculum. The challenge is to develop a curriculum that reflects the plurality of contemporary American society in general and the individual classroom, in particular, and present it in sensitive, relevant ways.

Transformative Curriculum

Creating a truly multicultural classroom calls into question the familiar ways of doing things and provides new insights and ways of thinking about culture. Banks (2006) describes this approach as “transformative curriculum.”

A transformative curriculum helps teachers develop critical thinking skills so that they question some of the opinions and images of people and cultures that are represented in the Eurocentric curriculum that dominates American schools. For instance, this approach encourages teachers to look at Christopher Columbus from the perspective of a Native American before creating a curriculum about Thanksgiving, the pilgrim, or Native Americans. The transformation curriculum is a way to help develop more positive attitudes toward all racial, ethnic, and cultural groups.

The common practice in many early childhood programs of cooking ethnic foods or celebrating ethnic or cultural holidays as isolated experiences often trivializes or stereotypes groups of people. Folk tales, songs, food, and dress are symbols and expressions of a culture, not the culture itself. For children to gain any meaningful knowledge, the content must contribute to a fuller understanding of human diversity, not just be a special-occasion topic. Including diverse food, music, and clothing are important artifacts in the curriculum only when they expand a concept of diversity and serve as a link to discuss other aspects of a culture. Songs and dances of one culture could lead to a discussion of what games children play in different parts of the world.

The “ Diversity ” box identifies classroom practices that promote meaningful curriculum in a multicultural classroom.

Diversity

Ideas for Creating a Multicultural Classroom

Robles de Melendez (2004) highlights some important considerations for creating a multicultural classroom:

1. Content Integration

1. What is my curricular content? What topics do I explore with children?

2. Is diversity reflected in my classroom topics? How?

3. Are there opportunities for children to ponder their similarities and differences?

4. Are materials and resources reflective of the children’s or the nation’s diversity?

5. Are topics on diversity consistently included? How often?

2. Knowledge Construction

1. Are experiences offered for children to examine and discover their likenesses and differences?

2. Are experiences pitched at the cognitive developmental level of the child?

3. Are the classroom arrangement and materials exposing children to diversity?

4. Are questions used to guide the child as he or she ponders reality, rather than providing the answers?

3. Prejudice Reduction

1. Is the classroom (materials, books, etc.) free of cultural stereotypes?

2. When they occur, are misconceptions examined and clarified?

3. Is the teacher proactive and not “color-blind” when situations arise?

4. Are positive attitudes toward diversity modeled and encouraged?

5. Does the classroom atmosphere inspire respect and tolerance?

4. Equitable Pedagogy

1. Are all children treated equally?

2. Are all children offered a sense of success?

3. Do I show to every child that I believe in what he or she can do?

4. Do I adapt or change the curriculum to suit the child?

5. Do I show children that I respect and value their cultural identities?

5. An Empowering Classroom/School Culture

1. Are my children screened and assessed in a developmental fashion?

2. Is the child’s cultural identity acknowledged when planning and teaching sessions?

3. Is my teaching mindful of the community’s identity?

4. Is the classroom constantly acknowledging the children’s identities?

Source: de Meléndez & Beck (2013).

10-1dQuality Curriculum: Five Basic Essentials

An effective curriculum can consist of any number of factors. Five essential features of such a curriculum are that it is

· (1)

inclusive,

· (2)

integrated,

· (3)

emergent,

· (4)

based on multiple intelligences, and

· (5)

bears in mind differences in learning styles.

With these in mind, the curriculum becomes more flexible and suited to all children in the class.

Inclusive Curriculum

An inclusive curriculum challenges teachers to provide opportunities for all children, regardless of gender, abilities, disabilities, language, culture, ethnicity, and religion. The activities and materials are chosen to enhance the potential of each child and are reflective of the diversity and abilities within the classroom. All activities are adjustable to a wide range of skills and abilities; are flexible enough to accommodate the needs of each child; and are ones in which children can participate at their developmental level, yet be challenged enough to help them learn. Chapters 3 , 9 , 10 , and 11 have further information on inclusive classrooms.

Integrated Curriculum

The whole child approach that you learned about in Chapter 3 makes the point that interaction and relationship of the developmental domains are interconnected and work together to help children find meaning in and mastery of their world. Think of an integrated curriculum in the same way because it weaves across many subject areas throughout the school day so that skills and concepts are developed in the context of other learning. Subjects such as math, science, reading, writing, and social studies are planned components of the daily curriculum and not taught as separate topics. An integrated curriculum makes it possible for teachers to include skill development activities in context, not in isolation. For instance, tracing square shapes in the Writing Center and cutting out squares with scissors can expand the concept of a square. A book about shapes shows squares in many configurations to make a picture; and in the Block Center, fences and building are constructed in square shapes. In this way, each activity center supports the concept of squares in different ways. The guidelines for a developmentally appropriate curriculum found in Figure 10-1 contain many of the characteristics of an integrated curriculum.

Developmentally appropriate materials fit the abilities of all children.

Experiencing a concept in a variety of contexts is a natural rather than a contrived way for children to learn. Unit blocks, a staple in most early childhood programs, are a good example of how much learning potential is available in one activity, as noted in Figure 10-2 .

Figure 10-2

Block play is a universal activity in early childhood classrooms and promotes learning across the curriculum.

Integrated Learning through Block Play

DAP includes engaging all of the developmental domains of the whole child. Social, emotional, cognitive, physical, language, and creative areas are drawn into action during block play. The significance of what children learn while building with blocks cannot be underestimated.

While playing with blocks, children learn about many concepts:

· Science: Weight, gravity, balance, stability, height, inclines, ramps, interaction of forces

· Mathematics: Classification, order, number, fractions, depth, width, height, length, fractions, size relationships, volume, area, measurement, shape, size, space, mapping

· Social studies: Symbolic representation, mapping, grids, patterns, people and their work

· Art: Patterns, symmetry, balance, design, texture, creativity, drawing

· Language: Making comparisons, recognition of shapes and sizes, labeling, giving directions, communicating ideas and needs, writing and drawing plans, using books as resources

· Physical development: Eye–hand coordination, cleanup, hand manipulation, fine motor, visual perception

· Social development: Cooperation, sharing, clean up, conflict resolution, negotiation, respect for the work of others

· Cognitive: Planning, naming, differentiation of sizes, shapes, inductive thinking, discovery

It is easy to see why one teacher has called block play “the perfect curriculum: It has everything children need to learn!”

An integrated curriculum supports developmentally appropriate learning by fostering children’s wide range of abilities, skills, and knowledge and allowing them to proceed at their own level of development in meaningful activities.

Emergent Curriculum

An emergent curriculum is just what it says: a curriculum that comes from or slowly evolves out of the child’s experiences and interests. The emphasis is on children’s interests, their involvement in their learning, and their ability to make constructive choices. Teachers set up materials and equipment in the room and the yard, sometimes planning a few activities each day that capture children’s attention. For the most part, teachers then watch and evaluate what children do and support and extend what use children make of their experiences.

The curriculum begins with the children rather than with the teacher, who observes what children do, how they play, and what captures their interest and imagination. The point is to deepen and extend children’s learning as they discover meaning and understanding in their play. The following example shows how an emergent curriculum can be developed by following the children’s lead.

Taking Cues from Children A lively group time discussion one day in the 4-year-old classes involved a new bridge that was being built near the school. The teachers had noticed that the block area had sat unused during the week, so they added books on bridges, paper, crayons, and scissors to the shelves near the blocks and put up pictures of different kinds of bridges. These additions drew children to the block area, where they built bridges, made paper bridges, and counted the number of different kinds of bridges that were in the books nearby. Further conversations between the children and the teachers led to a woodworking project to create wooden bridges. Songs and poems about bridges became a routine part of circle time. Outdoors, the sand pit became a waterway with bridges and was soon followed by projects with boats and other water transportation. The curriculum content in this example is apparent, but an end product is not the focus. It is an example of integrated curriculum, as well as emergent curriculum, because the process that children go through in creating knowledge through the extension of bridge play fosters new insights and learning. The focus is on the child, not on the activity.

This practice of taking cues from children—noting what they play with, what they avoid, and what they change—is one of the components of an emergent curriculum and stems from the belief that in order to be a meaningful learning experience, the curriculum should come out of the daily life in the classroom. Based on the principles of Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, and Lev Vygotsky, an emergent curriculum assumes that children are active, curious learners, capable of taking the initiative and constructing their knowledge through experience. Children are encouraged to use whatever style of learning is most natural to them, using the variety of materials in their own way. A materials-rich environment in which play is valued forms the foundation for the curriculum. Here are some examples:

· Anton, a first grader, noticed how dark the sky was as he and his classmates waited for the school bus to take him home. His teacher responded that the days were shorter in winter, so there was less daylight. The children began to ask questions about how this happened. The next morning many of the Activity Centers had materials for exploring light and dark; charts for tracking the changes of light to dark; and a new outdoor thermometer. Over the next few months, children were immersed in the seasonal changes that occurred outside their windows.

· Four new babies were born to families with children in the 3-year-old class. The dramatic play area teemed with dolls, blankets, bottles, and baby beds. As the children talked about their new siblings, the teachers posed questions about the care and feeding of a newborn and how different it is from what the 3-year-olds ate. Children were asked to bring in pictures of themselves as babies and created a collage that was hung on the wall near the dramatic play area. During music, the children moved like babies and, outside, the wagons became baby carriages. So long as their interest held, the curriculum was deepened and extended.

What math and science concepts did the 4-year-olds use while creating this block building?

Courtesy of Tracy Pierce

In each instance, the curriculum followed the children’s curiosity and became more complex to maintain their interests and learning potential. The teacher’s role was to be a cocreator with the children to ensure that learning goals and objectives were met.

Planning an emergent curriculum requires good observation and listening skills and the ability to interpret children’s play. Webbing , which is discussed later in this chapter, is a good way to clarify with children what they know and what ideas they have for further exploration. Webbing also helps integrate the activity to include all learning domains.

Fostering Collaboration and Mutual Learning The emergent curriculum calls for collaboration on the part of the teachers with children and on the part of children with other children and with adults who offer suggestions and ideas. When children work collaboratively, they help each other succeed, as well as negotiate and solve problems together.

