· LO3Recognize the characteristics of typical and atypical development and describe adaptations needed to support children with diverse abilities.

Competency Areas

Standards for Professional Development

The NAEYC standards for initial and advanced early childhood professional preparation addressed in this chapter are:

· Standard 1 Promoting child development and learning

· Standard 2 Building family and community relationships

· Standard 3 Observing, documenting, and assessing to support young children and families

· Standard 4 Using developmentally effective approaches to connect with children and families

· Standard 5 Using content knowledge to build meaningful curriculum

· Standard 6 Becoming a professional

Code of Ethical Conduct

These are the sections of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct that apply to the topics of this chapter:

Ideals:

· I-1.1

To be familiar with the knowledge base of early childhood care and education and to stay informed through continuing education and training.

· I-1.2

To base program practices upon current knowledge and research in the field of early childhood education, child development, and related disciplines, as well as on particular knowledge of each child.

· I-1.3

To recognize and respect the unique qualities, abilities, and potential of each child.

· I-1.8

To support the right of each child to play and learn in an inclusive environment that meets the needs of children with and without disabilities.

· I-1.9

To advocate for and ensure that all children, including those with special needs, have access to the support services needed to be successful.

Principles:

· P-1.3.

We shall not participate in practices that discriminate against children by denying benefits, giving special advantages, or excluding them from programs or activities on the basis of their race, national origin, immigration status, preferred home language, religious beliefs, medical condition, disability or the marital status/family structure, sexual orientation, or religious beliefs or other affiliations of their families.

3-1The Whole Child

The concept of “the whole child” is based on the accepted principle that all areas of human growth and development are integrated. It is only for the purpose of studying one area or another in depth that categories are created. In reality, all areas of growth are knitted together into a mutually supportive network creating the uniqueness of each child.

Teachers quickly learn what makes each child special, what they look like when they move their bodies, change expressions, or assume a posture. We can tell when Sonja is hurt, happy, or harried by the way she moves and looks. Rodrigo’s face mirrors his distress or his delight. The observant teacher reads children through the ways they express the “whole child.”

3-1aDevelopmental Domains

We use three developmental domains to define the “whole child” and express how children grow and develop:

1. Social-emotional development: includes a child’s relationship with herself and others, self-concept, self-esteem, and the ability to express feelings.

2. Physical–motor development: includes gross motor, fine motor, and perceptual motor activity.

3. Cognitive–language development: includes curiosity, the ability to perceive and think, memory, attention span, general knowledge, problem solving, analytical thinking, beginning reading, and computing skills, as well as children’s utterances, pronunciation, vocabulary, sentence length, and the ability to express ideas, needs, and feelings.

Two more spheres of influence on the growing child are cultural awareness and creative expression, which are outgrowths of both social-emotional development and cognitive language development. Both of these influences are highlighted in the Word Pictures :

· Cultural identity development. This suggests the interconnections between developmental stages and a growing awareness of one’s attitudes toward others. Various cultural milestones appear in each age group which, when appropriately fostered, can increase a child’s sensitivity to differences. The Word Pictures indicate cultural identity growth in the early years and are highlighted by an asterisk.

· Creative development. This includes the usual creative activities such as movement, dance, music, and painting, as well as originality, imagination, divergent thinking, and problem solving.

Children: Alike, yet different.

The interaction among the developmental domains is a key element to understanding the “whole” child. Figure 3-1 shows the connection of each developmental domain in relation to the others.

Figure 3-1How Areas of Growth Are Interrelated

Each area of growth is affected by and influences every other area of development.

How Areas of Growth Are Interrelated

3-1bGrowth Is Interrelated

Although they are often discussed separately, the developmental domains cannot be isolated from one another. Each makes a valuable contribution to the whole child.

Think how each area might affect or interact with the others:

· Physical development affects how children feel about themselves. Children who appreciate their body and its power feel confident in what they can do (social–emotional).

· Intellectual skills interact with language development and creativity. When children have mastered their primary language, they can then clarify some of their thought processes.

· The kindergartner who masters using scissors (physical) is ready to try printing. The fine motor skills enhance the cognitive task of learning the alphabet.

· A child with a hearing loss is likely to have language delay as well; thus the physical development affects the language part of growth.

· The child who has trouble making friends (social) is likely to exhibit his unhappiness (emotional) in the school yard (physical) and in the math period (intellectual).

Observe a classroom during free play or activity time. What interactions do you see between developmental domains? How does this affect the child’s ability to learn? Describe yourself at this age, commenting on what developmental domains were your strengths.

3-2Developmental Ages and Stages: Major Milestones

Descriptions of children’s common characteristics date back to a classic collection of research by Arnold Gesell and Francis Ilg. (See Chapters 1 and 4 for related discussions.) Age alone does not determine a child’s capabilities, but it does provide a guideline for establishing appropriate expectations. Despite the wide range of individual differences at all ages, common behaviors lend a perspective to help teachers prescribe programs, plan activities, and create curricula.

3-2aThe Value of Word Pictures

Each developmental phase has characteristics traits. These are described in the following pages as Word Pictures . Word Pictures are designed to help classroom teachers plan learning experiences for a group of children. Word Pictures are a valuable teaching tool because they help teachers know what to expect and when to expect it. The developmental and learning theories in Chapter 4 and their classroom applications help you understand the basis from which these Word Pictures are drawn. See the “ Teaching With Intention ” box for specific ways to use the Word Pictures. ( Chapter 10 has more practical applications and examples for planning curriculum.)

In Behavior and Guidance

We use guidance and discipline strategies based on the expected behaviors common to a given age range. Many so-called problem behaviors are normal behaviors of the age at which they occur: 2-year-olds are easily frustrated as they grow increasingly independent, while 4-year-olds test limits and are resistant to controls. The knowledgeable teacher accepts these characteristics and guides each child accordingly.

Word Pictures of a child, taken from age-level charts, help teachers know what to expect and when to expect it. By using the charts as a reference, teachers lessen the risk of expecting too much or too little of children at any given age. Age-level characteristics give a frame of reference for handling daily situations and a basis for planning appropriate guidance measures. When using Word Pictures, ask yourself which ones:

· Are most common to the ages of the children in the class

· Are appropriate for children in group settings

· Suggest guidance and disciplinary measures

· Have implications for planning a developmentally appropriate curriculum

· Are culture milestones, which are highlighted by an asterisk, to suggest the interaction of children’s development and their awareness of attitudes toward race and culture

In Curriculum

Word Pictures can be used to tailor curriculum planning to an individual child or a particular class or group on the basis of known developmental standards. A group cooking experience, for instance, allows children to choose their level of comfort and involvement. As an early reader at age 4, Darragh loves to read the recipe to others. Lourdes’s favorite activity is to mix the ingredients together, refining her small motor skills. Von, who loves to play with mud and clay, spreads the cookie sheet with oil, while Felicity helps the teacher adjust the oven temperature. Cooking is always a fun activity, but it serves a greater purpose when planned with individual children in mind. The skills and abilities of the specific age group help to determine the kind of activities at which children can succeed while still taking the next steps in their development. See the next section for guidelines on using the Word Pictures as tools for planning. Chapters 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 and 14 have more practical applications and examples for planning curricula.

Adults see children through many filters. What is it like to look through children’s eyes?

In Cultural Awareness

Derman-Sparks and Olsen Edwards (2010) point out that children become aware of and form attitudes about racial and cultural differences at a very early age. Their experiences with their bodies, social environment, and cognitive development combine to help them form their own identity and attitudes. As they develop cognitively, children become aware of differences and similarities in people. These cultural milestones are included in the Word Pictures to indicate how, as children come to a sense of themselves as individuals, their attitudes and behaviors toward others can be influenced.

Teaching with Intention

Using Word Pictures

Setting goals for individual children and for the group is an important part of a teacher’s role. We intentionally observe all developmental domains—physical–motor, cognitive–language, social–emotional, creative—so that we have a picture of the whole child. To plan effectively, we reflect on what we know about each child, what we need to know, and what we know about the group. Assessing children’s development and measuring their progress provides us with the information needed to create appropriate teaching strategies and curriculum. It tells us what children know and what they can do. Use Word Pictures to find the baseline, the place where each child starts from, and that information will be used at a later date to determine growth over time by measuring the child’s progress against the original assessment. The following six guidelines will help you get started:

1. Balance your impression of the Word Pictures with your experiences with children. Example: Toddlers are always on the move and prefer standing and squatting to sitting in a chair. Observe a toddler storytime to see how many children are sitting on the floor, how many are standing, and how many are squatting on their haunches.

2. Make a profile of the whole child to balance your impression of the whole child. Example: At -years-old, Chad’s language skills were those of a 7-year-old. He tended to talk in long and convoluted sentences, and other children had difficulty relating to him. After looking over Chad’s profile, the teachers focused on his social development and worked with Chad’s parents on finding him a friend. In class, the teachers modeled more appropriate ways to engage other children in conversation and play.

3. Get some perspective on the range of developmental norms that a child exhibits over time. Example: Children have varying levels of development at any point in time. Look at the Word Pictures for the group just older and younger than the age level of the child you are observing. A typical child may have the physical development of a 3-year-old, the language skills of a 4-year-old, and the social coping skills of a 2-year-old. Children exhibit some of the behaviors appropriate in a 2- to 3-year range.

4. Remember that these norms of development refer to average or typical behavior, and they should not be applied too literally. Example: Use these examples with discretion. If Dixon and Emma are the only two children in the class reading at the next grade level, do not expect the rest of the class to achieve the same success. The Word Pictures are norms and will help you track Dixon’s and Emma’s progress in developmental domains, as well as cognitive– language. Word Pictures are not intended to compare children’s abilities, but rather to provide a compilation of information on individual children.

5. Keep in mind that children go through most of the stages described, and in the same sequence, but they do so at their own rates of growth. Example: Individual differences occur as development follows its orderly and predictable path as children acquire the abilities and skills that are necessary to succeed in the next stages. Elaina may not yet have the writing skills of her peers, but with appropriate experiences and teaching strategies, we can help her progress over a period of time.

6. Focus on what children can do rather than on what they cannot do. Use the characteristics to compare the child’s rate of growth. Example: In observing Dwayne, it is important to assess where he is in relation to other 4-year-olds, but it is more important to know where he is 6 months from now and a year from now, and what he was like a year ago. From this, a clear picture of his rate of growth emerges.

Think about This

1. How do Word Pictures help you understand the concept of the whole child?

2. How do Word Pictures help you work with parents and families?

3. What other use can you find for Word Pictures?

DAP

Too Much or Too Little?

Age-level characteristics give a frame of reference with which to handle daily situations. The questions of how much or how little responsibility a child can handle (Will Charmaine be able to select her clothes for school tomorrow? How much allowance should Amos get for doing household chores?), or how long children can be expected to sit for a lesson (Can I start reading chapter books to my class? Will a lesson about recycling be too long for the 3-year-old class?) can be predicted by the general characteristics of their age group. The profiles painted in each Word Picture help you learn about individual children and their unique place in the developmental spectrum. The commonalities that children share within the context of their age groups enhance a teacher’s efforts to provide challenging and meaningful learning experiences at the right time that are neither too much nor too little for each child.

3-2bApplying Word Pictures to Teaching Strategies

The Word Pictures focus on the critical issues that teachers address when planning for a group of children. We have included six basic developmental areas to give a more complete picture of each age group. In Chapter 4 , you will come to appreciate the importance of research and significant theories from which these Word Pictures are drawn.

3-2cCulture, Race, and Ethnic Considerations

The answer to “Who is the young child?” takes on new meaning as we look at the ethnic mix of American life. A multicultural explosion has swept across the nation, filling early childhood programs with children from many different cultural backgrounds. There are more students in the classroom who are culturally and linguistically different from the teaching staff and from each other. Unless teachers are informed and educated about these differences, they may misinterpret a child’s abilities, learning, and needs. Too often, language barriers between a teacher and a child lead to the conclusion that the child is a slow learner or has a disability.

Many families are unfamiliar with school culture in the United States and the expectations that schools have about family involvement and participation. Some parents are illiterate in their own language. An informed and supportive teacher can help children succeed under these circumstances.

Dual-language learners are those children who are growing up with two or more languages. Head Start research notes that over a quarter of the children in their programs are growing up in families where English is not the primary language (Head Start, 2013). Early childhood professionals need to find ways to support children and their families so that home language and family and cultural identity are preserved. Derman-Sparks and Olsen Edwards (2010) note that a lack of understanding about the culture, history, beliefs, and values of the children is harmful to a child’s self-concept. Dual-language children can become successful learners when early childhood programs meet the challenge of responding to the unique background of each child.

When there are no assessment tools or instructional materials in the language of the children or that depict their native heritage, children are placed at a distinct disadvantage and often eliminated from programs and services that could help them succeed.

Children of Mixed Heritage

One group of children and families who have often been neglected in the discussion of race are those who are biracial or interracial. Biracial children have parents who are of different races (for instance, a child of a Native American and a white person). All combinations of races can produce a biracial child, such as a Korean/African American child, or a Chinese American/Japanese American child. Interracial children have parents who represent more than two racial or ethnic backgrounds. These terms also apply to children who are adopted by parents of a different race.

The share of intermarriage in the United States reached an all time high of 8.4 percent of all marriages in 2012 (Pew Research, 2012). The greatest percentage of these marriages took place in the western regions of the United States. Intermarriages progressed from being illegal (until 1967), to socially taboo, and now to greater public acceptance and normalcy.

Kelly (2009), a Black woman married to a white man, writes about her newborn son, reflecting some of the emotion tied to children of mixed heritage: “I was worried that our son would be so light-skinned as to appear Caucasian, and I wanted him to look Black. … I wanted to claim [him] for “my” side—in league with [me] against small minds, casual racism, and discrimination…. at 7 months after his birth, [my son] is the exact shade you’d get if you mixed his father and me up in a paint can—a color I call golden.”

The election and reelection of Barack Obama, who is biracial, as president of the United States have evoked needed conversations that bring to light many of the issues facing children and families who are interracial.

Word Pictures

Infant

Social–Emotional

0–1 month: cries to express emotions; bonding begins

4–10 weeks: makes social smiles

2 months: begins social games

3 months: distinguishes familiar faces ; turns head toward human voice; smiles in response to a smile; kicks, smiles, waves in response; cries when left alone; recognizes parent

4 months: has a genuine laugh; smiles when spoken to; loves attention

5 months to 1 year: begins to exhibit stranger anxiety

6 months: distinguishes between voices; smiles; babbles at strangers; develops attachment to parents, caregivers; begins to play imitation games; plays peek-a-boo; sensitive to parental moods

8 months: laughs out loud

9 months: screams to get own way

Play is activity only for present moment

Fears unfamiliar: people, places, things

Beginning sense of separate self

Language

0–1 month: turns head in response to voices; cries to express needs

6–8 weeks: coos; gestures to communicate: pushes objects away; squirms; reaches out to people ; pouts; smacks lips; shrieks; points

2 months: makes voluntary vocal sounds

3 months: babbles

6–12 months: plays imitation sound games; responds to variety of sounds ; makes vowel sounds; acquires receptive language ; cries to communicate

12 months: says first words

Physical–Motor

Newborn: motor activity is mostly reflexes

4 months: sees, grasps objects

5 months: examines fingers; sits when propped

6 months: rolls over; discovers feet; teething begins

7 months: crawls

8 months: sits up unaided; pulls to standing position; pincer grasp established

9 months: creeps

10 months: feeds self with spoon

11 months: stands alone; cruises

12 months: takes first steps

By 1 year: grows 10 to 12 inches; triples birth weight; lengthens by 40 percent; doubles brain size; grows full head of hair; bounces in crib; uses whole-body motions

Late infancy: can move hands in rotation to turn knobs

Creative

Discovers and explores hands and feet

Expresses and discovers emotion

Talks by babbling, cooing, and gurgling

Plays peek-a-boo

Responds to facial expressions

Cognitive

0–1 month: responds to mother’s voice; aware of senses, especially pain, touch

10 weeks: memory is evident

4 months: makes smiles of recognition

7–10 months: solves simple problems (knocks over box to get toy)

Courtesy of the author

8 months: begins to believe in permanence of objects; follows a simple instruction

8–12 months: becoming intentional in behavior

11 months: begins trial-error experimentation

12 months: plays drop-and-retrieve games, pat-a-cake

Explores with hands and fingers

Smiles, vocalizes at image in mirror

Toddler

Social–Emotional

Almost totally egocentric

Likes to be noticed; loves an audience

Lacks inhibitions

Insists on own way, assertive

Likes doing things by self

Independent, has self-identity

Adapts easily

Refers to self by name

Laughs loudly at peek-a-boo

Cries when left alone

Curious

Relates to adults better than children

Active, eager

Talks mostly to self

Usually friendly

Strong sense of ownership

Mimics adult behavior

Experiences and shows shame

Language

Some two-word phrases

Enjoys vocalizing to self

Babbles in own jargon

Uses “eh-eh” or “uh-uh,” with gestures

Names closest relatives

Repeats adults’ words

Points to communicate needs, wants

Shakes head “no” to respond

Responds to directions to fetch, point

Obeys verbal requests

Asks “What’s that?” or “Whassat?”

Understands simple phrases

Uses 5–50 words

Physical–Motor

Awkward coordination; chubby body

Tottering stance

Creeps when in a hurry

Walks with increasing confidence

Walks with feet wide apart, arms out, head forward

Finds it difficult to turn corners

Goes up and down stairs, holding on

Backs into chair to sit down

Can squat for long periods of time

In constant motion

Loves to pull and push objects

Runs with stiff, flat gait

Uses whole-arm movements

Carry-and-dump becomes a favorite activity

Scribbles

Turns pages two or three at a time

Zips and unzips a large zipper

Likes holding objects in both hands

Creative

Responds to mood of music

Freely examines every object

Sings phrases of nursery rhymes

Loves to finger-paint and explore texture

Stares; takes it all in

“The age of exploration”

Makes up nonsense syllables

Cognitive

Points to objects in a book

Matches similar objects

Fits round block into round hole

Loves opposites: up/down, yes/no

Imitates simple tasks

Interest shifts quickly

Short attention span

Follows one direction

Gives up easily, but easily engaged

Conclusions are important: closes doors, shuts books

Thinks with feet; action-oriented

Builds tower of three or four small blocks

Two-Year-Old

Social-Emotional

Self-centered

Unable to share, possessive

Clings to familiar; resistant to change

Ritualistic; insists on routines

Dependent

Likes one adult at a time

Quits readily; easily frustrated

Goes to extremes

Impulsive; shifts activities suddenly

Easily distracted

Pushes, shoves

Finicky, fussy eater; some food jags

Refers to self by given name

Treats people as inanimate objects

Dawdles; slow-geared

Plays parallel to other children

Watches others

Likes people

Excited about own capabilities

Language

Uses two or three-word sentences

Speaks in telegraphic sentences: “Throw ball”

Has difficulty in pronunciation

“Me,” “Mine” most prominent pronouns

Spontaneous language; rhythmic, repetitive

Constant talking; interested in sound

Sings phrases of song, not on pitch

Cannot articulate feelings

Frustrated when not understood

May stutter

Asks “Whassat?” about pictures

Can match words with objects

Repeats words and phrases

Uses 50 to 300 words

Physical–Motor

Uses whole-body action: pushes, pulls, pokes

Climbs into things

Leans forward while running

Climbs stairs one by one

Dependent on adults for dressing

Can help dress and undress self

Has reached one-half potential height

Bladder/bowel control begins

Feeds self

Thumb-forefinger opposition complete

Grasps cup with two hands

Awkward with small objects

Lugs, tumbles, topples; unsteady

Alternates hands; hand preference is developing

Can rotate to fit objects

Expresses emotions bodily

Sensory-oriented

Cuts last baby teeth

Has difficulty relaxing

Creative

Imitates other children

Combines parallel play and fantasy play

Plays with sounds; repeats syllables over and over

Enjoys simple finger plays

Can follow simple melodies

Learns to scribble

Uses art for sensory pleasure

Cognitive

Recognizes, explores physical characteristics of objects

Investigates with touch and taste

Intrigued by water, washing

Likes to fill and empty things

Has limited attention span

Lives in present

Understands familiar concepts

Can tell difference between black and white

Needs own name used

Likes simple make-believe

Does one thing at a time

Remembers orders of routines

Recalls where toys are left

Classifies people by gender

Names familiar objects in books

Three-Year-Old

Social–Emotional

Highly imitative of adults

Wants to please adults; conforms

Responds to verbal suggestions

Easily prompted, redirected

Can be bargained with, reasoned with

Begins to share, take turns, wait

Avid “me-too”-er

Exuberant, talkative, humorous

Has an imaginary companion

Has nightmares, animal phobias

Plays consciously, cooperatively with others

Plays spontaneously in groups

Demonstrates fears

Goes after desires; fights for them

Asserts independence often

Often stymied, frustrated, jealous

Sympathizes

Strong sex-role stereotypes

Language

Talkative with or without a listener

Can listen to learn

Likes new words

Increases use of pronouns, prepositions

Uses “s” to indicate plural nouns

Uses “ed” to indicate past tense

Uses sentences of three or more words

Says “Is that all right?” a lot

Talks about nonpresent situations

Puts words into action

Moves and talks at the same time

Substitutes letters in speech: for example, w for r

Intrigued by whispering

Uses 300 to 1,000 words

Physical–Motor

Has well-balanced body lines

Walks erect; nimble on feet

Gallops in wide, high steps

Alternates feet in stair climbing

Suddenly starts, stops

Turns corners rapidly

Swings arms when walking

Jumps up and down with ease

Uses toilet alone

Loses baby fat

Achieves bladder control

Rides a tricycle

Puts on, takes off wraps with help

Unbuttons buttons

Has some finger control with small objects

Grasps with thumb and index finger

Holds cup in one hand

Pours easily from small pitcher

Washes hands unassisted

Can carry liquids

Has activity with drive and purpose

Can balance on one foot

Creative

Dramatizes play

Enjoys slapstick humor

Laughs at the ridiculous

Experiments with silly language

Imaginary companion may appear

An object like a tricycle becomes many objects in dramatic play

Acts out own version of favorite story

Enjoys simple poems

Learns color concepts

Cognitive

Matches people according to physical characteristics

Estimates “how many”

Enjoys making simple choices

Alert, excited, curious

Asks “why?” constantly

Understands “It’s time to …”

Understands “Let’s pretend …”

Enjoys guessing games, riddles

Has lively imagination

Often overgeneralizes

Carries out two to four directions in sequence

Often colors pages one color

Can’t combine two activities

Names and matches simple colors

Has number concept of 1 and 2

Sees vague cause-and-effect relationships

Can recognize simple melodies

Distinguishes between night and day

Understands size and shape comparisons

Four-Year-Old

Social–Emotional

Mood changes rapidly

Tries out feelings of power

Dominates; can be bossy, boastful, belligerent

Assertive, argumentative

Shows off; is cocky, noisy

Can fight own battles

Hits, grabs, insists on desires

Explosive, destructive

Easily over stimulated; excitable

Impatient in large groups

Cooperates in groups of two or three

Develops “special” friends, but shifts loyalties often

May exclude others from play

Resistant; tests limits

Exaggerates, tells tall tales

Alibis frequently

Teases, outwits; has terrific humor

May have scary dreams

Tattles frequently

Has food jags, food strikes

Language

Has more words than knowledge

A great talker, questioner

Likes words, plays with them

Has high interest in poetry

Able to talk to solve conflicts

Responds to verbal directions

Enjoys taking turns to sing along

Interested in dramatizing songs, stories

Exaggerates, practices words

Uses voice control, pitch, rhythm

Asks “when?” “why?” “how?”