The accent is on mutual learning for both children and adults. For example, when the first grade class took a subway to the museum, this prompted a great many questions about subways and how they work. Because of the children’s interest and the teacher’s awareness of their developmental and educational needs, a project emerged and was developed over the next few weeks. Teachers learned more about what the students wanted to know about subways so that they could facilitate the children’s learning and define the goals and objectives. The children helped plan the project. They asked questions, investigated, researched, explored, and, with the teacher’s support and encouragement, formed small groups and completed assigned tasks. Books became an important resource, as did people. The teacher, knowing what the children needed and were ready to learn, guided the discussion to ensure that educational goals would be met.

For an emergent curriculum to be successful, teachers listen and observe carefully as children generate new ideas and then respond to what they hear and see that children have learned. Many observation methods were described in Chapter 6 and are appropriate ways to find ways and materials to advance and deepen what children learn. While an emergent curriculum calls for collaboration and negotiation between children and teachers, it is the teacher who knows what is necessary for children’s education and development and sets the goals for learning.

Finding Curriculum Ideas Children are only one of many sources of curriculum possibilities. A number of other sources feed into emergent curriculum, as noted by Jones (1994) in her classic work on an emergent curriculum:

· Teachers’ and parents’ interests and skills

· Developmental tasks of the age group

· The physical and natural environment, as well as people and things

· Curriculum resource books

· Family and cultural influences

· Serendipity or the unexpected

· Daily issues of living together, problem solving, conflict resolution, routines

· Values expressed by the school philosophy, the families, and the community

An emergent curriculum seems to capture the spontaneous nature of children’s play and blend it with the necessary planning and organization. In the discussion of curricular models that follows in this chapter, you see that emergent curriculum has many applications.

Multiple Intelligences

Children have varying multiple intelligences (see the discussion of Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory in Chapter 4 ) and learning and sensory styles that are important considerations when planning and implementing an individualized curriculum. When assessing the effectiveness of a curriculum, the degree to which it is individualized is an important factor.

In Chapter 4 , you read about Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (MI). According to this theory, children are capable of distinct categories of intelligence. That is, they have many different ways of knowing or of being “smart.” The potential for developing the various intelligences is based on the child’s experience, culture, and motivation. The nine MIs, with their curriculum implications, are:

1. Linguistic intelligence. Sensitivity to the sounds, structure, meanings, and functions of words and language; word games, storytelling.

2. Logical-mathematical. Sensitivity to and capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning, numbers, patterns, shapes, puzzles.

3. Spatial. Capacity to perceive the visual world accurately and to perform transformations on one’s initial perceptions: drawing, design, videos.

4. Bodily-kinesthetic. Ability to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully: touch, run, coordination.

5. Musical. Ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness: sing, dance, play instruments.

6. Interpersonal. Capacity to discern and respond to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people; social interactions, conversations.

7. Intrapersonal. Access to one’s own feelings and the ability to discriminate among one’s emotions; knowledge of one’s own strengths and weaknesses; label feelings, be reflective, set goals.

8. Naturalist. Expertise in distinguishing among members of a species; recognizing the existence of other neighboring species; and charting the relations, formally or informally, among several species: science, discovery, animals.

9. Existential. Individuals who think about the deeper aspects of life: questions such as the infinite or unexplained phenomenon and people who are drawn to issues of life and death, morality, and other matters of the spirit.

Interpersonal intelligence.

Review Figure 4-11 for examples of MIs; and for further discussion, see Chapter 12 .

In a classroom, it is easy to notice the different strengths that children have in the MI categories. Some children excel at puzzles and manipulative games, while others are busy dictating stories, building a boatyard with blocks, or holding the guinea pig. There are children who cannot be still for very long and need to be actively and physically involved in play and work for much of the day. We all have the capacities for the MI categories, but we are not equally proficient in all of them.

Through a wide variety of meaningful learning experiences, children’s strengths (and primary intelligences) can be assessed, and curricula can be developed that foster new knowledge and thinking. Individualized and integrated curricula respond to the categories of MI, as in the case of Jmel:

· Jmel is strong in spatial intelligence, and that can serve as a context for other learning in different intelligence categories.

· Her intrapersonal and linguistic intelligences can be encouraged through activities that include her telling or writing stories about something she drew and what it means to her.

· Bodily-kinesthetic and music abilities can emerge through dancing and moving the body through space in different ways. This allows Jmel to experience and reinforce her own strengths and increase her strengths in other areas as well.

If children have different ways of knowing, they should experience a concept, lesson, or subject matter in a variety of ways. As teachers and caregivers expand their own thinking about children’s abilities, they can vary what and how they teach and teach to many intelligences and developmental areas instead of just one. An integrated MI curriculum makes it possible to involve MI in a wide range of activities and enable more children to succeed by drawing on their own capacities to learn.

Learning Styles

Some people like going to lectures to learn about a new culture or country. Others prefer to watch a travelogue. Still others get the most out of traveling to that country and living among its people, eating the food, and absorbing the atmosphere. Each of these is a legitimate method of learning and processing information, and each indicates the preferred style of that particular person. In Chapter 3 , the discussion was about learning styles related to differences in children’s behavior. In this chapter, we focus on how basic learning styles affect curriculum planning. This list includes the preferred mode of each child, but not the only method by which the child can integrate knowledge:

1. The visual learner. These are children who prefer pictures to words; photos, charts, and graphs provide the necessary clues; they like to represent their learning by reading, writing, and drawing; and the finished product is important. After a field trip to the aquarium, Inez writes and illustrates a story about sharks.

2. The auditory learner. These are children who listen to others to learn and speak and discuss what they are learning. They are good at following directions in the appropriate sequence from one task to another. On the way home from the aquarium, Darius makes up a song about a starfish. The teacher asks him to teach it to the rest of the class.

3. The tactile-kinesthetic learner. These children are active, full-body learners; they need hands-on activity and learn by doing, not listening or sitting still. Back in the classroom, Raj and Michaela go straight to the block corner and begin to build an aquarium.

Curriculum begins when children and materials meet. What can this toddler learn from his play?

These modalities are the favored ways children learn through the use of their five senses. It seems clear that an individualized, integrated, emergent curriculum would be easily adaptable to all three learning modes. In fact, most early childhood experiences are heavily weighted toward the development of the five senses that provide many opportunities for children to learn through their preferred style.

10-2High-Quality Curriculum: Developing Skills, Knowledge, and Learning

In Chapter 4 , you learned about the value and process of children’s play. You may want to review that section to refresh your understanding of why a play-based curriculum enhances children’s potential for learning and is, in fact, the foundation for learning.

Brain Says …

The Little Brain that Could

“I think I can! I think I can! I think I can!” This mind-set from a well-known children’s story is what Stanford University researcher Carol Dweck calls a “growth mind-set” and has significant influence on the way students perceive their ability to learn and improve their intelligence.

The power of believing that you can improve works if you have a growth mind-set, according to Dweck during a TED talk (November 2014). A fixed mind-set (“I’m not good at math”) says that abilities and intelligence are permanent and can’t be changed. A growth mind-set (“I can learn to do that if I practice”) says that through a focused effort, you can cultivate skills and greater intelligence. It means that goals are attainable.

Mind-sets can be changed. The brain grows and gets stronger the more it is used. Students who believe they can grow their brain’s capacity to learn and solve problems are more successful in school. When a student knows that you make yourself smarter by taking on challenging problems, such as math, they have more confidence in themselves; they handle setbacks because they knows their goals can be reached. As Dweck says: “Children love this idea that their brain is like a muscle that gets stronger as they use it. … that it is malleable … and your intellectual growth is to a large degree in our own hands.”

Questions

1. Describe your thoughts about Dweck’s premise that you can retrain your brain. Has this ever happened to you with an academic challenge or a physical fitness goal? What were the results?

2. How does Dweck’s research apply to creating a high-quality curriculum for young children? What curriculum elements would you focus on to help children change their mind-set to a growth mind-set?

The vast knowledge of human development and behavior comes from researchers who spent countless hours observing and recording children playing. As noted by many, from Friedrich Froebel to Vygotsky to Gardner, children need meaningful materials and activities to learn. They need to be physically as well as mentally and emotionally involved in what and how they learn, and they need to play. Through the use of activity centers, a variety of play opportunities that develop skills, knowledge, and learning are available throughout the school day (see Figure 10-3 ).

Figure 10-3

Play is the cornerstone of learning.

High-Quality Curriculum: Enhancing Children’s Learning

High-Quality Curriculum: Enhancing Children’s Learning

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Photo: © Cengage Learning

10-2aThe Teacher’s Role in Learning through Play

Classroom teachers learn about children by listening to and observing spontaneous play activity and planning a curriculum that encourages play. They discover each child’s individual personality, learning style, and preferred mode of play.

Teachers want children to learn about themselves, to learn about the world around them, and to learn how to solve problems. A childhood filled with play opportunities should culminate in these three types of learning:

1. Learning about themselves includes developing a positive self-image and a sense of competence. Children should know and feel good about themselves as learners. They should develop a sense of independence, a measure of self-discipline, and knowledge based on full use of their sensory skills.

2. To learn about others and the world around them means developing an awareness of other people. Teachers want children to perfect their communication and social skills so that they are more sensitive participants in the world in which they live. This means that children learn and appreciate the values of their parents, the community, and society at large. When children become aware of the demands of living in today’s society, that awareness can help them become more responsible citizens. The emphasis on social interaction and group relationships in the early childhood setting underscores this goal.

3. To learn to solve problems, children need to be accomplished in observation and investigation. When exploring a puzzle, for example, children need to know how to manipulate it, take it apart, and put it back together, to see how other people solve puzzles, and to know how to get help when the pieces just do not seem to fit together. They should know how to predict and experiment. What will happen, wonders a kindergartner, when a glass is placed over a glowing candle? How will that change if the glass is large or small? What is the effect if the glass is left over the candle for a long time or for a second? Young children also need to learn how to negotiate, discuss, compromise, and stand their ground, particularly when they encounter and solve problems socially. “I want the red cart and someone already has it,” thinks the preschooler. “Now what? How can I get it? What if the other person says no? Will the plan that works with my best friend work with someone else? When do I ask for help? Will crying make a difference?” To be effective problem solvers, children must know and experience themselves and others.

Play in the early years is a key to school success and solid development.

Interest and Understanding

Genuine interest is one way that teachers show their approval of the play process. Creating a safe environment in which children feel physically and emotionally secure is another. To establish play as an important part of the curriculum, teachers must do the following:

· Understand, appreciate, and value play experiences for young children

· Focus on the process of learning rather than on the process of teaching

· Reflect on their observations in order to know what activities, concepts, or learning should be encouraged or extended

Erikson (1972), one of the most notable contributors to the field of human development, advises that play has a very personal meaning for each individual. Perhaps the best thing that we as adults can do to discover this meaning is to go out and play; to reflect on our own childhood play; to once again look at play through the eyes of the child.