Joins sentences together

Loves being read to

Physical–Motor

Longer, leaner body build

Vigorous, dynamic, acrobatic

Active until exhausted

“Works”: builds, drives, pilots

Can jump own height and land upright

Hops, skips

Throws large ball, kicks accurately

Hops and stands on one foot

Jumps over objects

Walks in a straight line

Races up and down stairs

Turns somersaults

Walks backward toe-heel

Accurate, rash body movements

Copies shapes such as a cross or square

Can draw a stick figure

Holds paintbrush in adult manner, pencil in fisted grasp

Can lace shoes

Dresses self except back buttons, ties

Has sureness and control in finger activities

Alternates feet going down stairs

Creative

Is adventurous

Shows vivid imagination

Displays great interest in violence in imaginary play

Loves anything new

Demonstrates more elaborate dramatic play

Makes up new words, sounds, and stories

Enjoys complexity in book illustrations

Exaggerates and goes to extreme

Likes funny poetry

Tells a spontaneous story with artwork

Can put on elaborate plays with puppets

Finds ways to solve problems

Combines words and ideas

Cognitive

Does some naming and representative art

Gives art products personal value

Can work for a goal

Questions constantly

Interested in how things work

Interested in life–death concepts

Has an extended attention span

Can do two things at once

Dramatic play is closer to reality

Judges which of two objects is larger

Has concept of 3; can name more than 3 objects at a time

Has accurate sense of time

Full of ideas

Begins to generalize; often faulty

Likes a variety of materials

Calls people names

Has dynamic intellectual drive

Has imaginary playmates

Recognizes several printed words

Five-Year-Old

Social–Emotional

Poised, self-confident, self-contained

Sensitive to ridicule

Has to be right; persistent

Has sense of self-identity

May get silly, high, wild

Enjoys pointless riddles, jokes

Enjoys group play, competitive games

Aware of rules, defines them for others

Chooses own friends; is sociable

Gets involved with group decisions

Insists on fair play

Likes adult companionship

Accepts, respects authority

Asks permission

Remains calm in emergencies

Language

Uses big words and complete sentences

Can define some words

Spells out simple words

Takes turn in conversation

Has clear ideas and articulates them

Insists “I already know that”

Asks questions to learn answers

Makes up songs

Enjoys dictating stories

Uses 1,500 words

Tells a familiar story

Defines simple words

Answers telephone, takes a message

Thinks out loud

Physical–Motor

Completely coordinated

Has adultlike posture

Has tremendous physical drive

Likes to use fine-motor skills

Has accuracy, skill using simple tools

Draws a recognizable person

Handedness is evident

Dresses self completely

Cuts on a line with scissors

Begins to color within the lines

Catches ball from 3 feet away

Skips using alternate feet

Enjoys jumping, running, doing stunts

Rides a two-wheeler

Balances on a balance beam

Jumps rope, skips

Runs lightly on toes

Likes to dance; is graceful, rhythmic

Sometimes roughhouses, fights

Creative

Explores variety of art processes

Becomes engrossed in details of painting, blocks

Fantasy more active, less verbal

Thinks out loud

Has ideas; loves to talk about them

Can learn simple dance routine

Enjoys making patterns, designs

Puts on simple plays

Has idea of what to draw—wants to make something recognizable

Cognitive

Curious about everything

Wants to know “how?” and “why?”

Likes to display new knowledge, skills

Somewhat conscious of own ignorance

Knows the concepts of tomorrow and yesterday

Can count 10 objects, rote counts to 20

Sorts objects by single characteristic

Knows own name, address, town

Makes a plan, follows it, centers on task

Sorts objects by color, shape

Concepts of smallest, less than, one-half

May tell time accurately, on the hour

Knows what a calendar is used for

Seldom sees things from another’s point of view

Six- and Seven-Year-Olds

Social–Emotional

Six-Year-Old

Likes to work, yet often does so in spurts

Does not show persistence

Tends to be a know-it-all

Free with opinions and advice

Brings home evidence of good schoolwork

Observes family rules

Gender-role stereotypes are rigid

Friends easily gained, easily lost

Tests and measures self against peers

Makes social connections through play

Friends are of same sex

Believes in rules except for self

Active, outgoing

Charming

Proud of accomplishments

Shows aggression through insults, name-calling

Seven-Year-Old

More serious

Sensitive to others’ reactions

Eager for home responsibilities

Complaining, pensive, impatient

Shame a common emotion

Leaves rather than face criticism, ridicule, disapproval

Complains of unfair treatment, not being liked

Shows politeness and consideration for adults

Enjoys solitary activities

First peer pressure: needs to be “in”

Wants to be one of the “gang”

Relates physical competence to self-concept

Self-absorbed; self-conscious

Language

Six- and Seven-Year-Olds

Enjoy putting language skills to paper

Talk with adults rather than to them

Chatter incessantly

Dominate conversations

Speech irregularities still common

Learning to print and write

Acquisition of new words tapers off

Bilingual capacities nearly complete if English is second language

Ability to learn new language still present

Physical–Motor

Six- and Seven-Year-Olds

Basic skills need refinement

Like to test limits of own body

Value physical competence

Work at self-imposed tasks

Need daily legitimate channels for high energy

Learn to ride a two-wheeler, skate, ski

Use motor skills as a tool for socializing

Boisterous, enjoy stunts and roughhousing

Susceptible to fatigue

Visual acuity normal

Are hungry at short intervals; like sweets

Chew pencils, fingernails, hair

Creative

Six-Year-Old

Tries out artistic exploration seriously for the first time

Industrious

Greater interest in process, not product

Eager, curious, enthusiastic

Loves jokes and guessing games

Loves to color, paint

Understands cause and effect

Likes cooperative projects, activities, tasks

Interested in skill and technique

Seven-Year-Old

Likes to be alone listening to music

Wants work to look good

The age for starting music lessons

Driven by curiosity, desire to discover and invent

Intensely interested in how things work; takes things apart, puts them back together

Uses symbols in both writing and drawing

Interested in all sorts of codes

Likes to select and sort objects

Cognitive

Six- and Seven-Year-Olds

Work in spurts, not persistent

Letter and word reversal common

Learn to read, beginning math skills

Can consider others’ points of view

Use logic, systematic thinking

Can plan ahead

Enjoy collecting: sorting, classifying objects

Can sequence events and retell stories

Concepts of winning and losing are difficult

Like games with simple rules

May cheat or change rules

Want “real” things: watches and cameras that work

Sift and sort information

Can conceptualize situations

Enjoy exploring culture of classmates

Eight-Year-Old

Social–Emotional

Outgoing, enthusiastic

Enormously curious about people and things

Socially expansive

Judgmental and critical of self and others

Ambivalent about growing up

Often hostile but attracted to opposite sex

Growing self-confidence

Learns about self through others: peers, parents

Is aware of and sensitive to differences from other children

Begins to evaluate self and others through clothing, physical attraction, social status

Likes to meet new people, go new places

Has emerging sensitivity to personality traits of others

Eager for peer approval and acceptance

Growing sense of moral responsibility

Joins clubs

Chooses same-sex playmates

Struggles with feelings of inferiority

Likes to work cooperatively

Responds to studies of other cultures

Has growing interest in fairness and justice issues

Language

Talks with adults

Attentive and responsive to adult communication

Teases members of opposite sex

Talks about “self”

Talkative; exaggerates

Likes to explain ideas

Imitates language of peers

Enjoys storytelling and writing short stories

Physical–Motor

Beginning to engage in team sports

Often a growth-spurt year

Speedy, works fast

Restless, energetic, needs physical release

Plays hard, exhausts self

Eye–hand coordination matures; learning cursive handwriting

Enjoys competitive sports

Hearty appetite, few food dislikes

Repeatedly practices new skills to perfect them

Creative

Has great imagination

Enjoys riddles, limericks, knock-knock jokes

Likes to explain ideas

Visual acuity and fine-motor skills come together

Is most productive in groups

Shows interest in process and product

Cognitive

Criticizes abilities in all academic areas

Seeks new experiences

Likes to barter, bargain, trade

Enjoys creating collections of things

Interested in how children from other countries live

Thinks beyond the here-and-now boundaries of time and space

Enjoys role-playing character parts

Tests out parents to learn more about them

Needs direction, focus

Enjoys all types of humor

Full of ideas, plans

Gaining competence in basic skills

Industrious, but overestimates abilities

Interested in process as well as product of schoolwork

Growing interest in logic and the way things work

Takes responsibility seriously

Culturally Sensitive Teaching

It is important to help all children gain a positive self-concept and identity at an early age. Classroom environments and curricula should intentionally reflect images of all races, including interracial children and families, to help children recognize and connect with people who share their heritages so that they learn to see and understand themselves.

Educators need to encourage open discussions of racial identification and give children some positive experiences in talking about their heritage. Consult with families about how they handle their mixed heritage and how they identify themselves and their children. Focus on their needs as a family to help them nurture their child in an interracial context.

Cultural sensitivity means that each child’s heritage is honored, that it is understood as unique from other cultures, and that it is respected. It means that teachers must become familiar with the cultural norms of the children in their classes and build bridges for children and their families into the more dominant culture.

The culturally sensitive teacher gets to know each of the families as a separate entity and becomes familiar with their individual expressions of culture and values. Today’s teacher recognizes that one family does not represent the totality of the culture (which would be stereotyping) and is careful not to overgeneralize from one example. The effective teacher is called on to integrate these insights into curriculum planning, as well as in their relationships with children’s families, in order to serve the best interests of young children.

3-3Children with Diverse Abilities

Watching and working with children exposes a range of diversity among the group. Rosa is challenged by eye–hand coordination, Ariel has difficulty attending to tasks, and Hans stutters when he is excited. What accounts for these developmental differences?

3-3aFactors that Influence Developmental Differences

There are several factors that influence the way children grow and develop.

Genetic Makeup

Each child has a unique combination of genes that determine eye and hair color, height, body shape, personality traits, and intelligence. Certain diseases, such as Tay-Sachs, cystic fibrosis, and sickle cell anemia, are linked to heredity (Berk, 2013).

Environment

From conception, the brain is affected by environmental conditions. An individual child’s rate and sequence of development reflects the interactions among the brain, the body, and the environment. The attitudes with which children are raised, their culture, socioeconomic status (SES), the kinds of caregiving they experience, and their community combine in countless ways to affect growth. Nutrition, safety, play space, adult relationships, neighborhood, and family stability affect individual development. Whether a child lives in relative poverty or riches, environmental factors interact with genes to create a single, individual person.

The most insidious environmental factor is poverty. Every fourth infant, toddler, and preschooler in the United States is poor (Children’s Defense Fund, 2014). Being poor can lead to poor health and nutrition, which can compromise all areas of development, including brain development. The word poor can also mean homelessness and being unprepared for school due to hunger. Further discussion about the effects of poverty on young children’s lives is located in Chapter 15 .

Gender and Race Differences

Girls and boys differ in both the rate and pattern of growth, especially during adolescence. Ethnic variations in growth are common. African American and Asian American children seem to mature faster than do North American Caucasian children (Berk, 2013). Growth norms should be used with caution and with respect to ethnic differences.

Learning Styles

Children exhibit a number of different approaches to learning that must be accounted for when planning programs. Some are quiet; others move around and talk, while others seem never to listen. While on a field trip to the farm, these children demonstrate three common learning styles:

· Lorenzo watches, looks around, and visually absorbs the environment. He calls to others, “See the goat!” and “Look at that.” Lorenzo is a visual learner .

· Olivia chatters away to her friends as they enter the barnyard. “Listen to all the noise the sheep are making.” “Hear the horses?” While she enjoys listening to what others have to say, Olivia has difficulty waiting for her turn to talk. Olivia is an auditory learner .

· As she runs ahead of the other children, Anna calls out, “Get over here so we can touch them!” Looking up at the teacher, she begs, “Take me closer. I want to see what sheep feel like.” Anna is a tactile learner .

Each of the children responds to the experience in a way that reflects an individual learning style. Lorenzo interprets the field trip via pictures, by drawing or painting what he saw. Olivia repeats stories from her experience over and over again as she integrates her experience at the farm. Anna plays out her farm experience by making clay animals or dancing an “animal dance.” (In Chapters 4 and 10 , learning styles are further discussed in terms of Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences.)

The implication for teachers is that programs are planned to meet the needs and challenges of the whole group. Individual differences are incorporated into the planning. Activities are selected to allow for a variety of responses from children at different stages of development and learning styles.

In our diverse world, teachers should be sensitive to the influence of sex, race, and individual patterns of development.

3-3bPlanning for Diverse Abilities

When teachers are aware of the range of developmental differences and learning styles of the children in the class, they incorporate those variations into the planning process. Figure 3-2 suggests some strategies for how to plan for these types of variations.

Figure 3-2

The history of and attitudes toward full inclusion have evolved over many years.

The Right to Be Included

During the past 50 years, there has been significant public recognition of and funding for education programs for people with special needs. Previously, public and private attitudes were ones of shame and segregation. Past generations hid adults and children with special needs in their homes or secluded them in institutions. Keeping special populations out of sight gave way to providing separate opportunities for them. Public consciousness is now sufficient to understand that not all people with special needs are necessarily mentally impaired. The current practice of integrating children with varying exceptionalities into ongoing programs in schools—and into the mainstream of American life—is a more humane practice. Significant legislation and practices that fostered the practice of inclusion include the following:

· 1972: Head Start required that a minimum of 10% of its enrollment be reserved for children with disabilities and led the way toward large-scale inclusion.

· 1975: Public Law 94-142 , the Education for All Handicapped Children Act—the so-called Bill of Rights for the handicapped—was passed and guarantees free public education to disabled people from 3 to 21 years of age “in the least restrictive” environment. Parents of children with special needs are an integral part of the development of their child’s Individualized Education Plan (IEP), in which the strengths and needs of the family are taken into consideration.

· 1986: Public Law 99-457 , the Amendments to the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, provides funding for children who were not included in the previous law, including infants, toddlers, and 3- to 5-year-olds. This law also allows for the inclusion of “developmentally delayed” children and provides local agencies the opportunity to include at-risk children in that definition.

· 1990: Congress reauthorized Public Law 94-142 and renamed it the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) ( Public Law 101-476 ). Two new categories were included: autism and traumatic brain injury.

· 1990: Public Law 101-336 , the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), makes it unlawful to discriminate against people with disabilities and requires that they have equal access to public and private services as well as reasonable accommodations.

Each step taken during the past 50 years has given thousands of children the right to be included and promotes the dignity and worth of all individuals.

Collaborating with Families

Families are usually the first to notice that their child is not developing according to the norms. They may ask the child’s teacher to watch for signs of hearing impairment, lack of necessary motor skills, or language imperfection. Because early diagnosis and intervention are important, teachers assess the child’s overall skills. If both the family and the teachers feel there is a potential problem, further resources and services are explored through social service agencies and public health offices. The early childhood professional is not an expert in diagnosing learning exceptionalities but can be effective in helping a family secure proper referrals and treatment.

State and federal laws require that when a child from 3 to 21 years of age is identified with having a disability, an individualized education program (IEP) is developed by a team composed of the child’s parents, a special education teacher, a regular classroom teacher, a representative of the local education agency, and other specialists. They base the IEP on the strengths of the child and present level of functioning, as well as the goals and concerns of the family. The team establishes long-term goals and short-term objectives to meet those goals. Special education and related services are determined, as well as where and when the inclusive programs take place.

For infants and toddlers younger than 3 years of age who receive early intervention services, an individualized family service plan (IFSP) is put in place. A significant difference between this plan and the IEP is the focus is on the whole family, who determine the goals. Family-centered and child-centered services are made available to enhance family functioning.

The IEP and IFSP are part of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA), which stems from the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1986. Figure 3-2 , “ The Right to Be Included ,” outlines the important legislation that led to the creation of these programs.

3-3cChildren with Special Needs

The term special needs includes many conditions that may or may not be noticeable. To be designated as having special needs , a child’s normal growth and development is

· (1)

delayed;

· (2)

distorted, atypical, or abnormal; or

· (3)

severely or negatively affected (Allen & Cowdery, 2015).

This definition includes the physical, mental, emotional, and social areas of development. The terms exceptionality and disability are both used to define atypical development.

Two types of children come under the category of children with special needs:

· (1)

children who have some sort of exceptionality and

· (2)

children who are gifted.

They extend the definition of “Who is the child?” and are discussed separately in this section.

There are children who have some obvious characteristics that qualify them for special-needs status:

· Five-year-old Pete, blind from birth, has been in nursery school for 3 years.

· Chrissy, a 4-year-old with multiple exceptionalities , has her daily program in a special school supplemented by attending the child care center three afternoons each week.

· Travis is a child with Down syndrome, and this is his first experience in a school not restricted to atypical children.

Other children with less apparent exceptionalities are defined as children with special needs.

In the course of normal development, any one area of a child’s growth is affected by the development of the whole child, and this holds true for children who do not develop according to the norms. Any single exceptionality may lead to other multihandicapping conditions:

· A child with a profound hearing loss is often delayed in speech production or language abilities and suffers social isolation due to the inability to hear and speak with peers.

· A child with a speech impairment or cleft palate may have the intellectual capacity to put simple puzzles together but may not yet have the language to engage verbally in songs and finger play.

· A child with Down syndrome may have congenital heart defects, intellectual impairments, eye abnormalities, or poor physical coordination.

· Children who have cerebral palsy, a central nervous system disorder, often have other exceptionalities, such as intellectual delays, epilepsy, and hearing, visual, and speech problems (Kiernan et al., n.d.).

Figure 3-3 lists a number of exceptionalities, from mild to severe, that teachers of young children may encounter.

Figure 3-3

These disorders may range from mild to severe, and children exhibit a variety of abilities and needs even if they are diagnosed with the same condition. For further information concerning a specific condition, the student should consult a special education textbook.

Teachers of Young Children May Encounter a Variety of Disabilities

· Speech and language: Hearing impairment, stuttering, articulation problems, cleft palate, chronic voice disorders, learning disabilities

· Physical–motor: Visual impairment, blindness, perceptual motor deficits, orthopedic disabilities such as cerebral palsy, spina bifida, loss of limbs, muscular dystrophy

· Intellectual: Cognitive delays, brain injury, brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and learning disabilities

· Social-emotional: Self-destructive behavior, severe withdrawal, dangerous aggression toward self and others, noncommunicativeness, moodiness, tantrums, ADHD, severe anxiety, depression, phobias, psychosis, autism

· Health impairments: Severe asthma, epilepsy, hemophilia, congenital heart defects, severe anemia, malnutrition, diabetes, tuberculosis, cystic fibrosis, Down syndrome, sickle cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, AIDS

· Specific learning disabilities: Difficulties with language use and acquisition, spoken and written language affected, perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, developmental aphasia

Professional Resource Download

How Disabilities Are Defined

The American Psychiatric Association is a universally recognized authority for diagnosing mental disorders and their classifications are used throughout the mental health field. Treatment recommendations and payments are often determined by the classifications that appear in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), which was updated in 2013. The changes play a significant role for those who work with children with special needs and will be noted as each disability is discussed.

Specific Learning Disorder

Specific learning disorder is a new name for a disability in a particular area of learning, such as reading and math, that is not caused by a physical or intellectual disability (Berger, 2014). Previously, the disorder was referred to as learning disabilities.

Children with specific learning disorders are found in almost every classroom; they have no discernable condition, but nevertheless, they are having problems with one or more basic skills or they have learning disabilities that keep them from storing, processing, and producing information. These conditions may include:

· Poor memory skills, difficulty in following directions, eye–hand coordination problems, and trouble discriminating between letters, numbers, and sounds.

· Dyslexia, the most common specific learning disability, causes children to reverse letters (such as d and b) or words (such as was and saw), although many children do this who are not dyslexic.

· A strength in another area, such as math, and yet have difficulty with learning language. Learning difficulties are usually not a singular dysfunction. Children who exhibit problems with reading and writing often have difficulties with spatial relationships and body coordination as well.

Observations of these behaviors can give teachers some of the first warning signs of learning disorders.

A learning disability does not mean that a child is intellectually impaired or delayed. A child with a learning disability usually has a normal or above-normal IQ (Allen & Cowdery, 2015) and tends to develop normally, but the task of reading seems to highlight several areas of difficulty: problems of visual perception, inability to integrate visual and auditory information, impaired memory, problems with language, and difficulty distinguishing the separate sounds in words. This wide range of symptoms, the number of potential causes, and the varying degrees to which children exhibit the symptoms make learning exceptionalities difficult to diagnose.

Use caution against early diagnosis of a young child as learning disabled because young children differ in their individual rates of growth, and many differences and delays are within the range of normal development.

3-3dAttention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Do you know a child who never sits still—one who is constantly on the move, talks excessively, and disrupts classroom activities? This behavior is typical of children with a condition known as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) , which, according to Berk (2013), affects up to 3 to 5 percent of all school-age children (more often boys). The median age at the onset of ADHD is 7 years (National Institutes of Health, 2015).

Brain Research Says …

Move It! An Antidote to ADHD

Several recent studies have brought to light the importance of physical activity and its relationship to cognitive functions, especially for those who exhibit signs of ADHD. This research shows how physical movement improves mental focus, memory, and cognitive flexibility.

· In a study of students participating in a twelve-week exercise program, all students improved their math and reading test scores, but especially those with ADHD (Hoza et al, 2014).

· A similar study (Smith et al., 2013) found that just 26 minutes of daily physical activity for an eight-week period “significantly allayed” ADHD symptoms in children with ADHD

“Movement is not just burning off energy,” states John Ratey of Harvard, in a 2012 TED talk, but turning brains on. He notes that physical activity triggers the brain to release dopamine and serotonin, which improve mood and cognitive activity. Exercise, according to Ratey, is medication for ADHD.

Questions

1. Have you experienced a time when exercise, some physical movement, or both stimulated your thought processes? How and when did this happen? Did you connect that the two were related? How would you explain this to a child who was diagnosed with ADHD?

2. What does this research say to you about the need for physical education and recess in schools? Check out the schools in your area. How many of them still have physical education classes every day?

Smith, A. L., Hoza, B., Linnea, K., McQuade, J. D., Tomb, M., Vaughn, A. J., et al. (2013). Pilot physical activity intervention reduces severity of ADHD symptoms in young children. Journal of Attention Disorders, 17, 70–82.

The National Resource Center on ADHD (2015) notes three subtypes of ADHD that are common today:

1. ADHD predominately inattentive type (ADHD-1)

· Makes careless mistakes

· Does not pay close attention to detail

· Easily distracted; hard to maintain attention

· Does not appear to listen; seems forgetful

· Has trouble with follow-through

· Loses things; has difficulty with organization

· Might avoid tasks that take prolonged intellectual effort

2. ADHD predominately hyperactive-impulsive (ADHD-HI)

· Fidgets; squirms

· Has trouble staying seated; runs about

· Talks excessively; difficulty with being quiet during activities

· Blurts out answers; interrupts; intrudes on others

· Has difficulty waiting to take turns

3. ADHD combined type (ADHD-C)

· Child or adult meets some of the criteria from both categories listed previously

Children with ADHD can be difficult to manage both at home and in the classroom. Their constellation of behaviors may apply at some level to many children, but teachers must be cautious about labeling the normally active, somewhat disruptive child as having ADHD.

Medication is a common treatment for children with ADHD, but because its effects are short term and its side effects can be serious, it is controversial. The most effective approach appears to be a combination of medication and individual behavior management strategies (Allen & Cowdery, 2015; Berk, 2013). There is no easy solution for dealing with children who have ADHD; further research into the cause of this disability and development of safe effective treatments are clearly needed. Figure 3-4 suggests guidance techniques that help children with ADHD.

Figure 3-4

These examples help children with ADHD modify their behavior.

Effective Guidance Strategies for Children with ADHD

Strategy	Example
Maintain regular and consistent routines and rules.	“Remember, Sitara, always wash your hands before eating lunch.”
Have realistic expectations.	“I know it is hard for you to wait. Why don’t you go over to the math lab and work until I am ready.”
Make eye contact when giving directions, using clear and simple explanations.	“Look at me, Toby, so I know that you are listening. Good. Now let’s go over the assignment together.”
Allow time for transitions by giving a plan for the next step.	“In three minutes, it will be time to have small groups, so please finish your snacks.”
Select jobs in which the child will be successful.	“Richy, please get enough rulers for everyone at this table.”
Recognize accomplishments.	“Good job. You counted out enough for each of us.”

Enlarge Table

The recent DSM-5 updates upped the age of onset symptoms for ADHD from 7 years to 12 years. Research has shown that ADHD can continue into adulthood and DSM-5 adapted criteria for adults to ensure that they can continue to get help so long as they need it.

3-3eAutism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological condition that includes autism, Asperger syndrome, and nonspecified pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs). ASD is characterized by impaired language and communication skills, as well as repetitious behavior. The symptoms are evident by age 3 and may appear as early as 18 months of age. ASD is more common in boys than girls and in siblings of a child with ASD (National Institutes of Health, 2015).

Children with ASD commonly have problems with

· (1)

verbal and nonverbal communications, making eye contact, holding conversations, and smiling;

· (2)

social skills, such as sharing emotion and grasping how others think and feel; and

· (3)

repetitive routines and behaviors, repeating words and phrases over and over, and obsessively following schedules (National Institutes of Health, 2015).

Some ASD symptoms are severe and cause a child to appear very differently from other children; other children may exhibit only mild forms of ASD symptoms and not appear noticeably different. Every child with ASD is different from every other child with ASD, depending on the severity of the symptoms.

There is no cure or single treatment for children with ASD. Some of the solutions that help to manage the symptoms so that children may learn are behavior management therapy (see Chapter 7 ), speech and language therapy, and physical and occupational therapy. There are no medications to treat ASD, but some medications can treat some of the symptoms. As noted in the Diversity box, the law requires free public education from age 3–21 for children with special needs, such as ASD. A team composed of parents, teachers, caregivers, school psychologists, and other child development specialists collaborate to create an IEP best suited to each child (National Institutes of Health, 2015).

The new DSM-5 guidelines now have an umbrella category for ASD. The four separate categories of autistic disorder, Asperger’s disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder, or pervasive developmental disorder are included in the overall category of ASD.

Many children with ASD attend schools with normally developing children. The following strategies are useful in guiding children with ASD:

· Use simple, direct, and short statements.

· Demonstrate actions: show the child the puzzle and where it goes in the shelf.

· Encourage social interactions with other children.

· Foster interactions with adults by encouraging the child to use simple words when he or she wants something.

· Maintain an environment with a predictable schedule and minimal distractions.

· Establish frequent communication with the family.

3-3fChildren who Are Exceptionally Bright, Gifted, and Talented

The National Society for Gifted and Talented (NSGT) defines children who are exceptionally bright, gifted, and talented as individuals who demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude (defined as an exceptional ability to reason and learn) or competence (documented performance or achievement in the top 10 percent or rarer) in one or more domains. Domains include any structured area of activity with its own symbol system (e.g., mathematics, music, language), set of sensorimotor skills (e.g., painting, dance, sports), or both.

The development of ability or talent is a lifelong process. It can be evident in young children through exceptional performance on tests or other measures of ability, or as a rapid rate of learning compared to other students of the same age, or in actual achievement in a domain. As individuals mature through childhood to adolescence, however, achievement and high levels of motivation in the domain become the primary characteristics of their giftedness. Various factors can either enhance or inhibit the development and expression of abilities (National Association for Gifted and Talented, 2015).

Young children are not usually categorized as “gifted and talented” but often referred to as “exceptionally bright,” and they demonstrate knowledge and skills beyond the demonstrated abilities of the other children in the class (Gadzikowski, 2013). Figure 3-5 describes some of the common characteristics of children who are exceptionally bright or gifted.

Figure 3-5

Exceptionally bright children often demonstrate knowledge and skills beyond the demonstrated abilities of other children in their class.

Identifying the Exceptionally Bright Child

Exceptionally bright, gifted, and talented children often demonstrate the following behaviors and attitudes:

· Advanced vocabulary and early language development

· Early reading skills and interest in symbols and the alphabet

· Keen observation and intense curiosity

· Excellent memory and retention of information

· Periods of intense concentration and sustained attention

· Ability for abstract thinking and complex concepts

· Emotional sensitivity

· Focus on fair play

· Perfectionism

[Source: Adapted from Gadzikowski (2013) and National Association for Gifted Children (2011).]

NSGT (2015) further identifies six areas of giftedness. A child may be gifted in more than one area, but not in all six areas:

· Creative thinking: Is independent and original in speech and writing, creates and invents, improvises, challenged by problem solving and creative tasks, has a sense of humor, and does not mind being different from the crowd.

· General intellectual ability: Is observant and inquisitive, hypothesizes, formulates abstractions and processes information in complex ways, becomes excited about new ideas, learns rapidly, uses a large vocabulary, and is a self-starter.

· Specific academic ability: Has high ability in memorization and comprehension, acquires basic skill knowledge quickly, is widely read and attains high academic success in special interest area, pursues special interest with enthusiasm and vigor.

· Leadership: Is fluent and concise in self-expression, self-confident, well-liked by peers and has high expectations for self and others, assumes responsibility and is well organized, has good judgment, and foresees the consequences and implications of decisions.

· Psychomotor: Enjoys participation in various athletic opportunities, well-coordinated, has good manipulative and motor skills, has a high energy level, exhibits precision in movement, and is challenged by difficult athletic activities.

· Visual/performing arts: Has an unusual ability to express self, feelings, and mood through dance, drama, and music; shows an outstanding sense of spatial relationships; enjoys a high level of creative expression; is observant; and likes to produce rather than copy something else.

A serious concern is identifying potentially exceptionally bright children from culturally diverse and economically disadvantaged backgrounds. This oversight is linked to standardized tests that are often culturally and linguistically inappropriate for many students. Many advocate less reliance on intelligence tests to determine giftedness to one that promotes theories of multiple intelligences, such as Gardner’s nine basic different intelligences (Allen & Cowdery, 2015). Chapters 4 and 10 discuss Gardner’s theories in greater detail.

Children with special needs are also overlooked when identifying exceptionally bright youngsters. The term twice exceptional refers to children who have the appropriate characteristics of giftedness but also have been diagnosed with a disability.

Being exceptionally bright, gifted, or talented is a trait that cuts across all socioeconomic, cultural, and ability groups. Our main focus should be to recognize the potential in all children and help them develop to their optimum.

The Teacher’s Role

The teacher’s role with children who are gifted is that of providing challenge and stimulation. Children who are gifted may need scaffolding strategies to support their learning. In early elementary grades, children who are gifted may be advanced to an older group, or spend part of the day in special classes where they can interact with like-minded peers. A more common approach in early childhood has been in the area of curriculum enrichment. In this way, the child remains with age-level peers to develop social skills. Children who are gifted often feel isolated from their nongifted peers and may have social and emotional difficulties. These factors must also be considered in planning programs.

Curriculum areas are developed in more complex ways. The child who is gifted needs a learning environment that supports intellectual risk-taking, the use of logic and abstract concepts, and curiosity and enhances their specific talents. Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom, 1974) (see Chapter 4 ) of remembering and understanding, applying and analyzing, and evaluating and creating, enhances high-order thinking and can increase the complexity of learning for exceptionally bright students. All the children in the classroom can appreciate this enrichment; each responds according to his or her abilities, and a rich curriculum benefits the whole class.

Families of children who are gifted need support and encouragement, as well as guidance in dealing with their child’s exceptionality. Together, teachers and parents can explore what best suits each individual child so that this giftedness may be nurtured and challenged at home and at school.

3-3gThe Inclusive Classroom

In the past, children with special needs were integrated into classrooms only after they had met certain standards and expectations. Often they were assigned to separate special education classes. When ready, they were mainstreamed into classrooms with typically developing children. Inclusion means that a child with special needs is a full-time member of a regular classroom, a more natural environment, along with other children who have special needs, as well as those who do not.

More than a word definition is at stake, however. Inclusion is the right to belong, to have worth, and be accepted as a valuable part of society. Teachers are a key factor in the successful integration of children with exceptionalities. Their attitude is critical; they must be committed to teaching all children with equal caring and concern, regardless of their intelligence or skill levels. Some strategies to enhance inclusion in the classroom are:

· Support social encounters between children who have special needs and those who do not by encouraging them to get involved in a wide variety of activities together. Some children with special needs require assistance and modeling for successful social play and interactions.

· Build a play-based curriculum on the strengths of each child—those who have disabilities and those who do not—that include materials and activities that challenge their capabilities. Work with individual families to integrate each child’s IEP into the overall plan.

· Teachers who work with children who have special needs should have specific training and guidance to ensure that each child is challenged developmentally.

Figure 3-6

An inclusive classroom provides a way for every child—regardless of ability—to experience growth and learning.

Planning for Developmental Differences and Learning Styles

The learning environment can be arranged so that children of every skill level can work and play together when you do the following:

· Make sure that the materials and activities are in a variety of formats. Art can be expressed in paints, crayons, markers, clay, wood, and paper.

· Address the variations of development within a 1-year span. A selection of books would include wordless books, easy-reader books, picture books, short storybooks, Braille books, and alphabet and number books.

· Plan around the known similarities within the group and allow for the needs and interests of all the children. There is great interest in the 3-year-old class for new baby siblings. Add more dolls, carriages, beds, and doll clothes to the dramatic play area.

· Small groups may help some children with a new learning experience. In preparation for an upcoming field trip to the fire station, hold small group discussions so that each child is able to listen, ask questions, and participate in the planning. Rehearse rules for walking with a buddy, staying with the group, and expected behavior while at the fire station.

· Modify materials and activities to make them accessible to all children. Make sure that all surfaces, indoor and out, are wide enough, stable, and safe for wheelchairs. Have multiples of popular items (shovels, telephones, dolls). Use a small tray for puzzle pieces or LEGOs® to contain the activity and define the workspace.

· Every classroom can be adapted for children with special needs. Consult with each child’s family to explore together ways to enhance learning.

Inclusion is a critical concept for all children. For typically developing children, it is an opportunity to learn to accept differences in people. For the child with special needs, typically developing children serve as age-appropriate behavior models. Some children with special needs may not have an opportunity to hear the language of their normal peer group. They may not know how to play with another child or how to communicate in socially acceptable ways. In the inclusive classroom, with sensitive and knowledgeable teachers, children with exceptionalities are helped to realize their potential as growing and learning children.

Dealing with Bias and Stereotypes

One of the most important issues for a child with special needs is to be accepted. Young children are known for their forthrightness in commenting on and asking questions about what confuses or frightens them. Children without special needs may be anxious about what another child’s exceptionality may mean to them. Although this is a common, age-appropriate reaction, we cannot allow an individual to be rejected on the basis of his or her abilities. Derman-Sparks and Olsen Edwards (2010) suggests the following strategies:

· The rejection must be handled immediately, with support and assurance given to the child who was rejected that this type of behavior is not permitted.

Example: “No, Rachel. You cannot tell Gina that she can’t play because she is in a wheelchair. Let’s look for ways you can include her in your play.”

· It is important to help children recognize how they are different and how they are alike.

Example: “Gina is very good at writing stories, just like you, Rachel. Perhaps you could write a story together.”

· Children need to have their fears about other children’s abilities and exceptionalities taken seriously and to have adults understand their concerns.

Example: “I’m glad you told me that Emily frightened you because she is blind. You don’t have to be afraid that you, too, will be blind. Emily was born without sight, and when you were born, you were able to see. You could use your eyes to help Emily walk to the playground.”

· Questions must be answered promptly, truthfully, and simply. Use the children’s own curiosity, and let the child with special needs answer questions, whenever possible.

Example: “Yes, Emily, Janice has some questions about being blind. Would you like to tell her how you are able to read with Braille?”

All children, regardless of ability, learn and grow through play.

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Educators must help all children develop pride in their cultural heritage.

Mitch Kezar/Stone/Getty Images

All children benefit when adults are willing to confront bias and deal with children’s prejudice and misconceptions. When we provide opportunities for children to interact with people who look and act differently than they do, we actively foster acceptance and respect for the individual. (More gender diversity issues are found in Chapter 15 .)

Diversity

Inclusive? Yes! Welcoming? Maybe

A relatively new phenomenon in early childhood programs in the United States is the number of children whose parents are gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered (GLBT). A truly inclusive school environment takes care to ensure that all family structures are respected, protected from discrimination, and supported in their efforts to be part of their children’s school experience.

Society’s views toward sexuality and gender reassignment have changed rapidly in the past few decades, as has the definition of family (see Chapter 8 for more discussion on families today). Legal protection, access to health care and benefits, and the legalization of same-sex marriage has brought society to a greater awareness of the GLBT community and its need for full inclusion.

Nowhere is inclusion more important than in the lives of young children and their families. While we may have addressed the inclusive aspects of diversity in some ways, we may not be as welcoming and affirming of nontraditional families as we think we are. The same anti-bias principles that have been outlined here (as well as in other resources, such as Derman-Sparks & Olsen Edwards, 2010), serve as a road map for exploring strategies that would work well with GLBT families.

For example, what pictures and books do you have that represent gay/lesbian families? How often do you say “fathers and mothers” when “parents” or “families” would be more inclusive? Do you have a “father’s day” or “mother’s day” activity that might make some children feel excluded and unwelcome? How safe is it for the children of gay/lesbian parents to talk about their two mommies or two daddies? How do you respond to questions other children ask about nontraditional families? How safe is it for the children of GLBT parents to talk about their home lives?

Where are resources to help you think through the full meaning of inclusion and become a more welcoming environment for all? “All” in this case also means the teaching staff, the administration and support staff, and others who work in the school. How are they included and supported as GLBTs?

Fortunately, there are several excellent website resources for working with GLBT families and their children that can help you reassess your inclusive and hopefully welcoming program.

· http://welcomingschools.org/ offers pragmatic and age-appropriate resources on family diversity, teachable moments, affirming gender, avoiding stereotypes, and a process for creating welcoming and safe schools. Their work is aligned with Common Core State Standards.

1. http://glsen.org is the Gay, Lesbian, Straight Education Network (GLSEN), which offers an educator’s network with lesson plans for building a safe, inclusive, and affirming classroom for all students. GLSEN advocates for legislation on a national basis.

2. http://groundspark.org facilitates the development of inclusive, bias-free schools through media resources. The Respect for All Project helps schools and communities become safe places for all.

3. http://casafeschools.org is the California Safe Schools Coalition, which researches the various issues pertaining to GLBT students and outlines steps that schools can take to improve safety for all students.