Involvement in Play

One of the most difficult tasks teachers face is knowing when to join children at play and when to remain outside the activity. They must ask themselves whether their presence supports what is happening or whether it inhibits the play. Sometimes teachers are tempted to correct children’s misconceptions during play:

Abby and Salina, deeply involved in their grocery store drama, are making change incorrectly. A teacher must judge whether to explain the difference between nickels and quarters at that time or to create an opportunity at a later date. Teachers must be aware of what happens if they interrupt the flow of play and how they influence the direction it takes. If Abby and Salina begin to talk about their coins, showing an interest in learning how to compute their change, the teacher can move into the discussion without seeming to interfere.

Many adults enjoy playing with the children in their class; others feel more comfortable as active observers. But every teaching situation demands the teacher’s involvement at some level. The hesitant child may need help entering a play situation; children may become too embroiled in an argument to settle it alone; play may become inappropriate, exploitative, or dominated by a particular child.

Vygotsky gives us other reasons to be involved with children as they play, particularly in relation to the interpersonal nature of teaching (see Chapter 4 ). The belief that learning is interpersonal and collaborative is exemplified by the teachers of Reggio Emilia (see Chapters 2 and 5 for more about that program), who guide and support children’s learning by engaging in play and knowing what strategy best helps an individual child reach the next level of skill (zone of proximal development, or ZPD). The Reggio Emilia approach to curriculum (discussed at the end of this chapter in the section entitled “ Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum Models ”) finds an appropriate and appealing blend of Vygotsky’s concern for individual exploration and assisted discovery.

The teacher’s role in facilitating play is about balance: how to allow children the space and time to create their own play while still taking advantage of the teachable moments in which further learning is enhanced. Use the guidelines in the DAP box to maintain a good balance.

Dramatic play is the most common form of play in early childhood programs. In Chapter 4 you learned about the various types of play, including spontaneous and dramatic play. Two types of dramatic play are noteworthy:

1. Superhero play is appealing to children because it so readily addresses their sense of helplessness and inferiority. Pretending to be Wonder Woman makes it easier to understand and accept the limitations of the real world. It helps children learn about power and friendship, allows them a way to test their physical limits and explore feelings, and answer the “big questions about the world, such as ‘what is right and wrong, what is good and bad, what is fair and unfair, what is life and death, what is a boy and a girl, and what is real and fantasy’ ” (Hoffman, 2004).

At the same time, this kind of play makes many adults uncomfortable because the children’s play is often loud, disruptive, filled with conflict and problems, and solved through violence. Children sometimes end up in stereotypical, repetitive play that seems to ignore other learning. (See Chapter 14 for strategies.)

2. Sociodramatic play happens when at least two children cooperate in dramatic play. Dramatic play provides the means for children to work out their difficulties by themselves. By doing so, they become free to pursue other tasks and more formal learning.

DAP

A Dozen Ways to Facilitate Children’s Play

· Guide the play, but do not direct or dominate.

· Participate in the play, but do not overwhelm children.

· Start with the children’s thoughts and ideas; do not enforce a point of view on them.

· Model play when necessary; show children how a specific character might act, how to ask for a turn, or how to hold a hammer.

· Model ways to solve problems that involve children acting on their own behalf.

· Ask questions; clarify with children what is happening.

· Help children start, end, and begin again.

· Give verbal cues to enable children to follow through on an idea.

· Focus children’s attention on one another; encourage them to interact with each other.

· Interpret children’s behavior aloud when necessary.

· Help children verbalize their feelings as they work through conflicts.

· Expand the play potential by making statements and asking questions that lead to discovery and exploration.

Both types of play involve two basic elements: imitation and make-believe. In the early childhood years, imagination flourishes, dramatic play reigns, fact and fiction are often confused, and superheroes and monsters command attention. Our role is to provide avenues for imaginative thought, to be clear with children about what is real and what is not, and to help them understand the meaning of and need for figures who are larger than life.

10-2bSetting the Stage for Play

Teachers set the stage for learning through play by developing a curriculum that includes many forms of play, some of which is spontaneous and some of which is guided or directed by the teacher. The environment (physical, temporal, and interpersonal) is a key element in reinforcing a play-based curriculum.

Structuring the Environment

To structure the environment for play, teachers include uninterrupted time blocks in the daily schedule (at least 45 minutes to an hour) for free play time. This allows children to explore many avenues of the curriculum free from time constraints. It is frustrating to young children to have their play cut off just as they are getting deeply involved.

Established routines in the schedule add to the framework of a day planned for play. The raw materials of play—toys, games, and equipment—are changed periodically so that new ones may be introduced for further challenge:

· In choosing materials, teachers select dress-up clothes and accessories that appeal to all children’s needs, interests, and emotions.

· Props are required for a variety of roles: men, women, babies, doctors, nurses, grocers, mail carriers, teachers, and firefighters.

· Hats for many occupations help a child establish the role of an airline pilot, tractor driver, construction worker, police officer, or baseball player.

· Large purses are used for carrying mail and babies’ diapers; they also double as a briefcase or luggage.

· Simple jackets or capes transform a child for many roles.

Props that represent aspects of the child’s daily life are important; children need many opportunities to act out their life stories.

For younger children, teachers make sure that there are duplicates of popular materials. Group play is more likely to occur with three telephones, four carriages, eight hats, and five wagons. Social interaction is enhanced when three space shuttle drivers can be at the controls.

Materials that are open-ended further enlarge play. These are materials that expand the children’s learning opportunities because they can be used in more than one way. Blocks, a staple of the early childhood curriculum, are a case in point. Children explore and manipulate blocks in many ways. The youngest children carry and stack blocks and also enjoy wheeling them around in wagons or trucks. In addition, they enjoy the repetitious action of making small columns of blocks. Older preschoolers build multistoried structures as part of their dramatic play —offices, firehouses, and garages.

Classroom Activity Centers

The activity centers in most early childhood programs consist of:

*Indoors*	*Outdoors*
Creative arts	Climbing equipment
Blocks	Swings
Table toys	Sand/mud/water
Manipulatives	Wheeled toys
Science/discovery	Woodworking
Dramatic play	Hollow blocks
Language arts/books	Music
Math	Nature/science
Music	Organized games

All of these centers offer activities and materials for children to choose from during free play time—the greatest portion of their school day. (See typical daily schedules in Chapter 2 .) Paints are in the easel trays, puzzles on the tables, dress-up clothes and props in the housekeeping/dramatic play center, blocks and accessories in the block corner, and books and tapes in the language area. Teachers plan the resources and materials and place them so that children readily see the alternatives available to them. Some of these activities might be teacher-directed, such as cooking snacks in the housekeeping area. For the most part, however, these activities are self-initiating and child-directed. At all times, the emphasis is on providing a child-centered curriculum.

Whatever the activity center, it needs attention and planning. Wherever children are present, learning and playing are taking place. Because each play space contributes to children’s experiences, teachers should develop an appropriate curriculum for that learning area. Go back and review what Chapter 9 describes as the important principles in creating environments that reflect curriculum goals, and see Chapter 2 for daily schedules.

Just as focusing on the activity or learning centers can develop curricula, so, too, can an early childhood program be planned around the skill levels of the children in the class. The next three chapters provide a more in-depth identification of the types of skills that children need to learn.

The first decision that teachers must make concerns what particular skill they wish to help children develop. The skill can be in the area of physical, cognitive, language, creative, social, or emotional development.

The nature of the individual class and the program philosophy helps teachers establish priorities for these skills. Teachers then select the activities and materials that enhance the development of any one or more of those particular skills. Figure 10-4 shows how the cognitive skill of classification can be implemented in the classroom, making it the focus of the entire curriculum.

Figure 10-4

A curriculum can be developed with a focus on a particular skill. Classification skills can be enhanced throughout a curriculum and in activity centers.

Developing Classification Skills through Integrated Curriculum

Developing Classification Skills through Integrated Curriculum

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Note: This is a graphic way to demonstrate an integrated curriculum, not an example of how to write curriculum plans.

The next three chapters provide a more in-depth identification of the types of skills that children need to learn.

10-3Planning High-Quality Curricula: Engaging Teaching and Learning

The aim of the curriculum is to help children acquire the skills and behaviors that promote their optimal growth physically, socially, emotionally, and intellectually. Teachers consider a number of factors in developing a curriculum to provide maximum learning opportunities. Among these are the educational philosophy and goals of the program. A family child care provider plans activities for a few children in an intimate setting, while the kindergarten teacher arranges small working groups so that the large group does not seem overwhelming. The activities should support the goals of the program and result in the accomplishment of those goals. Figure 10-5 highlights ways to promote high-quality curricula.

Figure 10-5

Teachers consider many factors in order to provide maximum learning and skill development.

Ways to Foster Skills, Knowledge, and Learning

1. The single most important determinant the teacher must consider is the children themselves. Their ages, developmental levels, individuality, and learning styles are barometers of what is a successful and stimulating curriculum.

2. The number of children in the class affects the teacher’s planning, as does the number of teachers, aides, and volunteers wh006F help out in the classroom.

3. A prerequisite for planning is the availability of people and material resources and ways to use them. The strengths of the teaching staff, adequate supplies and equipment, and enough adults to supervise the activities are taken into consideration.

4. The ethnic and cultural backgrounds of the children must be taken into consideration. To be effective, curriculum experiences should draw on children’s background and cultural experience.

5. Curriculum planning stems from a knowledge of young children. Teachers look at how, when, and what concepts children should learn and how they teach those concepts; what the child already knows, and how they can build on that. In many ways, teachers start at the end: They look at children’s developmental levels as they focus on what they want the child to accomplish or to learn as a result of this experience and then plan the curriculum to lead toward those results.

6. Planning for a broad range of developmental skills and interests is important. Because the abilities of children even of the same age vary, activities must be open-ended and flexible enough to be used by a number of children with varieties of skills. Remember, too, that some children may not be interested in formal or organized art projects or science experiences. These children may learn more easily through self-selected play.

7. The developmental word pictures of children from birth through age 8 (found and discussed in Chapter 3 ) can be useful in determining what kinds of activities appeal to young children. Activities should be conducted in a variety of modes so that all children can connect with what they need to learn.