It is important that we continue to examine our potential biases to ensure that our program practices create not only inclusive environments, but welcoming classrooms for all families.

Ch. 4

Developmental and Learning Theories

· Chapter Introduction

· 4-1 Introduction

· 4-1a Major Theories

· 4-1b The Nature of Development

· 4-1c The Most Excellent Eight

· 4-2 Psychodynamic Theory

· 4-2a Sigmund Freud

· 4-2b Erik Erikson

· 4-2c Applying Psychosocial Theory to Work with Children

· 4-3 Behaviorist Theory

· 4-3a The Behaviorists

· 4-3b Theory of Behaviorism and Social Learning

· 4-3c Applying Behaviorist Theory to Work with Children

· 4-3d Cognitive Theory

· 4-3e Jean Piaget

· 4-3f Theory of Cognitive Development

· 4-3g Applying Cognitive Theory to Work with Children

· 4-4 Sociocultural Theory

· 4-4a Lev Vygotsky

· 4-4b Sociocultural Theory

· 4-4c Applying Sociocultural Theory to Work with Children

· 4-5 Ecological Theory

· 4-5a Urie Bronfenbrenner

· 4-5b Ecological Systems Theory

· 4-5c Applying Ecological Theory to Work with Children

· 4-6 Multiple Intelligences Theory

· 4-6a Howard Gardner

· 4-6b Theory of Multiple Intelligences

· 4-6c Applying Multiple Intelligences Theory to Work with Children

· 4-7 Maturation Theory

· 4-7a Arnold Gesell

· 4-7b Maturation Theory

· 4-7c Applying Maturation Theory to Work with Children

· 4-8 Humanistic Theory

· 4-8a The Humanists

· 4-8b Theory of Human Needs

· 4-8c Applying Humanistic Theory to Work with Children

· 4-9 Developmental Topics

· 4-9a Attachment

· 4-9b Stages and Types of Attachment

· 4-9c Moral Development

· 4-9d Play

· 4-9e Brain Function

· 4-9f Ethnicity and Cultural Diversit

· 4-9g Language

· 4-9h Gender

· 4-10 Using Developmental and Learning Theories

· 4-10a Basic Tenets

· 4-10b Developmental Research Conclusions

· 4-10c Conditions for Learning

· 4-11 Chapter Review

· 4-11a Summary

· 4-11b Key Terms

· 4-11c Review Questions

· 4-11d Observe and Apply

· 4-11e Helpful Websites

· 4-11f References

Chapter Introduction

Developmental and Learning Theories

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Learning Objectives

· LO1Compare and contrast the eight major theoretical perspectives that relate to child development.

· LO2Examine central developmental topics of cultural diversity, attachment, play, gender, moral development, and brain-based research as vehicles for creating developmentally appropriate practices.

· LO3Articulate how developmental and learning theories explain children’s growth and development.

Competency Areas

Standards for Professional Development

The following NAEYC standards for early childhood professional development are addressed in this chapter:

· Standard 1 Promoting Child Development and Learning

· Standard 2 Building Family and Community Relationships

· Standard 5 Using Content Knowledge to Build Meaningful Curriculum

· Standard 6 Becoming a Professional

Code of Ethical Conduct

These are the sections of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct that apply to the topics of this chapter:

· Section I. We are committed to supporting children’s development and learning.

Ideals:

· I-1.1

To be familiar with the knowledge base of early childhood care and education and to stay informed through continuing education and training.

· I-1.2

To base program practices upon current knowledge and research in the field of early childhood education, child development, and related disciplines, as well as on particular knowledge of each child.

4-1Introduction

While taking a routine report at an elementary school, a police officer was interrupted by a girl of about 6 years old. Looking the officer up and down, she asked, “Are you a cop?” “Yes,” said the woman, and continued writing the report. “My mother said if I ever needed help, I should ask the police. Is that right?” “Yes, again,” replied the officer. “Well, then,” she said as she extended her foot forward, “would you please tie my shoe?”

What was this child thinking? Can you see how she took in information from her mother and then applied it to her own life? How do children do that? What is the process of listening, thinking, and then doing?

While working for an organization that delivers lunches to elderly shut-ins, a mother used to take her preschool son on the afternoon rounds. He was always intrigued by the various appliances there, particularly the canes, walkers, and wheelchairs. One day, she saw him staring at a pair of false teeth soaking in a glass. He turned to her and whispered, “The tooth fairy will never believe this!”

Look how this child applied his fantasy world to what he encountered. During the years from birth to middle childhood, how do young children come to understand the world? How do they make sense of what they see, touch, and experience?

The father of 6-month-old Michiko puts one end of a toy monkey in his mouth and dangles it in front of her. Michiko gazes intently, getting still and wide-eyed, finally reaching up tentatively to touch the doll. Yet, when Keith’s nanny tries the same thing with him, the 9-month-old smiles and laughs as he grabs it and tries to shove it back into her mouth.

How is it that two children can respond so differently? Is this simply because of a few months’ age difference? Is it because of their gender or ethnic differences? Or has one child played this game before and not the other?

4-1aMajor Theories

So many remarkable transformations take place in the early years. Development, the orderly set of changes in the life span, occurs as individuals move from conception to death. Those of us who are curious about children want to know the nature of these changes and the reasons why things happen.

A developmental theory is a “systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a coherent framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older” (Berger, 2014). A learning theory attempts to explain how learning takes place. By observing children, theorists try to make sense out of what they see, looking for patterns and variations to make a kind of story that explains the reasons or causes of the details. Research allows us to look at many children or a group of children over time, and even one child with intense scrutiny, to seek these explanations.

Early childhood education draws from several fields of study. Much of what we know about children today comes from child development and child psychology research that tries to answer these questions:

· How do children develop?

· What do they learn and in what order?

· What do children need to be ready to learn?

· What affects learning?

· Do all children develop in the same ways?

· What are the similarities and differences in growth and development?

To begin to answer these questions, we need some way to look for information and then choose and organize the facts so that we can understand what we see. In other words, we need a theory . Theories are especially useful in providing a broad and consistent view of the complexity of human development (Berger, 2014), as follows:

· Theories produce hypotheses. They allow us to make an educated guess (called a hypothesis ) about children’s behavior and development.

· Theories generate discoveries. Because these theories are based on experience, teachers can check their validity as they observe children every day.

· Theories offer practical guidance. The theories you read form the foundation of Developmentally Appropriate Practices (DAP) that is a guide for teachers at all levels of early education.

The basic quest for sound theories about development and knowledge and for systematic statements about behavior and development has given educators much to consider in forming their own ideas about children.

Early childhood teachers should know how children develop and how they learn. Knowing how children develop is critical in making the daily decisions about curriculum, the classroom setting, and children. To be effective with children, teachers need a thoughtful philosophy and approach that is based on what we know about how children develop and what works to help them learn and understand. The teacher who is well versed in theory has invaluable tools to work with parents, advise the family of the range of typical behavior, and talk to parents about concerns that are beyond the norms. Therefore, it is important to have a background in both developmental psychology and learning theories.

4-1bThe Nature of Development

A child is a blend of many parts that interrelate in different ways and change with growth over time. Such complexity and dynamic change call for ways to organize our thinking through identifying developmental domains and posing major questions.

Developmental Domains

The study of human development requires insight and information from many disciplines because each person develops simultaneously in body, mind, and spirit; thus, we usually divide development into three major domains to make it easier to study (see Chapter 3 ). We try to consider separately the three aspects that make up the whole of development ( Figure 4-1 ). We can then better understand the major processes of development that parallel these developmental areas:

Figure 4-1

The various domains of child growth and development are interrelated and interdependent.

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· Biological processes describe changes in the body.

· Cognitive processes are those changes in one’s thought, intelligence, and language.

· Socioemotional processes reflect changes in an individual’s relationships with other people, emotions, and personality.

Questions about Development

Major issues are raised in the study of development. The science of development seeks to understand why and how people change or remain the same over time; as a science, it depends on theories, research methods, and critical analyses to understand the what, how, and why of development. Because of this, all kinds of children—younger and older, rich and poor, of various ethnicities, backgrounds, culture, and experience—must be studied. Three major questions drive research and practice:

1. Is children’s development due more to maturation or experience? The changes we see in children over time may be due to internal or external influences. Some theories claim that children change because of innate, biologic, or genetic patterns built into the human being; others claim that they are shaped by the environment and experiences (such as parents, materials, TV, school, and so on) of life. This argument is often referred to as the nature/nurture controversy , also known as the problem of heredity versus environment. As you remember from Chapter 1 , this issue has been discussed for centuries. On the “nature” side, Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that the child is born with natural, or innate, goodness. John Locke, however, asserted that it was “nurture” that mattered. He contended that children entered the world with a tabula rasa, or clean slate, on which all experience and learning was then written. Today, most psychologists and educators agree that the patterns of development and learning are complex and not so simply explained. The eight theories discussed in the rest of this chapter focus on variations that emphasize one or the other ( Figure 4-2 ).

Figure 4-2

Development is a combination of the forces of nature and nurture. Each theory offers its own emphasis on heredity/prenatal conditions and environmental/life experiences.

2. Is growth smooth and continuous or more stagelike? Some theories emphasize a gradual, cumulative kind of growth, more like “from an acorn, a giant oak will grow.” The seedling becomes more oaklike gradually over time. This continuity of development is usually the viewpoint of theories that emphasize experience (nurture). Other theories depict children’s growth as a sequence of stages that are clearly marked by distinct changes, more like “caterpillar into butterfly.” In the cocoon, the chrysalis does not become more caterpillarlike, but instead becomes a different kind of organism. This viewpoint emphasizes the innate conditions of development (nature).

3. What can theory and research do for early childhood educators? Science has opened our eyes to the amazing complexity of the mind and the wondrous path of growth in the body. This was not always so. In previous generations, little scientific information was available that parents (and teachers) could use to assess the validity of theories. Many beliefs were espoused by adults about children, such as “You’ll spoil the baby if you respond to his demands too quickly,” or “Children who suffer early neglect and deprivation will not realize their normal potential.” These statements can be powerful, particularly as they are passed to you by your family and culture. However, some ideas are rooted in myth rather than reality.

The study of child development through the early 1900s was mostly confined to the study of trends and descriptions of age changes. As the 20th century progressed, the scope and definition of child development changed radically. Developmental psychologists studied how psychological processes begin, change, and develop. Child development focused on attachment, moral development, play, and language acquisition, various early effects on later intellectual development, and the process of attachment to others.

Now, developmentalists are taking a broader, life-span approach, as well as a deeper, detailed view of development. Taking into considerations the many directions and contexts of development, topics of current investigation include brain development, including the resilience and plasticity of individual growth and massive interconnections in overall brain functioning; and three major areas of diversity: understanding the power of culture, dual-language learning, and gender/sex differences.

Child development researchers and theorists have accumulated a rich store of knowledge based on scientific hypotheses that are then tested with evidence. Learning the major developmental and learning theories and current developmental topics can help sort fact from fiction.

4-1cThe Most Excellent Eight

No one set of principles encompasses all developmental and learning theories. We have chosen eight theories. Some are grand theories that describe either universal processes or the entire span of development (psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive). Others are mini-theories that explain just a part of development (multiple intelligences, maturation, humanistic). A few are emergent theories (sociocultural, ecological) that describe key influences on development. The “most excellent eight” are commonly known as

· (1)

psychodynamic theory,

· (2)

behaviorist theory,

· (3)

cognitive theory,

· (4)

sociocultural theory,

· (5)

ecological theory,

· (6)

multiple intelligences theory,

· (7)

maturation theory, and

· (8)

humanistic theory.

While writing this chapter, we were reminded of this children’s incident:

While playing “school” in the dramatic play area, Noemi insisted on wearing pretend glasses, as her favorite teacher did. “No!” cried Venecia. “They will make you mad and crabby!” (In fact, her teacher only wore the glasses when she was too tired to wear contact lenses.) “Yes, I will,” replied Noemi. “She wears them ‘cuz they makes her smarty-pants.” (This is another viewpoint and a kind of myth about intelligence and eyewear.) “You’re both wrong,” called out Charly. “Everybody knows you have to wear glasses and hoop earrings to be a teacher.” (In truth, the teacher did look like this.) Everyone looked puzzled, and then play resumed.

Just like these children, not all the experts agree or even think alike. Because the field of child development is broad, encompassing a wide variety of opinion and fact, there is no one theory that describes everything. Moreover, these theories arose at different time periods and in various countries. Each theory describes children and their processes in different ways. It is up to you, the educator, to decide which ones best describe children and their growth. Read carefully, and then compare your experiences with the theories and concepts you read here. As a teacher, you have many diverse theories from which to establish a professional philosophy.

4-2Psychodynamic Theory

Psychodynamic theory is about personality development and emotional problems. Psychodynamic theories look at development in terms of internal drives that are often unconscious , or hidden from our awareness. These motives are the underlying forces that influence human thinking and behavior and provide the foundation for universal stages of development. In psychoanalytic terms, children’s behavior can be interpreted by knowing the various stages and tasks within those stages.

4-2aSigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud began his career as a medical doctor and became interested in the irrational side of human behavior as he treated “hysterics.” His technique, asking people to recline on a couch and talk about everything, was ridiculed by the medical establishment as the “talking cure.” Then, as patients revealed their thoughts, fantasies, and problems, he began to see patterns.

Psychoanalytic Theory

According to Freud, people possess three basic drives: the sexual drive, the survival instinct, and a drive for destructiveness. Of the first, childhood sexuality, Freud outlined development in terms of psychosexual stages, each characterized by a particular part of the body ( Figure 4-3 ). In each stage, the sensual satisfaction associated with each body part is linked to major challenges of that age. For instance, the toddler issues of biting and thumb-sucking, the preschool interest in “doctor play,” and the school-age focus on gender identification can be viewed in a psychosexual context. Each stage also has its own conflicts between child and parent, and how the child experiences those conflicts determines basic personality and behavior patterns.

Figure 4-3

Psychoanalytic theory contends that each stage has its own area of pleasure and crisis between the child and parent in society.

Freudian Stages of Childhood Psychosexual Development

Stage	Age	Description/Major Area
Oral	Birth to 2 years	Mouth (sucking, biting) is source of pleasure Eating and teething
Anal	2–3 years	Bowel movements is source of pleasure Toilet learning
Phallic	3–6 years	Genitals are source of pleasure Sex role identification and conscience development
Latency	6–12	Sexual forces dormant Energy put into schoolwork and sports
Genital	12–18	Genitals are source of pleasure

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Freud (1920) put forth this theory, and his ideas were expanded on by Anna Freud (his daughter), Carl Jung, Karen Horney, and others. Although Freud’s interest was abnormal adult behavior and its causes, his conclusions have had a major effect on our conception of childhood and its place in the life span.

To Freud, the personality was the most important aspect of development, more central to human growth than language, perception, or cognition. Personality was defined by three structures:

· Id—the instinctive part that drives a person to seek satisfaction

· Ego—the rational structure that forms a person’s sense of self

· Superego—the moral side that informs a person about right and wrong

He thought that the personality developed in a fixed pattern of stages that emerged as the body matured naturally. How children were treated while going through those stages determined whether they developed healthy or abnormal personalities. In particular, the mother–child relationship was important in each stage. Thus, the interaction between the child’s wishes and needs and how these were treated (by the mother or other adults) was a focal point for proper development.

All psychoanalytic explanations of human development emphasize the critical importance of relationships with people and the sequence, or stages, of personality development. The psychoanalyst Erik Erikson expanded and refined Freud’s theory of development. It is Erikson whose ideas have most affected early childhood education.

4-2bErik Erikson

Erik Homberg Erikson is perhaps the most influential psychoanalyst of the modern era and certainly a key figure in the study of children and development. His interests in children and education included a teaching background at progressive and Montessori schools in Europe. After clinical training in psychoanalysis, he remained interested in the connections between psychotherapy and education. His books, Childhood and Society (1950) about his version of Freud’s theory, and Pulitzer Prize–winning Gandhi’s Truth (1969), helped him become well known in the United States. Erikson became the first child analyst in the Boston area and worked for both the University of California at Berkeley and Stanford University.

Psychosocial Theory

Erikson’s theory of human development, like those of Freud and Jean Piaget, states that life is a series of stages through which each person passes, with each stage growing from the previous ones. He proposes eight stages of psychosocial development, each representing a critical period for the development of an important strength. Positive growth allows the individual to integrate his or her physical and biologic development with the challenges that the social institutions and culture present. Each stage is characterized by an emotional challenge.

A key point of Erikson’s theory is how the stages build from previous experience. A stage is a period during which certain changes occur. What one achieves in each stage is based on the developments of the previous stages, and each stage presents the child with certain kinds of problems to be solved. When children succeed, they go on to attack new problems and grow through solving them. Erikson gave us the term identity crisis to describe how people struggle with a pair of competing urges at each stage as they try to answer, “Who am I?” ( Figure 4-4 ).

Figure 4-4Eriksonian Crisis in a Young Child’s Life?

Psychosocial theory claims that conflicts are opportunities to balance competing urges. The child who takes initiative (indicated by grabbing a toy) can also feel guilt (indicated by returning it).

Eriksonian Crisis in a Young Child’s Life?

A second key point of Erikson’s theory is balance. In Erikson’s framework, balancing a child’s wishes and the demands of the environment with a mentally healthy dose of each emotion is essential for personality strength. Everyone has certain biologic, social, and psychological needs that must be satisfied to grow in a healthy manner. Medicine and neuroscience have learned much about physical needs—diet, rest, and exercise. Basic intellectual, social, and emotional needs also must be met for an organism to be healthy. Eriksonian theory speaks to these needs. Whether these needs are met or left unfulfilled affects development.

Erikson differed from Freud in some fundamental ways. First, he emphasized the drive for identity and meaning in a social context rather than the Freudian notion of sexual and aggressive drives. Second, development occurs throughout the life span, in contrast with the notion that personality is shaped only in childhood. Finally, the developmental struggles that occur during one’s life can be overcome later. You can go back; while it is true that the first four stages play a key role in developing ego identity, problems of childhood can be dealt with in later stages so that the adult can achieve vitality.

The following text elaborates on the first four stages in the early childhood period because of their importance to the field of early childhood education. (See Figure 4-5 for all eight stages.)

Figure 4-5

Centering on basic crises at each stage of development, the theory proposes that these conflicts are part of the life process and that successful handling of these issues can give a person the “ego strength” to face life positively.

Psychosocial Stages of Erikson’s Theory

Stage	Description	Challenge	Strength
Stage 1	Newborns	Trust versus mistrust	Hope
Stage 2	Toddlers	Autonomy versus shame and doubt	Willpower
Stage 3	Childhood	Initiative versus guilt	Purpose
Stage 4	School	Competence (or industry) versus inferiority	Competence
Stage 5	Adolescence	Search for identity versus role confusion	Fidelity
Stage 6	Young adulthood	Intimacy (love and friendship) versus isolation (loneliness)	Love
Stage 7	Grown-ups	Generativity (caring for the next generation) versus stagnation	Care
Stage 8	Old age	Integrity versus despair	Wisdom

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Stage 1: Trust versus Mistrust (Birth to 1 Year)

Erikson’s first stage is roughly the first year of life and parallels Freud’s oral-sensory stage. Attitudes important to development are the capacity to trust—or mistrust—inner and outer experiences. By providing consistent care, parents help an infant develop a basic sense of trust in self and an ability to trust other people. They give affection and emotional security, as well as meeting physical needs. Inconsistent or inadequate care creates mistrust. In extreme cases, as shown by Spitz’s classic studies on infant deprivation, lack of care actually led to infant death (Spitz & Wolf, 1946). A less extreme situation might cause isolation or distrust of others. Given a solid base in early trust, though, the typical infant develops the virtue, or strength, of hope.

Babies must learn trust at two levels: first, a belief that significant adults will be present to meet their needs, and, second, a belief in their own power to make changes and cope. As adults engage with infants, they encourage attachment by holding babies close when feeding them and responding right away to their distress when they cry. When working with infants and toddlers, teachers must take special care to provide a predictable environment and consistent caregiving. Babies are totally dependent on adults to meet their needs; they are particularly vulnerable to difficulties because they have few skills for coping with discomfort and stress. Therefore, it is critical that they be cared for by warm, positive adults who are sensitive and respond affectionately to an infant’s needs as soon as they arise. The topic of attachment discussed in this chapter and Chapter 8 reinforces the critical role of collaboration with families and teachers. In this way, the very young develop the key strength of trust.

Stage 2: Autonomy versus Doubt (2 to 3 Years)

The second stage, corresponding to the second and third years of life, parallels the muscular-anal period in Freudian theory. The child learns to manage and control impulses and to use both motor and mental skills. To help a child develop a healthy balance between autonomy and doubt, parents should consider how to handle their toddlers’ toilet training and growing curiosity and need to explore. Restrictive or compulsive parents may give the child a feeling of shame and doubt, causing a sense of insecurity. Successful growth in this stage gives children strength of will. “This stage, therefore, becomes decisive for the ratio of love and hate, cooperation and willfulness, freedom of self-expression and its suppression. From a sense of self-control without loss of self-esteem comes a lasting sense of good will and pride; from a sense of loss of self-control and of foreign over-control comes a lasting propensity for doubt and shame” (Erikson, 1963).

Encouraging a sense of autonomy, while teaching limits without shaming, is a delicate balance. Budding curiosity means high energy, so the daily schedule should include plenty of time for active movement and flexibility to deal with fluctuating energy and mood. Toileting is a learned behavior just as dressing, painting, and singing are; a relaxed attitude about this area helps the child gain mastery without shame. The key strength of positive identity can be developed. Chapter 7 elaborates on how to help guide children using positive discipline.

Stage 3: Initiative versus Guilt (3 to 5 or 6 Years)

The third stage of Eriksonian theory corresponds to the preschool and kindergarten years and parallels Freud’s phallic stage of development. The developmental task is to develop a sense of purpose. Out of autonomy comes initiative, and from healthy doubt can come a conscience. For example, a preschooler grabs another’s toy; he may run and hide when the crying begins. The teacher gently leads the child to give it back and allows him to express regret through making amends. A group of kindergarten girls have a great idea to put on a play but are disorganized about planning, so the teacher guides them to choose a title, name the various roles, and make a to-do list so that they can execute the project in constructive and cooperative ways. Adult interaction matters: An overly restrictive adult may end up with a child who is easily discouraged and inhibited. On the other hand, parents or teachers signaling no restraints give the child no clear idea of what is socially acceptable and what is not.

Teaching children of this age is both exhilarating and exasperating. Many find this stage easier physically than the previous two, but more challenging socially. It is a time when children move in two opposing directions: accomplishment or destruction. To support children’s development of initiative with reasonable expectations, teachers can:

· Encourage children to be as independent as possible.

· Focus on gains and attempts rather than on mistakes.

· Set expectations aligned with a child’s individual abilities.

· Focus curriculum on real things and on doing instead of simply listening.

The key strength that grows out of this stage is purpose. Chapters 9 and 10 concentrate on environmental and curricular issues.

Stage 4: Industry versus Inferiority (6 to 12 Years)

Erikson’s fourth stage, beginning with the primary school years and ending with puberty, parallels Freud’s latency period. The major theme in this stage is mastery of life, primarily by adapting to laws of society (people, laws and rules, relationships) and objects (tools, machines, the physical world). This is the child’s most enthusiastic time for learning. The stage is “the end of early childhood’s period of expansive imagination. The danger in the elementary school years is the development of a sense of inferiority—of feeling incompetent and unproductive” (Santrock, 2009). It is also a time of great adventure. Children begin to think about being big and to identify with people whose work or whose personality they can understand and admire, and express those impulses in the following ways:

· Find a place in my own school: Be the line leader on the way to the cafeteria, the goalie on the soccer field, or scribe at a Scout meeting.

· Applying myself to something new: Try organizing and serving snacks at the after-school center.

· Handling the “tools of the tribe”: Learn to use colored pencils, to read aloud, to fill out forms, to check out balls and bats.

Problems arise if the child feels inadequate and inferior to such tasks. A parent or teacher who overemphasizes children’s mistakes could make them despair of ever learning, for instance, the multiplication tables or cursive handwriting. This is particularly sensitive for the child with special needs and for those who are learning a second language. Adults should “mildly but firmly coerce children into the adventure of finding out that one can learn to accomplish things which one would never have thought possible by oneself” (Erikson, 1963). Parents must not let their children restrict their own horizons by doing only what they already know. Particularly in social situations, it is essential for children to learn to do things with others, as difficult and unfair as this may sometimes be. The key strength that can develop is mastery. Chapters 11 , 12 , 13 and 14 address curriculum for all domains.

4-2cApplying Psychosocial Theory to Work with Children

First, Erikson has a clear message about the importance of play. Second, the theory offers guidelines for the role of adults in children’s lives.

Play is a critical part of children’s total development. Most schools for children younger than age 6 have periods of time allotted for play called “choice time” or “free play.” Erikson supports these ideas explicitly by stating that the senses of autonomy and of initiative are developed mainly through social and fantasy play. He suggests that child’s play is “the infantile form of the human ability to deal with experiences by creating model situations and to master reality by experiment and planning. … To ‘play it out’ in play is the most natural self-healing measure childhood affords” (Erikson, 1964). (See the Developmental Topic on “ Play ”.)

The adult is primarily an emotional base and a social mediator for the child. Teachers become interpreters of feelings, actions, reasons, and solutions. We help children understand situations and motives so that they can solve their own problems. Look at each child’s emotional makeup and monitor his or her progress through developmental crises; each crisis is a turning point of increased vulnerability and also enhanced potential. He says to allow the child

… to experience over and over again that he is a person who is permitted to make choices. He has to have the right to choose, for example, whether to sit or whether to stand, whether to approach a visitor or to lean against his mother’s knee … whether to use the toilet or to wet his pants. At the same time he must learn some of the boundaries of self-determination. He inevitably finds that there are some walls he cannot climb, that there are objects out of reach, that above all, there are innumerable commands enforced by powerful adults (Erikson, 1969).

In infant/toddler programs, adults foster independence in toddlers by giving children simple choices (“Juice or milk?”) and not false ones (“Do you want your diaper changed?”). In preschool and kindergarten, a teacher allows children to take initiative and does not interfere with the results of those actions. Still, adults help children learn reasonable limits and results. The third-graders at a birthday party are laughing and shouting in the bedroom when the birthday girl suddenly emerges in tears, with several others in tow trying to tell what happened. The adult who helps them lets them take turns in the telling and declares how scary it was when someone fell off the bouncing bed and bumped her head; this helps the children acknowledge their real feelings and learn to interact in the face of social challenges.

The issues of early childhood, in Erikson’s theory, are really human issues. The remnants of these stages stay with us all our lives, and teachers who are aware of their own processes can fully appreciate the struggles of children.

In Erikson’s theory, the adult serves as a social mediator for the child.

4-3Behaviorist Theory

Behaviorism is the most pragmatic and functional of the modern psychological ideologies. Behaviorist theories describe both development and learning. Initiated during the 1920s and continually modified today, behaviorism is considered the most distinctly American theory because 20th-century psychology in the United States expanded its concepts in research and application so widely. To summarize the behaviorist theory , we have chosen five theorists: Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, Edward Thorndike, B. F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura.

4-3aThe Behaviorists

What is known today as behaviorism begins with the notion that a child is born with a “clean slate,” a tabula rasa in Locke’s words, on which events are written throughout life. The conditions of those events cause all important human behavior. Behaviorists often insist that only what can actually be observed is accepted as fact. Only behavior can be treated, they say, not feelings or internal states. This contrasts to the psychodynamic approach, which insists that behavior is just an indirect clue to the “real” self, that of inner feelings and thoughts.

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, was working in a laboratory, studying how animals digest food. He noticed that the dogs in his laboratory would anticipate their meals when they heard or saw their attendants making preparations. Instead of starting to salivate just when food was set in front of them, the dogs would salivate to a number of stimuli associated with food. He identified this simple form of learning as respondent conditioning. The association of involuntary reflexes with other environmental conditions became known as classical conditioning, a cornerstone of behaviorist theory.

John B. Watson was an American theorist who studied Pavlov’s experiments and then translated those ideas of conditioning into human terms. In the first quarter of the 20th century, Watson made sweeping claims about the powers of this classical conditioning. He declared that he could shape a person’s entire life by controlling exactly the events of an infant’s first year. One of his ideas was to discourage emotional ties between parents and children because they interfered with the child’s direct learning from the environment (though he later modified this part of his theory). Nonetheless, he gave scientific validity to the idea that teachers should set conditions for learning and reward proper responses.

Edward L. Thorndike also studied the conditions of learning. Known as the “godfather of standardized testing,” Thorndike helped develop scales to measure student achievement and usher in the era of standardized educational testing (see Chapter 6 ). He set forth the famous stimulus–response technique. A stimulus recalls a response in a person; this forms learned habits. Therefore, it is wise to pay close attention to the consequences of behavior and to the various kinds of reinforcement .

B. F. Skinner took the idea of tabula rasa one step further to create the doctrine of the “empty organism.” That is, a person is like a vessel to be filled by carefully designed experiences. All behavior is under the control of one or more aspects of the environment. Furthermore, Skinner maintained that there is no behavior that cannot be modified. Some people argue that Skinnerian concepts tend to depersonalize the learning process and treat people as puppets. Others say that behaviorist psychology has made us develop new ways to help people learn and cope effectively with the world.

Albert Bandura refined behaviorism beyond conditioning into a social learning theory. Socialization is the process of learning to conform to social rules. Social learning theorists watch how children learn these rules and use them in groups. They study the patterns of reinforcement and reward in socially appropriate and unacceptable behavior and how children learn. Children acquire most of their social concepts—the rules by which they live—from models. They observe parents, teachers, and peers in the course of daily life. Social learning theory implies that the models that children are most likely to imitate are those who are warm, rewarding, and affectionate. Attachment is also part of the process. The most significant models are people to whom the child is emotionally tied.

From this arose a new concept known as modeling . This is what used to be known as learning and teaching by example. For instance, children who see their parents smoking will likely smoke themselves, and those who witness kindness to others are likely to imitate it. In fact, Bandura’s studies provided “strong evidence that exposure to filmed aggression heightens aggressive reactions in children. Subjects who viewed the aggressive human and cartoon models on film exhibited nearly twice as much aggression than did subjects in the control group who were not exposed to the aggressive film content” (Bandura, 1963). This work suggests that pictorial mass media—television, video games, and computer activities—serve as important sources of social behavior. Any behavior can be learned by watching it, from language (listening to others talk) to fighting (watching violence on television).

His theory (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 2001) has expanded into a cognitive model of self-efficacy , theorizing that children think hard about what they see and feel. Children learn not only from observing and modeling others, but also from understanding and acting on their own behavior. This leads to self-regulated learning. As early as the preschool years, children are developing internal standards and reflective thinking that influences a child’s behavior “from the inside out.” Thus, personal and cognitive factors influence behavior, as does the environment, and, in turn, children’s behavior can affect the environment around them. Adding the factors of modeling and reflective thinking to behaviorist theory links it to Erikson’s psychosocial theory and to Piaget’s cognitive theory (discussed next in this chapter).

4-3bTheory of Behaviorism and Social Learning

What is behavior, or learning, theory all about? Learning occurs when an organism interacts with the environment. Through experience, behavior is modified or changed. In the behaviorist’s eyes, three types of learning occur:

· (1)

classical conditioning;

· (2)

operant conditioning; and

· (3)

observational learning or modeling.

The first two are based on the idea that learning is mostly the development of habit. What people learn is a series of associations, forming a connection between a stimulus and response that did not exist before. The third is based on a social approach. Figure 4-6 summarizes these three types of behaviorist learning processes.

Figure 4-6

Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modeling are three ways of learning, describing how behavior is learned and the role of the learner in each process.

Behaviorist Learning Processes

	Classical Conditioning	Operant Conditioning	Modeling
Kind of Behavior	Reflexive	Voluntary	Voluntary
Type of Learning	Learning through association	Learning through reinforcement	Learning through observation and intimation
Role of Learner	Passive	Active or passive	Active

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Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning can be explained by reviewing Pavlov’s original experiments. A dog normally salivates at the sight of food, but not when he hears a bell. When the sound of a bell is paired with the sight of food, however, the dog “learns” to salivate when he hears the bell, whether or not food is nearby. Thus, the dog has been conditioned to salivate (give the response) for both the food (unconditioned stimulus) and the bell (conditioned stimulus). Similarly, when the school bell rings in the afternoon, children begin to gather their papers into backpacks to go home. They have been conditioned to the sound of the bell; ask any teacher what her students would do if the departure bell didn’t ring. Classical conditioning can also account for the development of phobias . Watson used a young boy in a laboratory to test this theory. He showed the boy a white rat, then sounded a loud noise. After only seven pairings, the boy would cringe at the sight of the rat without the bell sounding at all. Only a few painful visits to a childhood dentist can teach a lifetime fear of dental health professionals.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is slightly different from classical conditioning, in that it focuses on the response rather than the stimulus. In operant conditioning, the process that makes it more likely that a behavior recurs is called reinforcement. A stimulus that increases the likelihood of repeated behavior is called a reinforcer . Most people are likely to increase what gives them pleasure (be it food or attention) and decrease what gives them displeasure (such as punishment, pain, or the withdrawal of food or attention). The behaviorist tries to influence the organism by controlling these kinds of reinforcement.

A positive reinforcer is something that the learner views as desirable, falling into one of two categories:

· Social reinforcers—Attention, praise, smiles, or hugs

· Nonsocial reinforcers—Tokens, toys, food, stickers

For example, you would like Claire to begin to use a spoon instead of her hands to eat. Before conditioning, you talk to her whenever she eats. During the conditioning period, you can give attention each time she picks up a spoon during feeding times and ignore her when she uses her hands. Afterward, she is more likely to use a spoon and less often her hands. This is an example of a positive reinforcer, something that increases the likelihood of the desired response.

Reinforcers can be negative as well. A negative reinforcer is removal of an unpleasant stimulus as a result of some particular behavior. Circle time is Jimmy’s favorite activity at school. Yet he has difficulty controlling his behavior and consistently disrupts the group. Before conditioning, he is told that if he talks to his neighbors and shouts responses at the teacher, he will be asked to leave the circle. During the conditioning period, Jimmy is praised whenever he pays attention, sings songs, and does not bother those around him ( positive reinforcement ). When he begins to shout, he is told to leave and return when he can sing without shouting ( negative reinforcement ). A negative reinforcer is used to stop children from behaving in a particular way by arranging for them to end a mildly aversive situation immediately (in this case, the boy has to leave the group) by improving their behavior. Jimmy, by controlling his own behavior, could end his isolation from the group.

Punishment is different from negative reinforcement. Punishment is an unpleasant event that makes the behavior less likely to be repeated; that is, if Jimmy were spanked every time he shouted, then his shouting would be the punished behavior, and it is likely he would begin to shout less. However, when leaving the group is the reinforcer for shouting, he tries to stop shouting to increase the likelihood of being able to stay and not be taken away from the group. Negative reinforcement thus increases the likelihood that the desired behavior is repeated (staying in the group) and removes attention from the less desirable behavior (the shouting). The “time-out” chair, for instance, could be viewed as either a punishment or a negative reinforcer. If used as exclusion from the group or a withdrawal of playing privileges, a child would find the time out as a punishment. On the other hand, if a child could leave the time out more quickly by exhibiting certain behaviors (instead of the “bad” behavior), it might be seen as a negative reinforcer.

Reinforcement, both positive and negative, is a powerful tool. It is important for adults to realize that it can be misused. It is wise to be careful, particularly in the case of negative reinforcement. An adult may not be gentle with a negative reinforcer when angry with a child’s inappropriate behavior. Educators and parents should be aware of the possibilities and check their own responses.

Modeling

Modeling is the third kind of conditioning and is also known as observational learning. Social behavior is particularly noteworthy to early childhood professionals, as most work with children in groups and thus witness social behavior constantly. Any behavior that involves more than one person can be considered social. One of the most negative social behaviors is aggression. It is this type that Albert Bandura researched, finding that much of it is learned by watching others.

Aggression is a complex issue, involving various definitions and behaviors. To illustrate social learning theory, Bandura defines aggression as behavior intended to inflict harm or discomfort to another person or object. He showed a short film of aggressive behavior to young children. The original mid-1960s studies are summarized next.

Each child in Bandura’s experiment viewed one of three films. In all three films, an adult hit, kicked, and verbally abused an inflated Bobo doll in ways that young children are unlikely to do spontaneously. The films differed in what happened to the model after the aggressive sequence. In one film, the model was lavishly rewarded with praise and foods that appealed to preschoolers, such as candy and caramel popcorn. In another film, the model was punished in a dramatic way, including severe scolding and a spanking. The third film simply ended after the model’s aggressive behavior, with no consequences following the aggression. After viewing one film, each child in the experiment was allowed to play in a room with a Bobo doll, all the toys used in the aggression film, and a variety of other toys.

Social reinforcers include attention and smiles as well as praise.

The results are most impressive, especially to those working with young children. The level of aggression expressed by each child was directly related to what the children saw as the consequences in the film. When the model in the film was offered prizes, the children imitated almost exactly what the model had done. Also, children appeared more likely to attack one another after viewing the attacks on the Bobo doll in the film. Further studies have shown that children’s levels of aggression are higher right after viewing the film, but less so when shown it again six months later (Berger, 2014). Regardless of the controversy that may surround any study of children’s aggression or the effects of watching filmed violence on youngsters, the social learning theory deserves serious consideration. The effect of television and media viewing on children is discussed in Chapter 15 .

4-3cApplying Behaviorist Theory to Work with Children

Behaviorist theories make a strong case for how the environment influences our behavior:

· Physical environment: A teacher arranges the room so that positive learning is enhanced.

· Daily schedule: Routines and sequence of events are planned to encourage habits.

· Teacher/child interaction: Teachers respond carefully to children to shape their behavior.

Adults are powerful reinforcers and models for children. A learning situation comprises many cues; it is up to adults to know what those cues are and how to control them. Teachers who use behavior modification techniques know both what children are to do and how they are reinforced for their behavior. Each teacher and program must consider the impact of this theory and how to apply it to the class.

What children learn is shaped by the circumstances surrounding the learning. Experiences that are enjoyable are reinforcing. From the peek-a-boo game with an infant to a 7-year-old’s first ride on a skateboard, an experience is more likely to be repeated and learned if it is pleasant. Social learning is particularly powerful in the lives of young children. Adults must be mindful of their own behavior; watching children as young as 2 years old play “family” or “school” should be enough to convince the most skeptical critic that any behavior is learnable and can become part of children’s behavioral repertoire.

Teaching with Intention

Can Rewards Actually Punish?

Alfie Kohn, a nationally known educator and author, is a strong critic of behaviorism. He cites research showing that rewards decrease motivation; in fact, the more rewards are used, the more they seem to be needed. Furthermore, punishment and negative reinforcement produce short-term compliance only and often disregard feelings, needs, and intentions. “Skinnerian thinking—caring only about behaviors—has narrowed our understanding of children and warped the way we deal with them. In a nutshell, it’s the child who engages in the behavior, not the behavior itself, who matters” (Kohn, 2006).

Teachers intentionally shape children’s behavior, deliberately reinforcing what they want children to do, and attempting through behavior modification techniques to get children to move away and stop behavior that adults find unacceptable. These intentions must be implemented carefully, however, or unintended consequences may occur.

Think about This

1. Do you think children end up being “punished by rewards”?

2. How do you shape children’s behavior?

3. How much of what we do with children can be explained by behaviorism?

4. 4-3dCognitive Theory

5. Adult:

6. What does it mean to be alive?

7. Child:

8. It means you can move about, play—that you can do all kinds of things.

9. Adult:

10. Is a mountain alive?

11. Child:

12. Yes, because it has grown by itself.

13. Adult:

14. Is a cloud alive?

15. Child:

16. Yes, because it sends water.

17. Adult:

18. Is wind alive?

19. Child:

20. Yes, because it pushes things.

21. How do children learn to think, and what do they think about? Cognitive theory describes the structure and development of human thought processes and how those processes affect the way a person understands and perceives the world. Piaget’s theory of cognition forms a cornerstone of early childhood educational concepts about children; others have developed this theory further into a constructivist theory of learning.

22. 4-3eJean Piaget

23. Jean Piaget was one of the most exciting research theorists in child development. A major force in child psychology, he studied both thought processes and how they change with age. Piaget’s ideas serve as our guide to cognitive theory because of the thoroughness of his work. He had great influence on child psychology, theories of learning, intellectual development, and even philosophy. He became the foremost expert on the development of knowledge from birth to adulthood.

24. How did Piaget find out about such matters? A short review of his life and ideas reveals a staggering volume of work and a wide scope of interests. Born at the turn of the century, Piaget built on his childhood curiosity in science and philosophy by working with Dr. Theodore Simon at the Binet Laboratory (Simon and Alfred Binet devised the first intelligence test). While recording children’s abilities to answer questions correctly, he became fascinated with children’s incorrect responses. He noticed that children tended to give similar kinds of wrong answers at certain ages.