8. The amount of time available in the daily schedule and the amount of space in the room or yard affect a teacher’s planning. Finger painting requires time for children to get involved, proximity to water for cleanup, and an area in which to store wet paintings.

Creating a high-quality curriculum involves integrating many factors.

10-3aCulturally Responsive Teaching

Positive attitudes toward self and others emerge when children know that they are valued for their individuality and appreciated as members of a family and a culture. The school environment can reflect this in a number of ways. Figure 10-6 lists ways in which an early childhood program can use culturally diverse materials on a daily basis to foster the relationship between home culture and school.

Figure 10-6

A child’s family and culture can be brought into the classroom through a variety of curriculum materials; so, too, can children with disabilities be included.

Play Materials to Enhance Cultural Diversity and Inclusivity

Curriculum Area	Materials and Equipment
Music	Rainstick (Chile), marimba (Zulu), balaphon (West Africa), ankle bells (Native American), maracas (Latin America), den-den (Japan), shekere (Nigeria), drums (many cultures), ocarina (Peru), songs of many cultures
Literature	Books on family life of many cultures, stories of children from far and near, legends and folktales from many countries, stories with common childhood themes from many lands, favorite books in several languages, wordless books, sign language, Braille books
Blocks and accessories	Variety of accessories depicting many ethnic people, aging people, community workers of both sexes in nonstereotyped roles and with various disabilities; Russian nesting dolls, Pueblo storytellers, animals from around the world
Art	Paints, crayons, markers, and construction paper in variety of skin-tone colors; child-size mirrors
Dramatic play	Anatomically correct dolls representing many ethnic groups; doll accessories, including glasses, wheelchairs, crutches, walkers, leg braces, and hearing aids; doll clothes, including cultural costumes and dress-up clothing from many cultures; cooking utensils, such as a wok, tortilla press, cutlery, and chopsticks
Games	Language lotto, dreidel game, lotto of faces of people from around the world, “Black History” playing cards, world globe
Outdoors	Elevated sand and water tables and ramps for wheelchair access, lowered basketball hoops, sensory-rich materials
Classrooms	Carp banners (Japan), paper cuttings from Mexico and China, photographs and magazine pictures of daily life from many cultures, artwork by artists from a variety of ethnic backgrounds, pictures of children from many ethnic backgrounds and cultures

Banks (2006) identifies five important characteristics of the effective teacher in a multicultural society. They are teachers who:

1. Seek pedagogical knowledge of the characteristics of students from diverse ethnic, racial, cultural, and social class groups; of prejudice and prejudice reduction theory and research; and of teaching strategies and techniques.

2. Have reflected on and clarified an understanding of their own cultural heritage and experience and have knowledge of how it relates to and interacts with the experiences of other ethnic and cultural groups.

3. Have reflected on their own attitude toward different racial, ethnic, cultural, and social class groups.

4. Have the skills to make effective instructional decisions and reduce prejudice and intergroup conflict.

5. Devise a range of teaching strategies and activities that facilitate the achievement of students from diverse racial, ethnic, cultural, and social class groups.

10-3bDual Language Learners

Working with dual language learners (DLLs) is challenging and requires careful thought and planning. De Melendez & Beck (2013) note six points to use when planning experiences for children for whom English is a second language:

1. Expand your knowledge of the child. To best meet the needs of each child learn their developmental characteristics and needs, their linguistic experiences, if more than one language is spoken, what language is spoken at home, and what language is used most to speak to the child.

2. Create a welcoming environment by choosing age-appropriate books in English and in the children’s home language. Make sure that posters, printed materials, listening materials, and music are in the children’s home languages. Add ethnic and cultural artifacts and materials to reflect the children’s home cultures.

3. Plan engaging experiences based on the language needs and acquisition ability of the children after identifying their level of language proficiency. Promote language development by integrating reading aloud and singing so that children can hear and practice language. Use themes and connect them to children’s familiar experiences. Use appropriate vocabulary and academic language.

4. Document progress by using appropriate assessment techniques. Portfolios provide authentic and realistic views about a child’s progress.

5. Collaborate with families by maintaining open and frequent communication and to show a sincere interest in learning more about their culture. Ask families to share materials with you that will enhance the child’s language acquisition. Encourage families to preserve their home language by supporting that language in the classroom.

6. Increase your knowledge regarding the acquisition of a second language and what to do about preserving the first language a child learns. Continue to monitor current research on the topic.

10-3cChildren with Special Needs

Children with special needs also need their life mirrored in the school setting with dolls, books, and play accessories that signify acceptance and belonging. See Figure 10-7 for an example of how an art activity can be adapted to meet the needs of children with varying disabilities.

Figure 10-7

A few changes in the environment and sensitive planning can foster a more inclusive art curriculum.

Adapting Art Activities for Children with Special Needs

Visual:

· Verbally describe materials and how they might be used.

· Provide a tray that outlines the visual boundaries.

· Offer bright paint to contrast with paper.

· Go slowly and encourage children to manipulate the items as you talk.

Auditory:

· Model the process, facing the child and using gestures for emphasis.

· Use sign language as needed.

Physical:

· Make sure there is a clear path to the art center.

· Provide adaptive art tools such as chunky crayons, large markers.

· Provide double ambidextrous scissors so you can help, or a cutting wheel.

· Velcro can be attached to marking instruments or paintbrushes.

· Use contact paper for collage, or glue sticks instead of bottles.

Attention-deficit and/or behavioral:

· Provide children with their own materials and workspace, minimizing waiting and crowding.

· Offer materials like playdough to express feelings and energy.

· Limit children to a few choices rather than overwhelming them with everything in the art center.

Throughout this text, especially in Chapters 2 , 5 , and the upcoming chapters, cultural and inclusive sensitivity on the part of teachers and curriculum goal is emphasized.

A sound curriculum is the linchpin of a quality program for children. Curriculum planning and development is a creative act, and one that is very rewarding for teachers. Figure 10-8 highlights some of a teacher’s thoughts in the planning process. In the next four chapters, curriculum implementations are explored from another perspective—that of the major areas of development in the child’s growth. In Chapter 11 , the focus is on how curriculum affects the growing body. Chapter 12 emphasizes the curricular role in developing the mind, and Chapters 13 and 14 explores the curricular issues surrounding social and emotional growth.

Figure 10-8

The effective teacher’s role in creating a curriculum.

How Teachers Plan Curriculum

How Teachers Plan Curriculum

Photo Credit: © Cengage Learning

10-3dIntegrating Learning Standards

More and more, curriculum planning is being affected by a set of national standards, state standards, or both. Most states have developed some sort of explicit learning expectations for children to meet at various age and grade levels, often termed “outcomes” or “desired results.” At the federal level, there is the Head Start Child Outcomes Framework and the content standards that other national organizations have created for math, science, and literacy. Standards describe the kinds of learning that should take place, and often, but not always, includes most areas of developmental domains.

There are several benefits of standardization (Gronlund, 2006). When linked to primary grade standards, early childhood standards may enhance school readiness. Standards help to define the foundational skills for learning and help teachers identify the next steps in their learning. To the public, they could reinforce the potential for learning in very young children and the importance of quality early childhood programs. Standards also provide a vehicle for demonstrating the breadth of learning that takes place in the early years and, if used with thought and planning, they can work hand in hand with DAP.

Many early childhood professionals have concerns over the potential misuse of these standards. They may foster “teaching to the test” rather than a more developmental approach to teaching and put pressure on the child through inappropriate expectations. They may promote testing and other assessment methods inappropriate for young children, as noted earlier in Chapter 6 . Too often, standards do not address all the developmental domains but focus only on literacy, math and science, or both. Children’s sociocultural experiences are a significant part of their learning, and standards need to recognize this when determining what children should know and be able to do (Bowman, 2006). We do not want to deprive children from recess and play because of the national emphasis on high-stakes testing and the belief that play is less important than academics (Frost, Wortham, & Reifel, 2008).

A joint position paper by NAEYC and NAECS/SDE (2002) cites four essential features that early learning standards should include:

· Significant, developmentally appropriate content and outcomes

· Informed, inclusive processes to develop and review the standards

· Implementation and assessment strategies that are ethical and appropriate for young children

· Strong support for early childhood programs, professionals, and families.

By following these guidelines, standards could contribute to more positive outcomes for all children.

Today’s teachers need to learn more about state, national, and other standards, how they are organized, and what they include. Meeting the standards and remaining true to DAP is a challenge for all early childhood teachers today. In order to maintain good teaching practices such as learning centers and hands-on exploration, Goldstein and Bauml (2012) suggest supplementing required lessons with appropriate and interesting materials that teach the same concepts yet are more relevant to how young children learn. Early childhood professionals want to help children “reach beyond the standards and to acquire good social skills, a strong sense of self-worth, and positive approaches to learning that will serve as a foundation for future learning.” (Jacobs & Crowley, 2010).

Figure 10-9 presents an example of how a developmentally appropriate curriculum includes learning standards.

Figure 10-9

Early learning standards are beneficial when they can be linked to a developmentally appropriate curriculum and have clear goals and outcomes.

Early Learning Standards

Standard	Activity	Demonstrates Mastery
Personal and social competence: Identifies self by categories of gender, age, or social group	1. Graph children’s ages. 2. Make an “All about Me” book. 3. Create self-portraits with dictation.	1. Says correct age and shows correct number of fingers. 2-3. Says, “I’m a girl,” “I’m 4 years old,” or “I’m Vietnamese.”
Effective learner: Completes increasingly complex puzzles.	Play with knob-puzzles, puzzles with and without frames, and floor puzzles.	Uses puzzles with interlocking pieces without the help of frames.
Physical and motor competence: Manipulates two or more objects at the same time.	String beads; play with LEGOs® or DUPLOs®; practice buttoning, zipping, lacing cards, and cutting paper.	Two hands manipulate an object at the same time to complete task successfully.

(Source: Adapted from Kim Yuen, San Mateo County Office of Education, San Mateo, CA. From Browne, K. W., & Gordon A. M., 2009. To teach well: An early childhood practicum guide. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Learning.)

10-3dIntegrating Learning Standards

A joint position paper by NAEYC and NAECS/SDE (2002) cites four essential features that early learning standards should include:

· Significant, developmentally appropriate content and outcomes

· Informed, inclusive processes to develop and review the standards

· Implementation and assessment strategies that are ethical and appropriate for young children

· Strong support for early childhood programs, professionals, and families.

By following these guidelines, standards could contribute to more positive outcomes for all children.