25. Thus, Piaget launched into a lifelong study of intelligence. He believed that children think in fundamentally different ways from adults. He also developed a new method for studying thought processes. Rather than using a standardized test, he adapted the psychiatric method of question and response. Called the methode clinique, it is a technique in which adults ask questions and then adapt their teaching and further inquiries based on children’s answers (see Chapter 6 ).

26. Piaget then began studying children’s thought processes. With his wife, one of his former students, he observed his own children. He also began to look closely at how actively children engage in their development. Prolific his entire life, Piaget gave us a complex theory of intelligence and child development. He recorded, in a systematic way, how children learn, what they learn, and when they learn it.

4-3gApplying Cognitive Theory to Work with Children

What can teachers learn from the complicated cognitive theory? Piaget’s writings do not apply directly to classroom methods or subject matter per se, and therefore, careful interpretation is required. In fact, Piaget never claimed to be an educator. However, his theories provide a framework, or philosophy, about children’s thinking. A constructivist theory of education has arisen. Additionally, Piagetian theory has three implications for both environment and interactions.

Constructivist Theory

The constructivist theory of education changed the century-old transmission model of teaching, in which the teacher possesses the knowledge and transmits it directly to the children. In contrast, a new method based on Piaget’s theory emerged. Constructivism is a theory of learning that states that individuals learn through adaptation. What they adapt to is directly influenced by the people, materials, and situations with which they come into contact.

This theory holds that people build on preexisting knowledge, be it intellectual, social, or moral. One of its basic tenets is that children learn by creating their own knowledge by giving subjective meaning to what they experience. Another fundamental idea is that children learn by taking new ideas and integrating them into their existing knowledge base. This is exactly in line with Piaget’s processes of assimilation and accommodation.

Based on ideas from John Dewey and Piaget and supported by sociocultural theory, this transactional model of teaching actively engages a child in tasks designed to create personal meaning. Learning is an active process based on the belief that knowledge is constructed by the learner rather than transferred from the teacher to the child. Although there may still be some direct instruction and demonstration, as there are in classes based on behaviorist views, a constructivist program promotes children’s social, cognitive, and moral development more than do most teacher-centered programs. It is a theory used extensively in the emergent curriculum model (see Chapter 10 ).

Materials

Materials are used in a special way in applying Piaget’s theory to early education. Children need many objects to explore so that they can later incorporate them into their symbolic thinking. Such materials need to be balanced among open-ended (such as sand and water activities, basic art and construction materials), guided (cooking with recipes, conducting experiments, classification, and seriated materials), and self-correcting (puzzles, matching games, such as some of the Montessori materials). It is important to remember that young children need to be involved with concrete objects and to explore and use them in their own ways, which include both sensorimotor and beginning symbolic play.

Scheduling

Scheduling is giving children plenty of time to explore their reality, especially through the use of play. A Piagetian classroom is likely to be noisy, with periods of time for children to “act out” their own ideas. Also, time is scheduled for imitation of adult-given ideas (songs, finger plays, and stories). Constructivist classrooms look diverse because the style and cultures of the teacher and children prevail. Children have choices and make decisions on significant parts of their learning. The teacher is a facilitator and co-constructor of the curriculum, does less talking while the learners do more, and provides more guidance and written observations rather than enforcing rules or giving tests.

Teachers

Teachers must have a particular developmental point of view. The teacher who knows the stages and levels of thinking of the children is one who can guide them toward new and challenging opportunities to learn and grow.

In working with children younger than age 5, we must remember that, because they do not understand mental representations very well, they have trouble recognizing that another person may view or interpret things differently than they do. This egocentric viewpoint is both natural and normal, but it must be factored into teachers’ thoughts as they work with children. For instance:

· You may be able to ask a 6- or 7-year-old: “How would you feel if you were in that situation?” For a younger child, the question is incomprehensible.

· The preschool child is likely to have trouble distinguishing how things seem or appear from how they really are (see Figure 4-9 ). If something seems dangerous (the scary-looking shadow in their bedroom), it is dangerous, and friendly-acting strangers are safe because they do not look dangerous. Young children are gullible and trusting, in part because of their inadequate understanding that things may not be as they appear.

Figure 4-9

Children’s ideas, or mental representations, change with age. The older child recognizes that, although the contents of the box are only one thing out in the world, they can be represented in people’s heads in more than one way—a possibility that escapes the younger child. (Special thanks to John Flavell for the example and the research. Reprinted by permission of John Flavell.)

Enlarge Image

The teacher’s role is to build an environment that is stimulating and conducive to the process of constructing meaning and knowledge. The preprimary schools of Reggio Emilia (see Chapters 9 and 10 ) encourage children to create their own material representations of their understanding by using many types of media (drawing, sculpture, stories, puppets, paper). At kindergarten and school-age levels, learning literacy and mathematics is considered a developmental process that the teacher facilitates by providing modeling, authentic experiences, mini-lessons on specific topics, and frequent opportunities for students to consult with and learn from each other. Many constructivist classrooms work on creating community through rule making; in fact, teachers in those classrooms would tell us, “The only way to help students become ethical people, as opposed to people who merely do what they are told, is to have them construct moral meaning” (Kohn, 2006).

To encourage thinking and learning, teachers should refrain from telling children exactly how to solve a problem. Rather, the teacher should ask questions that encourage children to observe and pay attention to their own ideas. Teachers should:

· Use or create situations that are personally meaningful to children.

· Provide opportunities for them to make decisions.

· Provide opportunities for them to exchange viewpoints with their peers.

Perhaps more important is the awareness that all children have the capability to reason and be thinkers at their particular stage of development.

Teachers must remember that young children:

1. Think differently from adults.

2. Need many materials to explore and describe.

3. Think in a concrete manner and often cannot think out things in their heads.

4. Come to conclusions and decisions based on what they see, rather than on what is sensible and logical to an adult.

5. Need challenging questions and the time to make their own decisions and find their own answers.

The thoughts and ideas of Piaget are impressive, both in quantity and quality. The collective works of this man are extremely complex and often difficult to understand. Yet they have given us a valuable blueprint.

It is Piaget’s genius for empathy with children, together with true intellectual genius, that has made him the outstanding child psychologist in the world today—one destined to stand beside Freud with respect to his contributions to psychology, education, and related disciplines. Just as Freud’s discoveries of unconscious motivation, infantile sexuality, and the stages of psychosexual growth changed our ways of thinking about human personality, so Piaget’s discoveries of children’s implicit philosophies, the construction of reality by the infant, and the stages of mental development have altered our ways of thinking about human intelligence (Elkind, 1977).

4-4Sociocultural Theory

An awareness of culture and family influences on development and an interest in the programs at Reggio Emilia, Italy, have led to a closer look at the works of Lev Vygotsky. His sociocultural theory focuses on the child as a whole and incorporates ideas of culture and values into child development, particularly the areas of language and self-identity. In his view, children’s development was more than just a response to personal experience. Rather, children are influenced in fundamental ways by their family, community, and socioeconomic status. Studies on cognitive and language patterns among young children in selected populations (Fouad & Arredondo, 2007) have confirmed the deep role of culture in learning.

DAP

Take Piaget with You

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development can be used to implement the first “umbrella handle” (see Figure 2-1 ) of DAP. Read these examples, and then answer the questions.

Age in years	Stage	Description	Activity
0–2	Sensorimotor	Thinking with their hands and feet, eyes and ears	Have toys near the crib so that young infants can bat and create movement (mastery of hands); cover an interesting toy with a blanket so that an older infant can look for it (object permanence); offer toddlers blocks to stack (coordination of schemes)
2–7	Preoperational	Exploring with activity and curiosity	Create water play with containers and play dough with rollers (centration); when in conflict, help children to articulate their wishes and views first, and then listen to another’s differing view; point out differences, and then find a common solution (egocentrism)
7–11	Concrete operational	Reasoning with beginning logic	Using water and clay, ask children to explain their reasons and see if they can follow transformation from beginning to end (reversibility); with chapter books, ask them to explain a character’s reasoning for their actions, then to contrast it with their own (de-center)

4-4aLev Vygotsky

Born in 1896 in Byelorussia, Lev Vygotsky graduated from Moscow University with a degree in literature in 1917. For the next 6 years, he taught literature and psychology and directed adult theater, as well as founding a literary journal. In 1924, he began work at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow, where he focused on the problems of educational practice, particularly those of handicapped children. Toward that end, he gathered a group of young scientists during the late 1920s and early 1930s to look more closely at psychology and mental abnormality, including medical connections. Unfortunately, his career was cut short by tuberculosis; he died in 1934 at age 38. Yet in that short time, he studied the works of Freud, Piaget, and Maria Montessori. His theory is also rooted in experimental psychology, the American philosopher William James, and his contemporaries Pavlov and Watson (see the “ Behaviorist Theory ” section, earlier in this chapter).

4-4bSociocultural Theory

Vygotsky’s work is called sociocultural because it focuses on how values, beliefs, skills, and traditions are transmitted to the next generation (Vygotsky, 1978). There are similarities between his work and several other theories:

· Like Erikson, Vygotsky believed in the connection between culture and development, particularly the interpersonal connection between the child and other important people.

· Like Abraham Maslow, he considered the child as a whole, taking a humanistic, more qualitative approach to studying children.

Like Piaget, Vygotsky asserted that much of children’s learning takes place during play. This is because language and development build on each other, and the best way to develop competency is through interacting with others in a special way.

At the same time, sociocultural theory has unique perspectives that differ from other theories:

· Behaviorist. Though Vygotsky understood the primary behaviorists of his day, he differed from them in that he emphasized family, social interaction, and play as primary influences in children’s lives, rather than the stimulus-response and schedules of reinforcement that were becoming so popular in his day.

· Piagetian. Rather than moving through certain stages or sequences (as Piaget proposed), children’s mastery and interaction differ from culture to culture. Adults, Vygotsky noted, teach socially valued skills at a very early age; children’s learning, therefore, is quite influenced by what is valued in their social world. Piaget insisted that although children needed to interact with people and objects in order to learn, the stages of thinking were still bound by maturation. Vygotsky claimed that interaction and direct teaching were critical aspects of a child’s cognitive development and that a child’s level of thinking could be advanced by just such interaction.

Vygotsky believed that the child is embedded in the family and culture of his community and that much of a child’s development is culturally specific. There are three ways that culture is passed on: The first is imitative learning (like Bandura); the second is instructed learning (such as following directions); and the third is collaborative learning (working together with guided help or in play). Children learn through guided participation with others, especially in a kind of apprenticeship in which a tutor supports the novice not only by instruction, but also by doing. Social interactions lead to continuous, step-by-step changes in children’s thoughts and behavior, so relationships between a teacher and a learner both impart skills and provide the context and cultural values of that skill, as well as teaching how to build relationships and use language: Engaging together matters (Berk, 2000).

Three concepts are key to understanding sociocultural theory.

· Zone of proximal development. When a mentor senses that the learner is ready for a new challenge— or simply wants the learner to come along—he or she draws the novice into a zone of proximal development (ZPD) , which is the range of learning that would be beyond what the novice could learn alone but could grasp with help. For example, Sergio can ride a tricycle alone and has hopped onto his sister’s two-wheeler. Surely he will fall. But if his uncle runs alongside and helps him get balanced, he can do better. Of course, it takes many attempts, but with assistance, Sergio can increase his ZPD and eventually ride on his own.

Who can help a child’s ZPD? Initially, of course, it is the family. For instance, a young girl is carried, even as a toddler, to the market with her mother. There, she watches and is guided toward learning how to touch cloth, smell herbs, taste food, and weigh and compare amounts. Is it any wonder she learns advanced math skills and the language of bargaining early? Second, the teacher is involved. For example, assisting children to complete a puzzle, put on mittens, or resolve a conflict helps them learn problem-solving skills. Third, other children—older ones who have more expertise or peers who may have superior skills or simply offer help—can help a child’s learning. Cooperative learning, in which small groups of peers at varying levels of competence work toward a shared goal, is common in a Vygotskian classroom.

· Scaffolding. This concept of scaffolding describes a kind of helpful structure created to support the child in learning. Although not originally used by Vygotsky, the term helps define the most important components of tutoring. Just as a physical scaffold surrounds a building so that it might be worked on, so does the child get hints, advice, and structure in order to master a skill or an activity. This can be seen in children’s developing speech, in guidance, and in ordinary tasks, as learning to ride a bike. Adults can arouse interest in a task, simplify it— scaffold it—so that it is within the child’s ability, and foster enthusiasm by helping the task get accomplished.

· Private speech. Vygotsky believed that language, even in its earliest forms, was socially based and critical to how children internalize and learn. Rather than egocentric or immature, children’s speech and language development during the ages of 3 to 7 years is merged with and tied to what children are thinking. During these transitional years, the child talks aloud to herself; after a while, this self-talk becomes internalized so that the child can act without talking aloud. Vygotsky contended that children speak to themselves for self-guidance and self-direction, and that this private speech helps children think about their behavior and plan for action. With age, private (inner) speech (once called egocentric speech), which goes from talking out loud to whispers to silent lip movement, is critical to a child’s self-regulation.

4-4cApplying Sociocultural Theory to Work with Children

Sociocultural theory has five implications for the classroom teacher:

· Family and culture. A child’s family and culture need to be incorporated into a child’s schooling. Teachers must genuinely embrace (rather than give lip service) to the concept that the child’s first teacher is the family. Each family may emphasize certain skills—vocabulary development, cooperation with siblings, self-care, and independence—that serve as the sociocultural context for learning. For instance, children of color in American society are socialized to operate in two worlds and thus must achieve a kind of bicognitive development (along with bicultural and perhaps bilingual skills). Such work has led to a focus on “learning styles” (see Chapter 10 ). Research done with different cultural groups has reinforced the importance of looking at culture as part of the context in which the child lives and learns (Rogoff, 1990; York, 2005).

In Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, children learn as other people create scaffolding to support the children.

· Teacher/child relationship. Teacher/child relationships are vital to learning. The teacher and learner adjust to one another; teachers use what they know about children to guide their teaching and plan their curriculum. Sociocultural theory supports both emergent curriculum (see Chapter 10 ) and spontaneous, teachable moments of the anti-bias curriculum (see Chapter 9 ). Of course, young children need adults to help create curricula and set an environmental stage for learning. But they also need teachers to mediate social relationships and conflicts, to ask questions and know where a child is headed. Adults help children learn by seeing the challenge, giving assistance when needed, and noticing when the task is mastered and the child is ready for a new challenge.

· Tools for learning. Pay close attention to the psychological and cultural “tools” used to teach. For example, some American children are taught to tie a string around their fingers as a memory device, whereas in Russia, they tie a knot in their handkerchief. Tunes can aid learning (like the alphabet song); higher mental functions need the help of a person who knows the tools of the society to learn.

· Value of play. Play is crucial for learning. It is in play that the child practices operating the symbols and tools of the culture. Vygotsky (1978) puts it this way:

Action in the imaginative sphere, in an imaginary situation, the creation of voluntary intentions, the formation of real-life plans and volitional motives—all appear in play and make it the highest level of preschool development. The child moves forward essentially through play activity. Only in this sense can play be considered a leading activity that determines the child’s development.

For instance, children might build a structure with blocks; the teacher encourages them to draw the building and then map the entire block corner as a village or neighborhood. The adult serves an important role as an intellectual mediator, continually shifting to another set of symbols to give children a different way of looking at the same thing.

· Individual differences. Individual differences still matter. In a Vygotskian classroom, activities are planned to encourage both assisted and cooperative learning. Teachers observe for opportunities to increase an individual’s ZPD by planning experiences for extending the upper limit. Classrooms work best with multiaged grouping, or at least with plenty of opportunity for older “buddies” to lead and younger ones to help.

· 4-5Ecological Theory

· The ecological theory is based on the premise that development is greatly influenced by forces outside the child. “No person can be understood in isolation, at just one moment in time. Urie Bronfenbrenner deserves credit for recognizing this fact” (Berger, 2011). Bronfenbrenner applied a general systems theory to human development in the 1970s, as the ecology movement began in the United States and Europe. Development is “a joint function of person and environment and human ecosystems include both physical factors—climate, space, home, and school—and the social environment—family, culture, and the larger society” (Bronfenbrenner, 2000).

· 4-5aUrie Bronfenbrenner

· Born in the former Soviet Union, Bronfenbrenner emigrated to the United States at age 6, settling in New York. After studying psychology and music at Cornell University, he did graduate work in developmental psychology. He served as a clinical psychologist in the U.S. Army during World War II. When he returned to civilian life, he worked on the faculties of the University of Michigan and Cornell University, where he crafted the well-known ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

· 4-5bEcological Systems Theory

· Bronfenbrenner’s model describes four systems that influence human development, nested within each other like a circle of rings. With the child at the center, these four are the settings in which a child spends a significant period of time, the relationships of those settings, the societal structures, and then the larger contexts in which these systems operate (see Figure 4-10 ). The influences among these systems are critical to acknowledge: Just as in nature, activity in one part affects all the other parts. For example, a sudden income drop affects the family in many ways: The parents may be preoccupied and unavailable to the child, who may then need more attention from the caregivers at school, who in turn may ask for more resources from the community for the family.

· Figure 4-10

· Ecological theory shows the various systems that influence a child’s development.

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· 4-5cApplying Ecological Theory to Work with Children

· The usefulness of this theory is in its combining of many methods—multidisciplinary, multicultural, and multidirectional—to understand the developing child. The values of the community (the exosystem) can influence social conditions (the macrosystem) and, in turn, be influenced by the individual family or program (the microsystem). For example, think of an area where several families with young children move into the neighborhood. The community priorities shift to incorporate more family interests; parents get everyone involved in creating a neighborhood playground. In doing so, the city council lobbies the state legislature to adopt more “family-friendly” political policies. Many systems thus have a profound effect, both directly and indirectly, on children’s development.

· Imagine if the situation were reversed. Parents with very little voice in their community might have had a city council that was unresponsive to their needs. The playground would never have been built, the children would have little visibility in the neighborhood except to be troublesome, and the families would feel like outsiders in the community. Thus, the dynamic nature of many systems is described well in ecological theory.

· The ecological theory underscores the need for working partnerships between early childhood programs, the families they serve, and the societal structures that children need to grow. The mesosystem, for instance, involves all the connections between the microsystems. Put the young child in the center (see Figure 4-10 ), and it includes all the communication processes between the child’s family and teachers. Therefore, letters home, parent–teacher conferences, chats on arrival and departure, and phone calls all contribute to the child’s mesosystem.

· In this regard, the ecological theory possibly best encompasses most of the questions about the nature of development posed at the beginning of the chapter.

· 4-6Multiple Intelligences Theory

· There is a century-old argument about whether intelligence is a single, broad ability (as measured by an IQ test) or a set of specific abilities (more than one intelligence). Gardner’s theory promotes the idea of many, or multiple, intelligences.

· 4-6aHoward Gardner

· Howard Gardner, a professor of human development at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, has been very influential in the ongoing debate about the nature of intelligence. Born in Pennsylvania, he earned both bachelor and doctorate degrees at Harvard University and was fortunate to have Erikson as a tutor. Influenced by the works of Piaget and working with Jerome Bruner, Gardner became part of Harvard’s Project Zero, a research center for education, where he wrote several seminal books on this theory (Gardner, 1983, 1993, 2000). He currently teaches classes at Harvard in education and at Boston University in neurology.

· 4-6bTheory of Multiple Intelligences

· The theory of multiple intelligences asserts that there is strong evidence, both from brain-based research (BBR; see the discussion on this topic in this chapter) and from the study of genius, that there are at least nine basic different intelligences. Gardner’s view of the mind claims that “human cognitive competence is better described in terms of sets of abilities, talents, or mental skills, which we call ‘intelligences.’ All normal individuals possess each of these skills to some extent; individuals differ in the degree of skill and the nature of their combination” (Gardner, 1993). Multiple intelligences theory thus pluralizes the traditional concept of intelligence, which becomes the ability to solve a problem or to create a product (see Figure 4-11 ). First conceived as seven intelligences, Gardner revised his work to add naturalistic and then existential intelligences as useful constructs to describe the expanded definition.

· Figure 4-11

· Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory describes a new way of looking at intelligence.

· How Are You Smart?

Area	Definition	Example
Musical Intelligence	The capacity to think in music, to be able to hear patterns, recognize them, and then remember them.	Gardner cites the importance of music in cultures worldwide, as well as its role in Stone Age societies, as evidence of this.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence	The capacity to use part or all of your body to solve a problem or make something.	We can see this in a person’s ability in sports (to play a game), in dance (to express a feeling, music or rhythm), in acting, or in making a product.
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence	The capacity to think in a logical, often linear, pattern and to understand the principles of a system; most common intelligence tested with standard IQ tests.	Problem solving is often remarkably rapid (as in gifted children), and this thinking is often nonverbal (the familiar “Aha!” phenomenon).
Linguistic Intelligence	The capacity to use language to express thoughts, ideas, and feelings and the ability to understand other people and their words.	The gift of language is universal; spoken language is constant across cultures, and the development of graphic language is one of the hallmarks of human activity.
Spatial Intelligence	The capacity to represent the world internally in spatial terms, as in problem navigation, in the use of maps, and in reliance on drawings to build something.	Playing games such as chess and all the visual arts—painting, sculpting, drawing—use spatial intelligence, as do sciences such as anatomy, architecture, and engineering.
Interpersonal Intelligence	The capacity to understand other people and focus on contrasts in mood, temperament, motivations, and intentions.	Master players in school notice how others are playing before entering; some children seem to be born leaders; teachers, therapists, religious or political leaders, and many parents seem to have the capacity to notice distinctions among others.
Intrapersonal Intelligence	The capacity to understand yourself, knowing who you are, how you react, and the internal aspects of one’s self.	Often having special access to their own feelings, they draw on a range of emotions as a means of understanding and guiding their own behavior. Children with an innate sense of what they can and cannot do and often know when they need help.
Naturalist Intelligence	The capacity to discriminate among living things (plants, animals), as well as a sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations).	This intelligence is valuable for hunters, gatherers, and farmers, and it is also important to botanists and chefs.
Existential Intelligence	The ability to contemplate questions beyond sensory input, such as considering the infinite or unexplained phenomena.	Individuals who are drawn to issues of life and death and questions of morality, and ponder the meaning of existence and other matters of the spirit, such as clergy, shamans, and spiritual leaders.

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· Solving a problem includes the ability to do so in a particular cultural setting or community. The skill needed and developed depends very much on the context in which the child lives. For example, we know now that certain parts of the brain are designated for perception, bodily movement, language, or spatial processing. Everyone who has a functional brain is able to demonstrate some skill in these areas. But the child who has special “musical intelligence,” for instance, hears a concert and insists on a violin (as did Yehudi Menuhin at age four). Or the child whose culture depends on running for its daily living (as do some people in Kenya) is more likely to have children well developed in that area of intelligence. Gardner writes of Anne Sullivan, teacher of blind and deaf Helen Keller, as an example of interpersonal intelligence, for she could understand what Helen needed in a way that no one else could.

· 4-6cApplying Multiple Intelligences Theory to Work with Children

· Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences has had a big impact on schools, transforming curricula and teaching methods from preschool to high school (Gardner, 2000). Even the TV show Sesame Street has taken to applying the theory to developing its episodes. Teachers in early childhood use the theory daily as they individualize their environments, curricula, and approaches. The child whose facility with puzzles exceeds that of his classmates is given a chance to try more complex ones. The children who thrive in dramatic play are offered a time to put on a puppet show for the class. The one whose mind works especially musically, logically, or interpersonally is encouraged to develop those special gifts.

· At the same time, there is no one right way to implement multiple intelligences. Project Zero was founded to study and improve the design of performance-based assessment and to promote the use of multiple intelligences to achieve more personalized curriculum and instruction (Gardner et al., 1998). Similar to a constructivist classroom, a class with a multiple intelligences focus would have teachers developing their own strategies and developing curricula and assessment methods based on both their own and their children’s cultures and priorities and on the individual children’s intelligences (see Chapters 10 and 12 ).

· 4-7Maturation Theory

· In the 1940s and 1950s, Dr. Arnold Gesell established norms for several areas of growth and the behaviors that accompany such development. His theory of maturation underscores these norms (Gesell, 1940).

· 4-7aArnold Gesell

· As noted in Chapter 1 , Arnold Gesell was a physician intrigued with the notion that children’s internal clock seemed to govern their growth and behavior. The Gesell Institute, which fosters the work of Dr. Louise Bates Ames and Frances Ilg (1979) continues to provide guidelines for how children mature from birth to puberty. Word Pictures (discussed in Chapter 3 ) are excellent examples of the information that maturation theory and research have provided.

4-7bMaturation Theory

Maturation , by definition, is the process of physical and mental growth that is determined by heredity. The maturation sequence occurs in relatively stable and orderly ways. Maturation theory holds that much growth is genetically determined from conception. This theory differs from behaviorism, which asserts that growth is determined by environmental conditions and experiences, and from cognitive theory, which states that growth and behavior are a reflection of both maturation and learning.

Maturation and growth are interrelated and occur together. Maturation describes the quality of growth; that is, while a child grows in inches and pounds, the nature (or quality) of that growth changes. Maturation is qualitative, describing the way a baby moves into walking, rather than simply the age at which the baby took the first step. Growth is what happens; maturation is how it happens.

Studies have established that the maturation sequence is the same for all children, regardless of culture, country of origin, or learning environment. But there are two vital points to remember:

· Although maturation determines the sequence of development, the precise age is approximate. The sequence of developmental stages may be universal, but the rate at which a child moves through the stages varies tremendously.

· Growth is uneven. Children grow in spurts. Motor development may be slow in some stages, fast in others. For instance, a baby may gain an ounce a day for two months, then only half a pound in an entire month. Usually, there is a growth spurt at puberty, with some children at age 13 being nearly their adult height, while others are not yet five feet tall. This unpredictability brings, again, much individual variation.

· 4-7cApplying Maturation Theory to Work with Children

· Maturation theory is most useful in describing children’s growth and typical behavior. In Chapter 3 , these normative data were used to develop Word Pictures that describe common characteristics of children at different ages. Such charts help adults understand behavior better and keep them from expecting too much or too little.

· At the same time, be cautious not to overgeneralize from the normative charts. Remember that there is great individual variation and uneven growth. Gesell’s initial data were focused on a narrow portion of the population and were derived from American children only. Further work in the past three decades has adjusted the ranges with succeeding generations of children and an ever larger and more diverse population. Maturation theory has inspired developmental norms that help parents, teachers, and physicians alike determine whether a child’s growth is within the normal range.

· 4-8Humanistic Theory

· As the field of psychology began to develop, various schools of thought emerged. The humanist theory has a place in early childhood education because it attempts to explain how people are motivated.

· 4-8aThe Humanists

· By the middle of the 20th century, two “camps” dominated the American psychological circles. The first (psychodynamic) included the Freudians and Eriksonians. The second (behaviorism) began with Watson and Thorndike and expanded with Skinner and Bandura. Abraham Maslow articulated another set of ideas. He called it the “third force” (or humanistic psychology), which focused on what motivated people to be well, successful, and mentally healthy (Goble, 1970).

· Humanistic theory is centered on people’s needs, goals, and successes. This was a change from the study of mental illness, as in psychotherapy, or the study of animal behavior, in the case of much behaviorist research. Instead, Maslow studied exceptionally mature and successful people. Others (Carl Rogers, Fritz Perls, Frederick Watts, and Erich Fromm) added to what was known about healthy personalities.

· The humanists developed a comprehensive theory of human behavior based on mental health. Maslow’s theory of human needs is clearly a “Western” philosophy, although it is often presented as a universal set of ideas. In fact, other cultures would see life differently. For instance, an African worldview might see the good of the community as the essential goal of being fully human. Scandinavian cultures with more of a “collective” orientation, rather than an emphasis on the individual or self, would see serving the family or group as the ultimate goal of humanity. Humanistic psychology can also be seen as being at odds with cultures and religions that seek ultimate reliance on a supreme deity, putting “God” rather than “self” at the top of the hierarchy. One must always question the underlying values of a theory, and humanist theory is no exception.

4-8bTheory of Human Needs

Maslow’s theory of self-actualization is a set of ideas about what people need to become and stay healthy. He asserts that every human being is motivated by a number of basic needs, regardless of age, gender, race, culture, or geographic location. According to Maslow (1954), a basic need is something:

· Whose absence breeds illness

· Whose presence prevents illness

· Whose restoration cures illness

· Preferred by the deprived person over other satisfactions under certain conditions (such as very complex, free-choice instances)

· Found to be inactive, at low ebb, or functionally absent in the healthy person

The maturational sequence is the same for all children, although the precise age is approximate, so there is tremendous individual variation in children of a particular age.

These needs, not to be denied, form a theory of human motivation. It is a hierarchy, or pyramid, because there is a certain way these needs are interrelated, and because the most critical needs form the foundation from which the other needs can be met (see Figure 4-12 ).

Figure 4-12

Maslow studied healthy personalities and theorized that what people need for growth can be viewed as a hierarchy of basic and growth needs.

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(Source: Adapted from Maslow (1954).)

4-8cApplying Humanistic Theory to Work with Children

The basic needs are sometimes called deficiency needs because they are critical for a person’s survival, and a deficiency in these areas can cause a person to die. Until those are met, no other significant growth can take place. Most teachers know very well that a hungry child will ignore a lesson or simply be unable to concentrate. A tired child often pushes aside learning materials and experiences until rested. The child who is deprived of basic physiological needs may be able to think of those needs only; in fact, “such a man can fairly be said to live by bread alone” (Maslow, 1954). The humanists would strongly advocate a school breakfast or lunch program and would support regular rest and nap times in programs with long hours.

Once the physiologic needs are satisfied, the need for safety and security emerges. Maslow points to insecure and neurotic people as examples of what happens when these needs are left unfulfilled. These people act as if a disaster is about to occur, as if a spanking is on the way. Given an unpredictable home or school, a child cannot find any sense of consistency and so is preoccupied with worrying and anxiety. Maslow would advise teachers to allow freedom within limits, rather than either total neglect or permissiveness.

The growth needs can emerge when the basic needs have been met. Higher needs depend on those primary ones. They are what we strive for to become more satisfied and healthy people.

The need for love and belonging is often expressed directly and clearly by the young children in our care. A lack of love and sense of belonging stifles growth. To learn to give love later in life, one has to learn about love by receiving it as a child. This means learning early about the responsibilities of giving as well as receiving love.

The need for esteem can be divided into two categories: self-respect and esteem from others. Self-esteem includes such needs as a desire for mastery, for adequacy, for a sense of confidence that comes with competence and achievement, and feelings of independence and freedom. When one gets recognition and appreciation, one gets respect from others and feels a sense of status and reputation.

Self-actualization is what gives a person satisfaction in life. From the desire to know and understand the world and people around us comes a renewal of self-knowledge. For the early childhood educator, these needs are expressed in the enthusiasm, curiosity, and natural drive to learn and try. In meeting these needs, a person finds meaning for life, an eagerness to live, and a willingness to do so.

Children must have their basic physical and emotional needs met before higher cognitive learning can be fulfilled. Moreover, the child who seems stuck in a particular “needs area” likely stays there until that basic need is satisfied. A hungry, insecure, or hurt child is a poor learner. Teachers must continually advocate better physical and social conditions for all children.

Maslow’s theory has important implications for child care. Children’s basic needs are teachers’ first concern: Teachers must ensure that children are properly clothed, fed, and rested, as well as safe and secure. Only then are they ready to address curriculum and skill development.

4-9Developmental Topics

There are several special issues that apply developmental and learning theories to work with children. The topics most relevant to early childhood education today are

· (1)

attachment,

· (2)

moral development,

· (3)

play,

· (4)

brain function, and

· (5)

identity, including ethnicity and culture, language, and gender.

The teacher well versed in these developmental topics is able to make better decisions concerning classrooms and curricula. Moreover, they are able to connect with families around those points and those people most important to them: the children.

4-9aAttachment

Attachment is a term used particularly in the works of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth and a concept used in Burton White’s descriptive work and Magda Gerber’s Resources for Infant Educarers (RIE) programs for infants and toddlers. Attachment is the emotional connection, an “affectional tie that one person or animal forms between himself and another specific one—a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time” (Ainsworth, 1979).

The child or adult who is attached to another uses that person as a “safe base” from which to venture out into the world, a source of comfort when distressed or stressed, and a support for encouragement. Attachment behaviors are anything that allows a person to get and stay attached, such as smiling, eye contact, talking, touching, and even clinging and crying.

“It is an essential part of the ground plan of the human species—as well as that of many other species—for an infant to become attached to a mother figure. This figure need not be the natural mother but can be anyone who plays the role of the principal caregiver” (Ainsworth, 1979). Freud believed that infants become attached to those who feed them. Erikson asserted that the first year of life was critical for attachment, in the stage of trust versus mistrust.

4-9bStages and Types of Attachment

Research does show that human and animal babies do indeed send signals to their mothers very early. Infants begin the social smile at 6 weeks and positive reactions to familiar people by 3 months. The human infant’s early signals include crying and gazing, both of which are powerful to adults, and a kind of rhythmic sucking that appears to keep the mother engaged. Soon after appears the synchrony, a coordinated interaction between an infant and caring adult that connects the two. Becoming more frequent and elaborate as time goes on, it helps the infant express feelings and the sensitive adult to respond. Developmentally, children develop an initial bond and then proceed to develop real mutuality—that is, to learn and practice almost a “dance” between themselves and their favored loved one. Attachment is shown in different ways over the life-span, both in proximity seeking and contact maintaining (see Figure 4-13 ).

Figure 4-13

Attachment has a developmental sequence that resembles stages from birth through childhood.

Stages of Attachment in Early Childhood

Age Range	Stages of Attachment
Birth to 6 weeks	Preattachment. Crying and body movements as signals of need for others.
6 weeks to 8 months	Attachment in the making. Responses show preferences for familiar people with smiling, laughing, and babbling.
8 months to 2 years	Classic secure attachment. Greeting primary caregiver by seeking proximity and frequent looking and contact; shows separation anxiety when caregiver leaves, plays happily in caregiver’s presence.
2 to 6 years	Attachment as launching pad. Seeking caregiver’s praise and reassurance, interactive games (hide and seek, pretend play), expectations of comfort and entertainment.
6 to 12 years	Mutual attachment. Seeking to make caregivers proud by learning what is expected, and looking for adults to reciprocate; noticing and adapting to attaining valued accomplishments.

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(Source: Adapted from Grobman, 2008.)

Bowlby (1969, 1973, 1988) found that although virtually all infants develop attachments, including to multiple caregivers, they differ in how secure they are in those attachments. Furthermore, attachment can be measured in the infant and toddler, as seen in children’s response to a stranger both in and out of the parent’s presence (see Figure 4-14 ). Most researchers agree on the four types of attachment. In developed nations, nearly two-thirds of children show secure attachment (type B), and about one-third show insecure attachment patterns (types A and C) (Molitor & Hsu, 2011). Those who fit into none of the other categories (type D) are difficult to relate to and show elevated levels of cortisol in reaction to stress (Bernard & Dozier, 2010) A new diagnostic category in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), reactive attachment disorder, recognizes that some children never form an attachment at all. Since this is a recent distinction, research has not yet confirmed the percentage of children with this disorder or if it would be considered type D.

Figure 4-14

Children show a range of attachment patterns that affect their behavior.

Patterns of Infant/Toddler Attachment

Type/Name	Child Before Separation	Child During Separation	Child upon Reunion	Child with Stranger	Percent in Category
A. Insecure-Avoidant	Readily separates to explore toys; does not share play with parent; shows little preference for parent versus strangers.	Does not show distress; continues to play; interacts with strangers.	Ignores mother— turns or moves away; avoidance is more extreme at the second reunion.	No avoidance of stranger.	10–20
B. Secure	Separates to explore toys; shares play with mother; friendly toward strangers when mother is present, touches “home base” periodically.	May cry; play is subdued for a while; usually recovers and is able to play.	If distressed during separation, contact ends distress; if not distressed, greets mother warmly; initiates interaction.	Somewhat friendly; may play with strangers after initial distress reaction.	50–70
C. Insecure-Ambivalent/Resistant	Has difficulty separating to explore toys even when mother is present; wary of novel situations and people; stays close to mother and away from strangers.	Very distressed; hysterical crying does not quickly diminish.	Seeks comfort and rejects it, continues to cry or fuss; may be passive—no greeting made.	Wary of strangers; rejects stranger’s offers to play.	10–20
D. Disorganized	Is cautious, somewhat detached or disengaged.	May stare or yell or look confused or hostile.	May scream, hit self, throw blocks.	Difficult to relate to, act oddly.	5–10

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(Source: Adapted from Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Wittig, B. A., 1969. “Attachment and Exploratory Behavior of One-Year-Olds in a Strange Situation”; and Berger, K. S. “Patterns of Infant Attachment” (2014). )

An Alternative View

Not everyone believes that attachment is so important to later competence and identity. Infants are resilient, and children can grow positively in response to wide variations of parenting. Researchers have found cultural variations in attachment. German babies are more likely than American babies to be categorized as avoidant, but this might be because the culture encourages early independence. Japanese babies are also more likely to be seen as avoidant, but this could be a factor of the method used to record it, which calls for children to be left in a room without the mother, a situation that rarely occurs for most Japanese infants.

Some developmentalists claim the theory ignores the context and diversity of how children are socialized, and by whom. “I believe that European Americans are obsessed with attachment because we hold our babies less than almost any other cultural group in the world,” writes one of our colleagues (Saxton, 2001). “Attachment does not seem to be an issue, much less a concept, in cultures in which children are carried, held, or sleep with their parents for the better part of the first three years.” Most children get attached to a primary caregiver. While in most cases it is the mother, it is the person who is part of the child’s daily life that counts—it might be the father, grandparents, or other adults.

Researchers have found that most infants tested in the stranger situation demonstrated secure attachment, as mentioned above. Still, when attachment fails, children are placed at tremendous risk (White, 1995). Failure of attachment can come from

· Parents who did not have secure attachments as children

· Neglectful conditions, such as depression and abject poverty

· Abusive parents that discourage bonding

· Premature infants with underdeveloped systems

· Blind infants who cannot engage in gazing

Intervention can help unattached persons learn the skills to connect, teaching specific interactive techniques with ongoing supports such as crisis hotlines and personal counseling.

Careful questions should be asked about full-day care, particularly for infants, to ensure that children’s attachment to their families is not undermined and that secure attachments are attained with primary caregiver–teachers. We can conclude that children are not at any greater risk in high-quality child care. This highlights the need for such programs, as is addressed further in Chapter 15 .

4-9dPlay

Play! What a wonderful word! It calls up images from the past, those childhood years when playing was the focus of our waking hours. “Will you play with me?” is one of the most expressive, expectant questions known. It carries with it hope and anticipation about a world of fun and make-believe, a world of adventure and exploration, a world of the young child.

City streets, parks and fields, tenements, huts, empty rooms, and backyards are all settings for play. Play is a way of life for children; it is their natural response. It is what children do, and it is serious business to them. Any activity that children choose to engage in is play; it is never-ending.

Play is the essence of creativity in children throughout the world. Play is universal and knows no national or cultural boundaries. Contemporary work emphasizes this point (Browne & Vaughan, 2009):

A huge amount of existing scientific research—from neurophysiology, developmental and cognitive psychology, to animal play behavior, and evolutionary and molecular biology—contains rich data on play. The existing research describes patterns and states of play and explains how play shapes our brains, creates our competencies, and ballasts our emotions.

Play is a self-satisfying activity through which people gain control and come to understand life. Educators and psychologists have called play a reflection of the child’s growth, the essence of the child’s life, and a window into the child’s world (Frost , Wortham, & Reifel, 2011). It teaches children about themselves; they learn how tall—or short—they are, what words to use to get a turn on the swing, and where to put their hands when climbing a ladder. Through play, children learn about the world: what the color purple is, how to make matzo balls, and how to be a friend. Play helps children define who they are.

Types of Play

Play takes many forms. Children play when they sing, dig in the mud, build a block tower, or dress up. Play can be purely physical (running, climbing, ball throwing) or highly intellectual (solving an intricate puzzle, remembering the words to a song). Play is creative when crayons and paint are used. Its emotional form is expressed when children pretend to be mommies, daddies, or babies. Skipping rope with a friend, playing tag, and sharing a book are examples of the social side of play.

There is a general sequence to the development of play (see Figure 4-16 ). Babies and toddlers have a clearly defined social self. Infant play begins with patterns established at birth: babies gaze, smile, and make sociable sounds in response to the quality and frequency of attention from a parent or caregiver. Socialization of infants occurs through interaction. By the end of their first year, infants smile at and touch one another and vocalize in a sociable effort. Toddlers play well on their own ( solitary play) or with adults. They begin solitary pretend play around 1 year of age. They still watch others ( onlooker). During the toddler years, as children become more aware of one another, they begin to play side by side, without interacting ( parallel play). They are aware of and pleased about but not directly involved with the other person. It is during this year that toddlers begin some form of coordinated play, doing something with another child. The preschool years bring many changes for children in relation to social development. The number and quality of relationships increase, as does the ability to play with other children. At first, this is accomplished just by a child’s presence in a group: playing at the water table with four other children or joining a circle for finger plays ( associative play). When children join forces with one another in an active way, when they verbalize, plan, and carry out play, group play is established. It can be characterized as “Let’s do it together,” whether the activity is building a house for the farm animals or engaging in rough-and-tumble wrestling. Cooperative play is the most common type of peer interaction during the preschool years and into the school-age period. Observing and recording children’s play is the source of important information about their knowledge and skills; this point will be discussed further in Chapter 6 .