Figure 10-9 presents an example of how a developmentally appropriate curriculum includes learning standards.

Figure 10-9

Early learning standards are beneficial when they can be linked to a developmentally appropriate curriculum and have clear goals and outcomes.

Early Learning Standards

Standard	Activity	Demonstrates Mastery
Personal and social competence: Identifies self by categories of gender, age, or social group	1. Graph children’s ages. 2. Make an “All about Me” book. 3. Create self-portraits with dictation.	1. Says correct age and shows correct number of fingers. 2-3. Says, “I’m a girl,” “I’m 4 years old,” or “I’m Vietnamese.”
Effective learner: Completes increasingly complex puzzles.	Play with knob-puzzles, puzzles with and without frames, and floor puzzles.	Uses puzzles with interlocking pieces without the help of frames.
Physical and motor competence: Manipulates two or more objects at the same time.	String beads; play with LEGOs® or DUPLOs®; practice buttoning, zipping, lacing cards, and cutting paper.	Two hands manipulate an object at the same time to complete task successfully.

10-3ePlanning for Quality

Long before the room is arranged and the daily schedule set, the process of developing curriculum is under way. The director, administrator, and teaching staff have reflected on the what, how, why, and when of the curriculum. These underlying factors affect the quality of the curriculum and shape the goals and teaching strategies of the program.

Gestwicki (2014) sees curriculum planning as part of the process of teaching. Each day, teachers:

· Observe, listen, document, and record children’s behavior, interests, and needs

· Reflect on their findings and assess each child’s progress in meeting the goals that have been set for each individual

· Learn about children’s interests, experiences, and challenges through focused interactions with them

· Decide which teaching strategies, materials, and activities will help children succeed in meeting the goals and objectives set for them

· Evaluate the effectiveness of the curriculum plan and modify it with new activities and ideas

This cycle of planning results in a thoughtful and meaningful curriculum that grows out of the shared life between children and their teachers. The curriculum is intentional, individualized, and purposeful, based on solid observations of what is known about each child.

Evaluating a curriculum activity gives feedback about a teacher’s organization, planning, and implementing skills. Evaluations, such as the one found in Figure 10-10 , help to refine and improve the quality of the curriculum.

Figure 10-10

Evaluating daily activities lets teachers use assessment as a curriculum planning tool. Although not every activity needs this scrutiny on a daily basis, careful planning and evaluation create effective classrooms.

Evaluating Classroom Activity

Activity

How many children participated? Did any avoid the activity?

How involved did children become? Very Briefly Watched only

What were children’s reactions? Describe what they said and did.

What did you do to attract children? To maintain their interest?

How would you rate the success of this activity? Poor Adequate Good Great

Why?

What skills/abilities were needed? Did the children exhibit the skills?

What parts of the activity were most successful? Why?

Describe any difficulty you encountered. Give your reasons and state how you would handle it if it happened again.

If you did this activity again, what would you change?

In light of your evaluation, what would you plan for a follow-up activity?

How did this activity compare with your goals and expectations?

(Originally adapted from Vassar College Nursery School. From Beginning Essentials in Early Childhood Education. Figure 10-18, p. 348. Copyright © 2007 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reprinted by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions. )

10-3fTeacher-Directed Learning

This textbook promotes teaching through active learning, where children have a part in creating the curriculum. This does not exclude, however, the need for teacher-planned experiences in order to further the educational goals of the program. When materials and information are complex or the concept is unfamiliar to the children, teachers provide specific directions and knowledge to illustrate what they are teaching.

Teaching certain skills, such as cutting with scissors and writing lowercase and uppercase letters, requires teacher guidance. The continuum that is shown in Figure 10-11 suggests a broad range of teaching behaviors, including teacher demonstration and directive teaching.

Figure 10-11

There are many ways for teachers to respond to and support children’s growth and learning.

A Continuum of Teacher Behavior

A Continuum of Teacher Behavior

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(From Bredekamp S., & Rosegrant, T., Eds. [1995]. Reaching potentials: Appropriate curriculum and assessment for young children, Vol. 2. Figure 2, p. 21. Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children. )

Different activities require different teaching strategies to meet the needs of all children. Teachers often use teacher-directed instruction for teaching certain skills and concepts while keeping a high degree of child choice and initiative as a vital part of the program.

Intentional teaching means that everything you do has a specific goal and purpose and that you have chosen how to deliver the best kind of learning experiences for children, whether it is child-directed or teacher-directed. Refer back to the “ Teaching with Intention ” box in Chapter 5 for further explanation. The “ Teaching with Intention ” box that follows discusses how teachers may make that choice.

10-3gGroup Times

There are certain times within the daily routine when teachers call children together. The size of the group is determined in part by how many teachers there are and how they want to present various learning experiences. The reverse is also true. Various types of learning experiences best lend themselves to small- or large-group discussions. In using the project approach, for instance, small group work seems to provide the best format for developing ideas and listening to one another’s opinions. A presentation by a visiting parent or expert on the project theme would be more appropriate for the large group. Smaller groups could then form to discuss in greater detail the ideas presented.

Large group times are used for a variety of purposes. Teachers may use them as opportunities to bring the entire class together to:

· Provide transitions in the daily schedule

· Bring in a special guest or presentation

· Introduce new ideas and materials

· Sing, dance, and do fingerplays

· Read stories

· Plan activities with children

· Review the day’s events

· Initiate group problem solving

Small groups, on the other hand, are opportunities for teachers and children to have a closer and more personal experience. This setting provides the teachers with ample opportunities to:

· Help children practice a specific skill, such as cutting with scissors

· Encourage children in their social interactions with one another

· Enjoy conversations with children

· Teach a new game to a few children at a time

· Closely observe each child’s growth and development

· Hold discussions regarding their project work and move the project along

· Explore topics in depth

· Eat a meal or have a snack with children and encourage the social process

· Provide close supervision for some experiences, such as cooking

Teaching with Intention

A Balancing Act: Child-Directed and Teacher-Directed Experiences

Intentional teaching involves deciding if a child- or adult-directed experience is best under particular circumstances. Epstein (2007) explored the similarities between both approaches to teaching and learning. It turns out that neither way is controlled exclusively by the teacher or by the child; both are actively involved in the activity and process. When the experience is teacher-directed, children are encouraged to make suggestions, ask questions, and otherwise actively participate. The teacher deliberately keeps the focus on the purpose of the lesson while responding to the children’s involvement. For a child-directed experience, teachers are similarly intentional in their involvement. As children investigate and explore, the teacher is primed to observe and get involved when it seems appropriate. Neither teaching strategy is a passive approach, but in both, the teacher times suggestions and interactions with the children and the activity. The teacher’s role is to help advance the experience and guide their learning to greater depths.

As we think about the learning experience, we ask ourselves:

· Which method best suits the goals for learning?

· Which method is best for this particular group?

· Which method extends children’s knowledge and deepens their understanding of this particular lesson or information?

· Which method am I most comfortable with for this experience?

There is no right or wrong answer to these questions. Both methods are developmentally appropriate, and children learn through both ways. Whether child- or adult-directed, teaching with intention fosters children’s initiative and learning.

Think about This

1. Describe a teaching situation where you would use teacher-directed methods. How would you get the class involved and keep interest high?

2. Describe a situation where you would interact with a child-directed activity. How would you establish your involvement and keep children focused without dominating the activity?

A parent’s participation in his child’s school life can heighten a child’s sense of belonging.

What is common to all group times is the occasion for teachers to encourage listening and speaking skills; provide an arena in which children share thoughts and ideas with one another; and introduce any number of cognitive and social activities.

10-3hCreating Written Curriculum Plans

A written plan is an organized agenda, an outline to follow, or a framework for the curriculum. It may include a list of activities, goals for children’s learning experiences, the process or method of instruction, the teacher’s responsibilities, the time of day, and other special notations. A plan may be developed for a day, a week, a month, or a specific unit or theme. Figure 10-12 illustrates a weekly curriculum. The four chapters that follow also contain many examples of written plans.

Group times are more meaningful when children’s home language is used for story time. One teacher reads the book in English, the other reads it in Spanish.

Figure 10-12

Weekly lesson plan.

Sample Preschool-Kindergarten Lesson Plan

Sample Preschool-Kindergarten Lesson Plan

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(Source: Jackman, H. L., Beaver, N. H., & Wyatt, S. S. (2015). Early education curriculum: A child’s connection to the world, 6th Ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Cengage Learning Inc., p. 69.)

Advantages of Written Plans

Setting lesson plans to paper helps teachers focus on the nature of the children they teach—their interests, their needs, their capabilities, and their potential. A written plan encourages thorough, in-depth planning of a curriculum in a logical progression, provides a direction, and helps teachers clarify thoughts and articulate a rationale for what they do. Team teaching is more stimulating when teachers plan together, sharing their ideas and resources; everyone knows what is happening; in case of absences, a substitute teacher can carry out the plans. Changes can easily be made to allow for flexibility, adaptation, and on-the-spot decisions.

When plans are written down, it is easy to see what resources are needed and to have the time to prepare materials. Written plans serve as a communication tool for the teaching staff, for parents, and for the governing agency and provide a concrete format from which evaluation and assessment can be made.

A clearly written lesson plan serves as a curriculum map that guides the daily experiences and agendas. It should reflect the program’s goals and priorities, as well as the teachers’ objectives for each student, such as what skills the activity fosters. The activities themselves should provide for firsthand learning experiences that promote discovery through active exploration of materials. A written lesson plan is a good way to demonstrate that the curriculum is well integrated, inclusive, and culturally sensitive.

The plan should present a balance to the day in which activity and play alternate with opportunities for quiet times, including the time spent outdoors. Large- and small-group times that are teacher-directed are included, as well as blocks of time in which children select their own activities. The plan should also note when and where teachers are able to work individually with children. Many written lesson plans also include any changes that need to be made to the environment or schedule.

Figure 10-12 demonstrates many of the key elements for a weekly lesson plan. Figure 10-13 shows a written plan for a curriculum that individualizes a child’s specific needs and experiences, and Figure 10-14 is a lesson plan for an individual activity.

Figure 10-13

The most effective curriculum grows out of the child’s needs and experiences and the teacher’s observations.

Individualized Child Planning Form

Teacher: Marlene	Group: Fours
Child’s Name: Rosie	Date: Week of Jan. 7–11

Developmental Information: Rosie’s physical/motor and cognitive skills seem to be age appropriate. Her language skills are well developed with adults, but Rosie does not speak to other children except in two- or three-word sentences. Her social development seems limited with her peers, but not her teachers.

Current Observation: Rosie prefers to play and work alone. She participates in groups, but with limited response to her peers. She observes adults as they interact with other children and enjoys one-to-one conversations with teachers, telling them stories about her cat, Patches. Rosie was most animated last month during a project where she could work on her own alongside others.

Curriculum Plan:

· Arrange a weeklong small-group experiences that include Rosie and two or three other children. Using animal photo cards, play a matching game to help Rosie begin to interact with others. Ask each child to talk about the animal on their card, making sure that Rosie gets one with a picture of a cat. Prompt her with questions and comments that help expand her discussion, especially about her own cat.

· Follow up with discussions about cats’ names, their coloring, and their habits. As children become more involved in the topic, include larger members of the cat family. Make sure that Rosie has opportunities to contribute to the discussion.

· As Rosie becomes more comfortable with the group, ask her to work with Marley on an art project about wildcats. Support her interactions as she and Marley begin to work together.

· Teachers need to model for Rosie how to participate in an activity and to learn what to say and how to react to other children’s suggestions.

· Suggest to Rosie’s family that Marley be invited over to play. They are both quiet and enjoy less boisterous and crowded activities, so they might become friends.

Figure 10-14

Good planning takes time and thought. A single activity can lead to other activities.

Sample Single-Activity Lesson Plan

Activity Name:

Purpose/Goal:

Context:

Location (indoors/outdoors, in what section of yard or room):

Time of day:

Type and size of group:

Materials needed and how children will use them:

How to introduce activity and what antecedents are necessary for this group:

Clean-up provisions:

How will children be involved?

Results:

What were the children’s responses?

Were the goals achieved?

Problems?

Solutions for next time:

Implications for other activities:

Next steps/other activities:

Title: Planning an Activity

Professional Resource Download

Planning by Objectives

One approach to curriculum development requires more formal, organized planning. Comprehensive lesson plans are developed, sometimes for the whole year, and usually include objectives, the stated concepts that children learn through this experience. These are commonly called behavioral objectives. The lesson plans include specific, stated, observable behaviors that children are able to demonstrate to show that the teaching objective has been met. In other words, a behavioral objective states clearly what children actually do (e.g., be able to hold scissors properly or grasp a pencil between the thumb and the first two fingers). If the behavioral objective is to improve fine motor skills, the lesson plan includes activities and events that foster children’s use of their fine motor skills. Several objectives may apply to a given activity. It is then important to order the objectives so that the purposes of the lesson remain in focus. To plan successfully, the teacher needs to know developmental and behavioral theory ( Chapter 4 ), to have good observational strategies ( Chapter 6 ), and to possess tools to assess whether the objective has been accomplished ( Chapter 6 ).

One example of using behavioral objectives is Figure 10-9 , which shows the use of behavioral objectives when meeting learning standards. A more developed plan found in early childhood classrooms would include activities for the full range of curriculum areas, such as art, motor activities, and dramatic play, for each of the objectives. Important factors in developing curriculum objectives are how much knowledge and understanding children have, what children are interested in, and what standards are mandated by the individual state for the specific age group.

10-3jThemes

A traditional method of developing a curriculum is to focus on a broad, general topic or theme, also known as a unit. Although used interchangeably, themes are generally a smaller part of a unit, allowing for a more specific focus. For example, a unit on the body may have “What I can do with my hands” as one theme. This mode of planning is used in many early childhood and elementary settings. Focusing on themes, however, can and should be much more than an in-depth study of a topic and should be integrated into the whole curriculum.

A thematic approach can utilize many of the following attributes of an integrated curriculum:

· Children can help choose and plan themes, thereby constructing their own learning.

· Activities can be chosen to reflect the curriculum goals.

· The emphasis is on active learning.

· The most appropriate themes are those that have a meaningful connection to children’s lives.

· Many subject areas can be integrated in the different activities.

· The program lends itself to flexibility, teacher permitting.

· It provides for an in-depth study of a topic.

· It can support the use of multiple learning styles through different media.

· It adds coherence and depth to the curriculum.

· It has the potential for good multicultural curriculum emphasis.

Figure 10-16 is an example of a theme on the five senses for toddlers.

Figure 10-16

An example of teacher-directed activities to help toddlers explore their sensory skills.

Curriculum through Play for the One-and-a-Half-Year-Old

		Sensory Stimulation
Objective: To help toddlers begin to explore and understand the five senses.
	Activity	Small-Group Focus	Optional Activities
Monday	Soap painting	Guessing game: Textures. Distinguish soft from hard using familiar objects.	Play hide and seek with two or three children
Tuesday	Water table play	Guessing game: Smells. Identify familiar scents in jars.	Blow bubbles.
Wednesday	Finger-painting	Guessing game: Weights. Distinguish heavy/not heavy using familiar objects such as a book or a doll.	Take a walk to collect collage materials of different textures.
Thursday	Making collages of textures collected the day before	Guessing game: Shapes. Using puzzles of shapes and shape-sorting boxes.	Have a parade of sounds from many musical instruments.
Friday	Play dough	Food fest of finger foods: Try different textures, sizes, shapes, and flavors	Make footprints or handprints on large mural paper.

Figure 10-17

This project evolved from the web shown in Figure 10-15 and took several months to accomplish. We thank the children at Geo-Kids in Menlo Park, CA, and photographers Tracy Pierce and Michele McMath.

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Gestwicki (2014) cites some disadvantages of using a traditional theme approach to developing a curriculum. It can be restricted and narrow and too adult-directed, not allowing for children’s curiosity and initiative. There is a danger of creating an artificial unit that has no relevancy to the children’s experiences or interests. Teachers may find it hard to deviate from the curriculum plan and not be flexible enough to extend the topic further. When too rigidly applied, themes can isolate the experience into a particular subject or concept and miss the opportunities to broaden the learning potential. At its worst, a theme can be recycled every year without regard for the different groups of children and their needs and interests.

Holiday Themes

An inappropriate use of themes is to limit them to specific times of the year, such as Thanksgiving or Valentine’s Day, or to celebrate holidays. Themes are not just for special occasions because they tend to isolate and narrowly define the topic.

Some holiday themes may not be appropriate to every family represented by the group. One teacher decided that making Easter baskets on Good Friday (a religious day for many Christians) was offensive to those who practiced Christianity and was uncomfortable for the non-Christians in the class. The practice was dropped throughout the school in the name of cultural and religious sensitivity.

Some schools have adopted policies that do not permit celebrating holidays as part of the school curriculum. Holidays do provoke a particularly sensitive time for celebrating. There are many who believe that celebrating holidays from around the world brings a sense of multiculturalism to the curriculum. York (2003) suggests that when done with thought and care, holidays can be an important addition to the curriculum. To ensure the most positive outcomes, according to York, all holidays are celebrated with equal importance; only those that have importance to the children and families in the class are observed; parents are enlisted to help; the celebration takes place within the context of the daily life of people and families; and sensitivity to the children and families who do not celebrate a particular holiday is observed.

Others might say that this is a tourist approach to cultural diversity or that it is a quick visit to another culture without follow-up and depth of exploration. Too often in early childhood programs, holiday curriculum units are the only expression of cultural diversity. According to Derman-Sparks and Edwards (2010 ), there are no meaningful developmental reasons for the strong emphasis on celebrating holidays in most early childhood programs today. She further argues that this overuse of holiday themes actually interferes with a developmentally appropriate curriculum because too many foods or songs are used, bypassing the opportunity for children to learn about common areas of life. It seems that holiday themes paint a flat picture of a cultural or religious event, failing to take into account how people in those cultures live, work, sleep, or play in ways that are familiar or similar to other cultures.

Life-Oriented Themes

Themes that are of great interest to young children are those that directly concern them. The body as a theme suggests many avenues for development: Body parts may be emphasized; exploration using the senses may be stressed; measuring and weighing children may be used to demonstrate growth of the body. Another subject to which children readily respond is that of home and family. Animals, especially pets, are appealing to young children and can lead into further curriculum areas of wild animals, prehistoric animals, and so on.

The more in touch with children the teachers are, the more their classroom themes should reflect the children’s interests and abilities. Figure 10-16 shows how a favorite theme of the five senses can be adapted for young toddlers. Children who live in Silicon Valley in California, in Houston, Texas, or in central Florida may have a local interest in computers and space shuttles. The urban child of New York, Detroit, or Washington, D.C., relates more readily to themes about subways, taxis, and tall buildings. Children’s interests often focus on, but are not necessarily limited to, what they have experienced. By choosing themes that coincide with children’s daily lives, teachers promote connected and relevant learning. Take another look at Figures 10-4 and 10-8 from this perspective.

Some themes in an early childhood setting can address children’s own issues. All young children share similar fears and curiosity about the world they do not know but imagine so vividly. The cues that children give, particularly about their concerns, suggest to the observant teacher some important themes of childhood. During Halloween, for example, it can be helpful and reassuring to children if the theme of masks and hats is developed. Select some masks that have a function, such as hospital masks, ski masks, safety glasses, sunglasses, snorkel masks, or wrestling and football helmets. Children can try them on and become comfortable with the way their appearance changes. They can laugh with friends as they look in the mirror to see how a mask changes the appearance but does not change the person.

Themes can be inclusive, integrated, and appropriate. It takes a teacher with a child-centered approach to respond to children’s innate excitement and curiosity about learning.

10-3kThe Project Approach

Much of what you have just learned about emergent and thematic curricula as an integrated approach applies equally to projects. As you read ahead, keep in mind what you have learned about the advantages of an integrated curriculum; how to take cues from children, as explained in the discussion on emergent curriculum; the concept of children and teachers collaborating; and the sources for curriculum ideas. A project approach embodies these characteristics as well. On the continuum of teacher-directed versus child-directed learning, a project requires the greatest amount of child involvement.

Projects are the epitome of an integrated curriculum, embracing all of the key characteristics of integrated learning and allowing the incorporation of a wide range of subject areas. In her now-classic work, Katz (1994) defines the “project approach” as:

… an in-depth investigation of a topic worth learning more about … usually undertaken by a small group of children within a class … the whole class … or even an individual child. The key feature … is that it is a research effort deliberately focused on finding answers to questions about a topic posed either by the children … or the teacher.

A recent revival of this curriculum approach used in progressive schools (see the discussion of Dewey’s theories in Chapter 1 ) is worth noting here. Based on the belief that “children’s minds should be engaged in ways that deepen their understanding of their own experiences and environment” (Katz & Chard, 2000), the project approach consists of exploring a theme or topic (such as babies, dinosaurs, riding the school bus) over a period of days or weeks.

Preplanning by the children and teachers is the first step: They observe, question, estimate, experiment, and research items and events related to the topic. Together, they make and collect the dramatic play and display materials they need. Children work in small groups throughout the process and have the opportunity to make numerous choices about their level of participation. The teacher often records the activity on tapes and with photographs. Project work has different levels of complexity, so it meets the needs of children of different ages and abilities.

In the small town of Reggio Emilia in northern Italy, a similar approach to curricula has received worldwide attention. The project approach is used in even greater depth as it permeates the entire curriculum and school environment..

Projects emerge from children’s own interests, teacher observations of children’s needs and interests, and parents’ suggestions. The topics reflect the local culture of the children. In fact, Chard (1998) suggests that because life experiences and interests of the teacher and of the children are so strongly reflected in the project itself, it is a singular occurrence relevant only to that group. Another group may adopt the same topic, but it is not a duplicate process due to the individual nature of the children and teacher planning the project.

This approach to teaching and learning easily lends itself to an inclusive classroom and curriculum, responding to diverse points of view as well as diverse cultures. Projects created by the children of Reggio Emilia, for instance, differ from those of American children due to many cultural influences—in particular, the children’s ability to argue their point and defend their ideas to others as the project emerges. In the Italian culture, this is a natural part of discourse and is usual in the beginning of conversation between people; in American mainstream culture, it is usual when two people “agree to disagree” for the conversation to end.

The planning process is crucial to the success of the project approach as is the underlying philosophy that children can be co-constructors of their own education. This approach has much in common with the approaches of both Dewey and Neill (see Chapter 1 ). The teacher helps children explore what they already know about the topic, what they might need to know, and how they can represent that knowledge through various media, reinforcing Vygotsky’s theory that interaction and direct teaching are important aspects of intellectual development. Teachers pose questions for children that lead them to suggest a hypothesis: What might happen if you do that? What do you think you could do to make that work? Children are encouraged to evaluate their own work and learn to defend and explain their creations to others.

The following is a summary of the process involved in a project approach as outlined by Katz and Chard (2000), and Helm and Katz (2001). There are four phases to a project approach:

1. Representation. Children express and communicate their ideas. Through the use of drawing, writing, construction, dramatic play, maps, and diagrams, children share their experience and knowledge. Representation documents what children are learning.

2. Fieldwork. Investigations take place outside the classroom, through events, objects, places, and people so that children build on their own knowledge through direct experiences.

3. Investigation. Using a variety of resources, children explore and research the topic. This includes fieldwork, as well as closely analyzing, sketching, and discussing what they find.

4. Display. Exhibits of children’s work on the project serve as a source of information and provide an opportunity to share their work and ideas with others. As the project progresses, the children are kept up to date on their progress by displays of their work.

10-3lUsing Technology in the Classroom

Many children come to early childhood settings with some knowledge of and competency with today’s technology tools. The digital age is part of their home setting as they see parents with cell phones, computers, cameras, DVD players, and interactive tablets, games, and music devices. Many of these tools have found their way into the early childhood classroom and challenge the early childhood professional to assess their usefulness and potential for learning. As with any other aspect of curricula, teachers need to use their knowledge of child development principles and awareness of how children learn as guidelines for integrating technology and media into the curriculum. The NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media’s position statement (2012), Technology and Interactive Media as Tools in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth Through Age 8, sets out guidelines that help inform a teacher’s decision of how and when to use technology and interactive media with children, noting that these activities should never replace “creative play, real-life exploration, physical activity, outdoor experiences, conversation, and social interactions”:

1. Choose and evaluate interactive media tools intentionally, keeping in mind their developmental appropriateness and their potential for an interactive experience.

2. Use interactive media as a way to intentionally extend and support hands-on activities to enhance children’s engagement with their real world and expand their ability to gain to new information.

3. Avoid the passive use of television, videos, DVDs, and other noninteractive media in early childhood programs for children under age two. Among 2- to 5-year olds, discourage use of media in which children do not take an active part.

4. In programs for children under age two, only use technology and interactive media that supports responsive and positive interactions between children and caregivers.

5. Follow screen time recommendations from public health organizations that limit how much time children should spend in front of media screens.

6. Help ensure equitable access to technology and interactive media for children and their families.

Chapters 13 and 15 include more in-depth discussions of this topic.

10-4Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum Models

Five distinct models demonstrate curricula that embrace the five guidelines for DAP: creating a caring community, teaching to enhance development and learning, planning a curriculum to achieve important goals, assessing children’s development and learning, and establishing reciprocal relationships with families. Each model is unique, with its own strengths and characteristics, and each is play- and development-integrated.

10-4aHigh/Scope: Cognitively Oriented Model

The High/Scope curriculum stresses active learning through a variety of learning centers with plenty of materials and developmentally appropriate activities. The schedule includes extended periods of free play and guidelines for teacher’s intervention in play activities (Frost et al., 2008). Active problem solving is encouraged, as children plan, with the teacher’s assistance, what they will do each day, carry out their plan, and review what they have done. Appropriately, this is known as the “plan-do-review” process. Teachers use small groups to encourage, question, support, and extend children’s learning while emphasizing communication skills.

There is a balance between child-initiated experiences and teacher-planned instructional activities. Teachers use observational techniques to focus on children and to understand children’s play. Teachers are responsible for planning a curriculum organized around key experiences that reinforce and extend the learning activities that the children select for themselves. These key experiences form the basis of the curriculum and include creative representation, language and literacy, initiative and social relations, movement, music, classification, seriation, number, space, and time. Children with special needs are integrated readily into High/Scope programs and with curricula developed especially for K–3 grades and early adolescents. High/Scope extends its active learning philosophy into later school years.

High/Scope’s approach to children’s learning is deeply rooted in Piagetian theory and supports Vygotsky’s theory of social interaction and cognition: Children learn when interacting with the people and materials in their environment. The schools of Reggio Emilia share core elements of the High/Scope philosophy. Both philosophies stress the importance of children’s constructing their knowledge from activities that interest them; team teaching is an important concept in that it allows the children access to adult support; and the process of planning, acting, recording, and reassessing is one that both approaches use to foster critical thinking skills.

To document children’s growth using a portfolio system (see Chapter 6 ), the High/Scope program uses the following categories:

· Initiative: Expressing choices; engaging in complex play

· Creative representation: Making; building; pretending

· Social relations: Relating to children and adults; making friends

· Music and movement: Exhibiting body coordination; following a musical beat

· Language and literacy: Showing interest in reading; beginning reading; beginning writing

· Logic and mathematics: Sorting, counting objects; describing time sequences

Teachers evaluate these abilities as they observe children’s use of key experiences and plan the curriculum accordingly.

10-4bBank Street: Developmental-Interaction Model

Bank Street was founded by Lucy Sprague Mitchell (see Chapter 1 ), and its roots reflect the thinking of Freud, Dewey, Erikson, Vygotsky, and Piaget, among others. It is a developmental approach, as child development principles influence the curriculum planning, and it is an interactive model because of the connections made between children, adults, and the greater environment. The cognitive and socioemotional relationship stresses the link between education and psychology.

The Bank Street model originated the play-based approach used in many early childhood settings today through the use of interest centers, water and sand play, blocks, puzzles, painting, and small- and large-group play. Teachers use play to enhance children’s cognitive and language skills through frequent conversations and interactions (Frost et al., 2008).

Children are seen as active learners who learn by interacting with and transforming the world about them. Play is the primary vehicle for encouraging involvement between and among children, adults, and materials. The teacher’s primary role is to observe and respond to activities initiated by the children. Classrooms are organized into learning centers, in which children can work individually or in groups.

The Bank Street model exemplifies an integrated curriculum. Children learn about the world in which they live through concrete, firsthand experiences. Community and neighborhood connections are stressed. Units and themes are used to focus the curriculum, and children have access to materials and are free to choose where to play. A teacher’s knowledge and understanding of child development principles is crucial to this approach. Educational goals are set in terms of developmental processes and include the development of competence, a sense of autonomy and individuality, social relatedness and connectedness, creativity, and an integration of different ways of experiencing the world.

10-4cThe Schools of Reggio Emilia

Respect for children’s investigative powers and for their ability to think, plan, criticize, collaborate, and learn from all they do is the hallmark of the Reggio Emilia approach and is an excellent example of an integrated and emerging approach to learning. This collection of schools in Italy, with separate programs for infants to 3-year-olds and 3- to 6-year-olds, has commanded worldwide attention for its philosophy and practices. “Nowhere else in the world,” states Gardner (in the classic work of Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1993), “is there such a seamless and symbiotic relationship between a school’s progressive philosophy and its practices.” The curriculum takes the project approach to its highest levels.

Influenced by Dewey’s progressive education movement, the philosophies and practices of Reggio Emilia also owe a great deal to Piaget’s constructivist theory, Vygotsky’s belief in social discourse as a method of learning, and Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (see Chapters 1 , 4 , and 13 ). Children are actively engaged in long-term projects that they initiate, design, and carry out with the support of the teacher. Art is the primary medium for learning.

Some of the key components of the Reggio Emilia approach are a materials-rich environment that is aesthetically appealing, a community-based attitude involving the entire city, a family support system, and a commitment to process.

These elements are manifested in the program through astonishingly beautiful school settings, replete with the work of children and evidence of their projects elegantly displayed throughout; by support realized through a large portion of the city’s budget; through small groups of children who stay together for a 3-year period with the same teacher; and through intentionally bringing the children’s culture into school life.

The Reggio approach: Order and beauty.

Reggio Emilia: A materials-rich environment.

In the Reggio Emilia classroom, play is focused on children’s ability to represent their experiences through the arts. As such, play is more collaborative with several children working on one project while another group is working elsewhere. “Working” in this context is playing; art is the form that play often takes in this model. The teacher’s role is more involved than in other models because the philosophy of Reggio Emilia is to work with children and assist them with their activities.

Cadwell (1997) identifies eight fundamentals of the Reggio Emilia approach. Each has implications for creating a curriculum that is fully integrated and one that emerges from children’s interests and ideas. These eight essential points are:

1. The child as protagonist. All children are strong and capable and have the potential and preparation to construct their learning. They are protagonists (i.e., central characters) with teachers and parents in the educational process.

2. The child as collaborator. There is an emphasis on working in small groups. This stems from the belief that we are social beings and form our selves and personalities through interactions with people and things.

3. The child as communicator. Symbolic representation, through dance, art, painting, sculpting, building, dramatic play, music, and words, help children discover and communicate what they know and what they question. Teachers support the use of these multiple languages to help children make their thinking visible.

4. The environment as a third teacher (after the family and teacher). Every corner of the environment has an identity and purpose and encourages encounters, communication, and relationships. There is order and beauty in the design of the equipment, space, and materials.

5. The teacher as partner, nurturer, and guide. Teachers listen and observe children closely in order to facilitate and guide their process of open-ended discovery. They ask questions to find out about children’s ideas and theories and then provide the opportunities for their learning.

6. The teacher as researcher. Teachers work in pairs and collaborate with other members of the staff, engaging in continuous discussion and interpretation of their work and the work of the children. This provides ongoing staff development and deeper exploration of theoretical foundations. Teachers see themselves as researchers who prepare and document their work. They consider children researchers as well.

7. Documentation as communication. Thoughtful care is given to ways in which the thinking of children is presented. Teachers make transcripts of children’s dialogue, take series of photographs of their projects, and arrange them in panels that hang throughout the school or in books. This documentation is a way to communicate to the rest of the school what the children’s work is about, to help parents become aware of their children’s work, to assist teachers in evaluating children’s work, and to show children that their work is valued.

8. Parents as partners. Parent participation is considered essential, and parents discuss their ideas and skills with the teachers. This underscores the collegiality and collaboration between home and school and ensures a curriculum that represents the diversity of the children and their families.

The teacher’s role is unique: Two coequal teachers work with a class of 25 children. There is no head teacher or director of the school. The teachers are supported by a pedigogista , a person trained in early childhood education who meets with the teachers weekly. Also on the staff of every school is an atelierista , a person trained in the arts who teaches techniques and skills the children learn for their projects.

The process of the activity is highly respected as the way to plan and work together. Teachers and children—collaborators—listen to one another, and many points of view are encouraged. Debate and discussion are key elements in the process of deciding what project to do and how to go about it. The attitude that a child is a natural researcher, as well as an able learner and communicator, has molded the organization and structure of the schools.

The schools of Reggio Emilia are worth knowing about just for the strong and powerful view they hold of the child and the concept of teacher and student learning from one another. There are a growing number of American models as well. Cadwell (1997), who has assisted two schools in St. Louis, Missouri, to adopt the Reggio Emilia approach, offers a hopeful challenge: “We can learn from the Reggio educators to look at children differently, to expect more of them and of ourselves, and to offer them many more possibilities for full development.”

10-4dWaldorf Schools

The Waldorf curriculum, shaped by Rudolf Steiner in 1919 (see Chapter 1 ), emphasizes the development of the whole child through “the head, heart, and hands.” Based on the belief that young children learn primarily through observation, imitation, and experience, the curriculum provides a rich environment for children to explore and role models who provide appealing activities. Waldorf schools are play-based: A hallmark of the curriculum is learning through play, and large periods of time are devoted to creative play. Steiner agreed with Froebel and others that education should begin where the learner is: Whatever the child brings to the educational experience is to be worked with, not against. Academics are deemphasized in the early years of schooling. Looping is common in the elementary school years as the teacher stays with the class for up to 8 years. Other defining features (WECAN, 2005) of a Waldorf curriculum include:

· Strong rhythmic elements based on the cycles of life and nature: A daily rhythm of play, work, circletime, and outdoor play, ending with a nature or folk tale creates a consistent pattern for each session. The weekly rhythm evolves from activities, with one day for baking, another for crafts, and another for painting, and so on. Seasonal activities, such as planting bulbs, harvesting produce, or gathering leaves, stress nature’s impact on our lives.

· Environments that nourish the senses: The walls of the classrooms are usually painted with soft watercolors, curtains may be made from plant-dyed fabrics, and tables and chairs are made of solid wood. The materials used are natural and real; the surroundings are simple and calming.

· Extensive use of natural materials: Wood, cotton, and wool are used throughout the classroom. Most of the toys are handcrafted from these natural materials, encouraging children to use their imagination. A piece of wood becomes a ticket to ride the train, which is made from chairs and pieces of wood. It may also become a telephone, a piece of food, or animal in a barn made of similar materials. The Waldorf philosophy suggests that other, more “finished” toys limit the power of fantasy, imagination, and creativity that is natural in a young child.

· Play as an imitation of life: The curriculum fosters skills that imitate the work of adults. Children participate in activities focused on the home—cooking and baking, cleaning, washing and sewing, and gardening and building. Engaging in meaningful life activities is seen as preparation for later academic challenges.

· Enhancement of a sense of reverence and wonder: Children’s natural sense of awe and wonder is fostered and deepened, primarily through activities, stories, and festivals that celebrate the cycles of the seasons. In the fall, the classroom may be decorated with corn stalks and sheaves of grain; the seasonal table is draped with beautiful fabrics in fall colors and hold gourds, pumpkins, acorns, and leaves. When parents join them for a harvest festival, songs of thankfulness and praise are sung before the feast begins. Each season, this is repeated in order to expand the child’s sense of reverence for life.

A Waldorf curriculum has much to offer, especially to those who put a premium on the use of imagination and an appreciation for the natural world. Learning is noncompetitive with no grades or set textbooks. There are many elements in the Waldorf method that are common to the Montessori method and to the Reggio Emilia schools.

10-4eMontessori Schools

In Chapter 1 , Maria Montessori was discussed in relation to the history of early childhood education. What follows here is an explanation of the Montessori method as a curriculum model for young children.

Montessori’s approach to learning has had a continuing influence in education since those early years. Three features of her work stand out:

· (1)

adapting school work to the individual rather than molding the child to fit the curriculum;

· (2)

insisting on freedom for children in selection of materials and choice of activities; and

· (3)

training of the senses and on practical life issues.

Montessori programs may not be play-based in the way that the four previous models are, but they are certainly child-centered and child-based in philosophy and practice. Montessori held that the choices that children make during free activity time is work that others might rightly identify as play. Montessori programs have art activities, as well as music, movement, and some group games. Fantasy play, a staple in other early childhood settings, is not part of the Montessori curriculum. Instead, the Practical Life area, where children learn personal care and care of the environment, is the closest Montessori comes to dramatic play. In the Practical Life area, children imitate adult activities, such as pouring and food preparation, but with real glasses, pitchers, and utensils readily available to them.

The Program

A common misunderstanding is that all schools with the Montessori name are the same. They are not. There are many variations and types of Montessori schools throughout the United States, reflecting an infinite variety of interpretations of the Montessori method. Within the Montessori movement itself, there are at least two factions claiming to be the voice of the “true” Montessori approach to education.

Although the most common form of Montessori program is one in which 3- to 5-year-olds are grouped together, there are a growing number of schools for 6- to 9-year-olds, and even 9- to 12-year-olds. Teacher education programs now prepare Montessori teachers to work with infants and toddlers, as well as high school students.

The most striking feature of the Montessori classroom is its materials. Many are made of wood and designed to stress the philosophy of learning through the senses. Color, texture, and quality of craftsmanship of the materials appeal to the hand as well as the eye; they demand to be touched. The words smooth and oval take on new meaning as a child runs a finger around Montessori-designed puzzle shapes.

Montessori materials have other unique characteristics besides their tactile appeal. They are self-correcting; that is, they fit together or work in only one way so that children know immediately whether they are successful. The Montessori curriculum presents the materials in a sequence, from simplest to most difficult. Many of the learning tasks have a series of steps and must be learned in a prescribed order. Whether sponging a table clean or using the number rods, the child is taught the precise order in which to use the materials. Montessori developed curriculum materials and tasks that are related to real life. Practical Life activities range from cleaning tasks (of hands or tables) to dressing tasks (lacing, buttoning, or tying garment closures).

In a Montessori classroom, children work by themselves at their own pace. They are free to choose the materials with which they want to “work”—the word used to describe their activity. Children must accomplish one task before starting another one, including the replacing of the materials on the shelf for someone else to use.

The prepared environment in a Montessori program has child-sized furniture and equipment—one of Froebel’s ideas that Montessori used. Materials are set out on low shelves, in an orderly fashion, to encourage children’s independent use. Only one set of any materials—their shape, form, and the way that they are presented for children to use—constitutes the vehicles for learning.

The teacher in the Montessori setting has a prescribed role, one of observing the children. Teachers become familiar with skills and developmental levels and then match the children to the appropriate material or task. There is little teacher intervention beyond giving clear directions for how to use the materials. Group instruction is not common; learning is an individual experience.

Program Changes

Many changes have taken place in Montessori practices over the years, and today’s best Montessori programs are those that are true to philosophical traditions of the Montessori method but constantly make small changes and adjustments. Many Montessori schools are adding curriculum areas of art, dramatic play, gross motor development, and computers. There is also greater teacher flexibility to promote social interaction.

For years, Montessori was separated from the mainstream of American education. Today, that has changed, with more than 100 public school districts offering Montessori programs in their elementary schools and with the increased interaction between Montessorians and other early childhood professionals.

Maria Montessori created a paradigm that has found its way into nearly every early education program in existence today. Whether labeled as such or not, much of the material and equipment, as well as many of the teaching techniques, in use today originated with this dynamic woman nearly 100 years ago. She is firmly established in early childhood history and its future. The Montessori method should be weighed in light of contemporary knowledge and should be tailored to meet the needs of vigorous, eager, often needy children of the 21st century.

Figure 10-18

These curriculum models are developmentally appropriate and unique from one another, yet they share some common characteristics.

Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum

Program

Founder

Philosophy

Environment [physical, temporal, interpersonal]

Teacher Role

Key Characteristics

Montessori A Prepared Environment Approach

Dr. Maria Montessori

[early 1900s, Italy]

· Learning is an individual experience;

· Group instruction is to introduce proper use of materials and new tasks;

· Curriculum is to be adapted to the individual rather than molding the child to the curriculum;

· Child is free to select own materials & learns at own pace;

· “Work,” not play, is used to describe children’s activity;

· Children learn through the use of their senses.

[P]The “prepared environment” has child-sized furniture and carefully arranged work areas.

Teachers organize areas and select deliberate materials.

[T]Schedule has work period of long duration to encourage child choice, task persistence, concentration, and accomplishment.

[I]Tone is quiet, focused, and harmonious; social interaction is allowed but not primary focus of

M4 WA#1

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