Figure 4-16

Parten’s play categories, developed by observing free-play patterns in nursery school settings.

Play Categories

Play Categories

Unoccupied Play

· May stand in one spot

· Looks around the area

· Performs random movements that have no apparent goal

Solitary Play

· Plays alone

· Plays independently of others

Onlooker Play

· May watch while others play

· May talk but does not enter play

· Shows active interest in the play

Play Categories

Parallel Play

· Plays alongside others

· Plays separately from others, but with toys or actions that are similar to the others

Associative Play

· Play involves social interaction but little or no organization

· Interested in each other without an agreed-upon plan

Cooperative Play

· Socially interacts in a group with a sense of group identity

· Joins an organized activity prototype for games

Enlarge Table

Keep in mind that children’s play always portrays their own social values and family ethnic practices. A cultural barrier to play is parents’ own hurried lifestyles, so that they may “outsource” the nurturing that parent–child play provides and overschedule children in recreational activities rather than giving time with open-ended materials to encourage the disposition to play (Nell & Drew, 2013). Developmentally and culturally appropriate practice reminds us that our understanding and knowledge about play have been based on Euro-American cultural patterns from decades in the past (Parten, 1932). Wise early childhood practitioners incorporate these perspectives into their work with children and their families.

Most play is unstructured and happens naturally when the curriculum is designed for play. Spontaneous play is the unplanned, self-selected activity in which children freely participate. Children’s natural inclinations are toward play materials and experiences that are developmentally appropriate. Therefore, when they are allowed to make choices in a free-play situation, children choose activities that express their individual interests, needs, and readiness levels.

Dramatic play —or imaginative or pretend play—is a common form of spontaneous play. Three- and four-year-olds are at the peak of their interest in this type of activity. In dramatic play, children assume the roles of different characters, both animate and inanimate. Children identify themselves with another person or thing, playing out situations that interest or frighten them. Dramatic play reveals children’s attitudes and concepts toward people and things in their environment. Much of the play is wishful thinking, pretending great strength and deeds. Both types of play involve two basic elements: imitation and make-believe. Specific ways to capitalize on these play types and to encourage learning through play are discussed in Chapter 10 .

Value of Play: A Cornerstone of Learning

For the first half of the 20th century, interest in children’s play focused on emotional causes and effects. The main theme was the emotional releases that play provided children. Psychodynamic theory recommended play as a suitable outlet for expressing negative feelings, hostility, and aggression. Clay can be pounded, balls can be kicked and thrown, and dolls can be spanked. Young children give free expression to a wide range of emotions, playing them out and releasing tension.

Outside of child development circles, there has been little appreciation in the United States culture for the value and importance of play for young children. In times of rising expectations and academic standards, educators and families feel pressured to focus on activities related to school readiness. If children are just playing, how will they learn? Play is viewed by some as the opposite of work, not as a cornerstone of learning. Play is often trivialized by sayings like “That is mere child’s play.”

But play is more than an avenue for emotional release. Play is universal to childhood experiences because it is intrinsically motivated; that is, it is naturally satisfying to children. In addition, the following is true:

· Play is relatively free of rules except for those that children impose on themselves.

· Play is controlled and dominated by children.

· Play is carried out as if the activity were happening in real life.

· Play focuses on the activity—the doing—rather than on the result or product.

· Play requires the interaction and involvement of the children.

A growing body of research shows that every school success indicator is enhanced by play (Elkind, 2010). Moreover, young children learn by doing because they live in the world of action and feelings more than words. To reclaim play as a special activity that is crucial to children’s development, we should look at play as the foundation from which children venture forth to investigate, to test things out. Curricula take on expression through play; teachers plan curricula that use play as the medium for learning. As they mature, children integrate and assimilate their play experiences. What started out as play—the sheer fun of it—is transformed into learning experiences. Curiosity about magnets at age 5 nourishes a scientific attitude for the later years, as well as a foundation for studying gravity, planetary movements, and the like. Feeling free to sing out at group time at age 3 can prepare a child to be an active participant in the kindergarten classroom at age 6. Play promotes learning for the whole child, providing benefits for all developmental domains (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2007; Elkind, 2010).

Play is the cornerstone of learning.

Pretending to be a firefighter, Sherry grabs a piece of rope and runs toward the playhouse, saying “shhshhshshshshsh” while pretending to squirt water on the fire. She shouts to her playmates, “Over here! Come over here! The fire is on this side.” This typical incident in early learning centers reveals several theories in action and highlights the value of play to child development:

· Sherry’s make-believe scenario and her ability to follow the rules of behavior common to firefighters (grabbing hoses, calling for help) are the two critical factors in sociocultural theory, which asserts that cognitive skills develop through social interactions.

· This illustrates the way children cope with their smallness or lack of strength and is considered important in psychodynamic theory.

· Sherry exemplifies a child moving from the concrete to abstract stages of thinking from cognitive theory because she did not require realistic objects (a hose and water), but imagined them with a rope and her ability to create the sound of water.

· The ability to separate thoughts from actions and objects will stand Sherry in good stead when she studies math concepts and social rules, supporting her shift into the psychosocial stage of industry.

· Rules that children follow in make-believe play give them experiences in multiple intelligences as they learn to make choices, to think and plan about what they will do, to show willingness toward self-restraint, and to follow the social rules of pretend play.

This is important preparation for realistic situations they will encounter in school and life.

4-9eBrain Function

We are aware of the importance of the first 5 years in the physical, social, and cognitive-language development of the child (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). These same 5 years are the most critical with respect to the developing brain. Neuroscience research has developed sophisticated technologies, such as ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and effective, noninvasive ways to study brain chemistry (such as the steroid hormone cortisol). Brain scans and other technologies have made it possible to investigate the intricate circuitry of the brain. We now know the number of dendrite connections are estimated to be more than 100 billion (Miller & Cummings, 2007), and the implications are equally staggering.

Forming language, identifying cultural and social norms, and learning to distinguish right from wrong requires this intensive neurological growth to take place, thus strengthening the connections between neurons. This rapid growth in the minds of young children inspires them to explore, to discover, to play, and to make the natural connections between self, others, and their surrounding world.

No aspect of biological growth is more critical than the rapid growth of the brain. A newborn’s skull is disproportionately large because it must be big enough to hold the brain, which at birth is 25 percent of its adult weight; in contrast, the neonate’s body is typically only 5 percent of adult weight. By age 2, the brain is almost 75 percent of adult brain weight; the child’s body is only about 20 percent as big as it will be. During the prenatal and early childhood period, the brain develops faster than any other part of the body, so by age 7, it is almost fully grown. The functions of the brain begin in infancy, but develop notably after age 2, enabling quicker, better-coordinated, and more reflective thought (Berger, 2014).

We once believed that brains were entirely formed by genes and prenatal influences only. Certainly, by the sixth prenatal month, nearly all of the billions of neurons (nerve cells) that populate the mature brain have been created, with new neurons generated at an average rate of more than 25,000 per minute (Thompson, 2001). Today, neuroscientists believe in plasticity, the concept that growth changes throughout life for a variety of reasons. The timetable for brain development varies by region, and it is likely that brain development continues into adulthood. Still, early childhood is a critical time for brain development. The timing and quality of early experiences combine to shape brain architecture (Shonkoff et al., 2008; Galinsky, 2010).

What We Have Learned

At least three important conclusions can be made at this time:

· The brain operates on a “use it or lose it” principle. Brain development begins at one month in utero and proliferates the nerve cells. “Once neurons are formed, they quickly migrate to the brain region where they will function. Neurons become differentiated to assume specialized roles, and they form connections ( synapses ) with other neurons that enable them to communicate and store information” (Thompson, 2001).

Using a dual process of blooming and pruning, neurons first create more synapses than the brain retains, and then prunes back those that are not used. At birth, one has about 100 billion brain cells, with 50 trillion connections among them. With use, these cells grow bases ( axons ) and branches ( dendrites ) that reach out to make connections with other cells. The brain thus adapts to the stimulation and experience the child receives. Newborns respond to universal sounds, but their speech perception over time becomes limited to that of the family (and child care) languages. The typical experiences of hearing and responding to language, for instance, contribute to brain growth.

· The brain is vulnerable in early childhood. Chronic maternal stress during pregnancy and after birth can threaten healthy brain growth. As children move from infancy through preschool, their brain functions are developing according to what is received. “Neural development, stress hormones, and brain specialization are three areas of brain research that inform and support developmentally appropriate practices (DAP) in early childhood education” (Gallagher, 2005). When the brain perceives a threat or stress, the body reacts. Stress can trigger a flood of hormones, particularly cortisol , which may create an overreaction. Continuous overproduction of cortisol can create other problems with the endocrine system. In contrast, satisfying and responsive circumstances soothe and avoid such flooding. Teachers contribute to brain growth as they provide DAP educational experiences. Important, too, are prenatal and postnatal health care, and efforts to avoid malnourishment and keep stresses manageable at home.

· The quality of the environment is crucial. The biological environment takes a huge role in brain development, so the level of nutrition and health care and protection from drugs and environmental toxins must be monitored. By age 2, most pruning of dendrites has already occurred. By age 7, the brain has grown to its adult size, and the basic areas of sensory and motor cortexes are functioning. Myelination , the fatty coating of dendrites and axons, speeds transmission of nerve impulses between neurons and enables children to think and react faster. Connecting the brain’s hemispheres through the growth of the corpus callosum is crucial, as both sides of the brain are used in nearly every skill, and failure of this part of the brain to develop is one of several possible causes of autism (Frazier & Hardan, 2009). Fast and complex communication can now occur.

Brain Research Says …

Connect the Dots: How Neuroscience Supports Theory and DAP

Neuroscience research is intertwined with basic principles of learning and appropriate practices of early childhood education. Rushton (2011) provides these four principles; we connect the dots to classroom practice, and then ask you to do the same.

Principle 1: “Every brain is uniquely organized.” … Provide materials that match child skills at several levels. For instance, alphabet awareness would call for writing materials in the art area, sandpaper letters in the library, sand trays with an alphabet chart in the sensory corner, and alphabet blocks in the block corner.

Principle 2: “The brain is continually growing, changing, and adapting to the environment.” … Provide a people-friendly environment. Children are welcomed with a smile and a greeting, have familiar places for their belongings, are invited to help create classroom space, and have teachers who are responsive to their changing mood and energy.

Principle 3: “A brain-compatible classroom enables connection of learning to positive emotions.” … Give children reasonable choices. Allowing children to make some decisions (“Do you want to brush your teeth first or set up your nap space?”) and some choices (“What game shall we play at outside circle today?”) leads to feelings of positive power and competence.

Principle #4: “Children’s brains need to be immersed in real life, hands-on, and meaningful learning experiences that are intertwined with a commonality and require some form of problem solving.” … Set up time for small groups to get immersed in a topic without interruption. If a child walks in with an interesting item, facilitate exploration and sharing instead of sending it to the cubby. Encourage children to elaborate—to you, to visitors, or anyone else who will listen—their explanations and critical thinking.

Questions

1. What play experiences encourage brain growth?

2. What hazards in a school day might be inappropriate to brain development?

The core of the environment is interpersonal: People matter. Positive adult–child interaction promotes brain development.

Most of the significant ways to promote healthy development occur quite naturally during the course of sensitive adult–child interactions. For instance, the “parent-ese” that facilitates early language, the caregiving routines that promote predictability and memory skills, the patient structuring of an activity to make it manageable for a child, and the protective nurturance that manages a baby’s emotions show that when sensitive adults do what comes naturally, their behavior is optimally suited to promoting early cognitive, socioemotional, and neurobiological growth (Thompson, 2001).

With impoverishments, you may lose dendrites. Stressed, depressed, or absent parents or teachers do not give children the environmental experiences they need for neurobiological growth. Established patterns of behavior are increasingly difficult to change as individuals get older; it is more effective and efficient to get things right the first time than to try and fix them later.

“One theme from the research on children and learning is that babies’ brains appear to be wired to help them understand and know about the world in specific ways, and that this learning begins long before babies can be taught this kind of knowledge” (Galinsky, 2010). Moreover, after the sensory and motor areas of the brain develop, prefrontal cortex development begins. The prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain that controls the executive functions of managing attention, emotions, and behavior; it begins in the preschool years and doesn’t mature until young adulthood. This area of the brain is needed for the person to acquire essential life skills: focus and self-control, perspective taking, communicating, making connections, critical thinking, taking on challenges, and self-directed, engaged learning (Galinsky, 2010).

Applications to Early Education

Applying brain research to early education programs is a challenge. It is easy to become overwhelmed with unfamiliar vocabulary and complex neurological processes. By becoming knowledgeable about the brain and well versed in DAP, early childhood professionals can create healthy environments and engaging, meaningful experiences (see Figure 4-17 ). The study of the brain assists educators in understanding how children learn best and provides them with evidence for how to build optimal educational experiences.

Figure 4-17

Discoveries in neuroscience parallel the work described in DAP and have clear application to early education activities.

How Brain-Based Research Aligns with DAP

Brain-Based Research Suggests …	DAP Asserts …	Early Childhood Education in Action …
The human brain is constantly seeking information from outside stimuli and uses all senses.	Learning occurs in a setting that provides choices and variety in the environment.	A sensory table, a block corner, dress-up clothes, and painting are offered during activity time.
No intelligence or ability unfolds until or unless it is offered, modeled, or both.	Development advances when children have opportunities to practice newly acquired skills both at and just beyond their present level of mastery.	Children have access to ongoing, familiar materials (play dough, sand, tricycles) and challenging lessons (sink/float experiment, story dictation, obstacle course)
The brain processes on many paths, can deal with many inputs at once, and prefers multiprocessing.	Development proceeds toward greater complexity and organization as children internalize experience.	Multisensory activities are offered and organized for both low- and high-order thinking, and connections are shown when introducing new information.
A number of areas of the brain are simultaneously activated during a learning experience.	Children are active learners, drawing on direct physical and social experience as well as culturally transmitted knowledge.	Field trips, activities, presentations from families, technology, and multicultural units are offered.
The brain changes physiologically as a result of experience, with new dendrites forming that connect new experiences to old ones.	Development occurs in a relatively orderly sequence, with later abilities and skills building on those already acquired.	Hands-on activities provide strong associations, and curricula by theme or project aid in connected learning.
Each region of the brain is a sophisticated network of cells that interconnect one part of the brain to another.	Domains of children’s development are closely related, with growth in one area influencing other domains.	Integrated curriculum allows for learning in many ways, and activities are presented using Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory.
Each brain is unique, with differences from the 2- to 3-year age span, and learning new knowledge or skills changes the gain structure.	Development proceeds at varying rates from child to child, as well as unevenly within each child.	Choices allow children to select activities appropriate to their developmental level, mixed-age groupings are encouraged, and individualized education plans (IEPs) are created.

Enlarge Table

(Source: Based on Rushton et al. (2009).)

Identity

As children grow, identity formation becomes an important part of their development. Both psychoanalytic and humanist theories assert that self-concept is key to positive growth; cognitive and sociocultural theories note that children construct an understanding of self by way of notions about race, ethnicity, language, gender, and ability. They develop a sense of self as families hand down beliefs, attitudes, and expected behaviors and as teachers offer educational environments and experiences that expand their view of capacity, process, and success. Three aspects of identity form this developmental topic: ethnic and cultural diversity, language, and gender.

4-9gLanguage

A child’s home language is the window to identity formation and a solid sense of self. “Language is more than an example of symbolic thought (Piaget) and a tool for learning (Vygotsky). It is the premier cognitive accomplishment of early childhood. Two-year olds use short, telegraphic sentences, but 6-year-olds seem able to understand and discuss almost anything” (Berger, 2014). Chapter 3 sketched the milestones of language development. Going forward, Chapter 6 will address screening and assessment of dual-language learners, Chapter 13 will add a curriculum perspective and strategies, and Chapter 13 will address current issues of how, by whom, and whether schools should provide second-language instruction.

We bring up language as a developmental topic because it is a primary communication tool used to connect children with others in their world, and because for millions of children, the language of the home may differ from that of school. In the United States, parents of one-third of all preschoolers speak a language other than English (see Figure 4-19 ). Moreover, language-minority children (those who speak a language that is not the dominant one of their community or country) may suffer if they do not speak the majority language well. For example, in the case of an infant or toddler who comes to an early learning program with none of the caregivers knowing the family’s language, the child will not hear the home language all day, and the family and caregiver may be unable to discuss important child-rearing practices. Preschoolers or kindergartners who need language to expand positive social interactions may withdraw unless they have the scaffolding of a teacher with some home language facility. “In the United States, those not proficient in English tend to have lower school achievement and diminished self-esteem. Fluency in English can erase these liabilities, and then fluency in another language is an asset.” (Berger, 2014)

Figure 4-19

Four-Year-Olds in the United States, 2009

(Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2010.)

Early childhood is doubtless the best time to learn language, whether it is one or more languages. Neuroscience has mapped young bilinguals’ brain activity and notes that these children site both languages in the same areas of their brain even as they can keep them separate (Crinion, Turner, Grogan, Hanakawa, Noppeney, & Devlin, 2006). A millisecond slower response time to switch languages still results in overall better brain function (Bialystok, 2010). Mispronunciation is less a problem in early childhood because children have more receptive than expressive language.

At the same time, children may refuse to speak the home language as they see that the majority language is preferred at school. This is not ideal for the child or the family, and deteriorates both the nation’s strength and respect for family traditions. Language is integral to culture, and therefore educational centers and teachers should show appreciation of both dominant and home cultures (Pearson, 2008). Chapter 13 expands on the idea of dual language learning and offers strategies that use the basics of language learning to assist in becoming balanced bilinguals.

4-9hGender

Biology determines whether a child is male or female, but sexual identity is more than biology. Sex differences are the biological differences between males and females; gender differences are culturally imposed distinctions in the roles and behaviors. While boys and girls are about the same size and shape in childhood, gender differences and adult distinctions are more significant.

Early childhood is the time when both preferences and patterns become apparent. With each year of childhood, children become more gender-conscious (Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006). There are two aspects of gender development that are particularly important in the early years: gender identity (the sense of being female or male, which most children acquire by age 3), and gender role (the set of expectations that define how a male or female should behave, think, and feel). Gender is important in some developmental and learning theories, and, along with research in the late 20th century, these theories tried to answer some key questions:

· Are girls and boys different in terms of development and learning?

· What are these differences, and how do they occur?

· What differences are caused by “nature” and which ones by “nurture”?

· Should we treat our girls and boys the same or differently?

Moreover, in recent years, sex and gender issues have become increasingly complex, bringing up new questions:

· What about the variation in sexual orientation?

· When and how does this develop?

· How shall we address sexual diversity?

Theories and Research

Freud asserted that behavior was directly related to reproductive processes. His stages of psychosexual development reflect the belief that gender and sexual behavior are instinctual. Erikson also claimed that anatomy was destiny: Males were more intrusive because of genital structure, and females were more inclusive. He later modified his view, saying that women were overcoming their biological heritage. Erikson’s identification theory came from the view that the preschool child finds the opposite-sex parent attractive but steers away from this by identifying with the same-sex parent.

Piaget and Bandura both emphasized that children learn through observation and imitation, and that through reinforcement, children learn gender-appropriate behavior. Proponents of this view point to how parents encourage girls and boys to engage in certain activities and types of play. Certainly the media communicates sexist messages; this theory would claim that such stereotyping influences the development of gender roles.

Diversity

Male/Female Concepts in Girls and Boys

For all the current talk about gender differences, research about gender differences lagged at the end of the 20th century in favor of other topics. Some contemporary developmentalists have a new interpretation, known as gender schema theory. Children develop mental ideas, or schema (a Piagetian concept) about gender on the basis of the behavior patterns they see (a behaviorist model). A gender schema, then, is a cluster of concepts about male and female physical characteristics, behaviors, and personality traits. As soon as children understand the labels of “girl” and “boy,” they seek information about each and then try to imitate those that match their identity. Thus, children use gender as one way to organize their perceptions (schema) about the world. Boys show better memory for “masculine” toys, and girls for “feminine” ones (Martin & Ruble, 2006).

For instance, the “strength-weakness” dimension may be taught and shown to children, such that strength is linked to maleness and weakness to femaleness, both stereotypes. Because children work toward gender-appropriate behavior, it is likely that most boys fight when in a conflict (in part because that is expected), and girls attempt gentleness or helplessness to build an identity in line with that gender schema (Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006).

Sociocultural theory asserts that sexual behavior depends on the culture in which children live; thus, boys holding hands would be expected in some situations, while in others, it is actively discouraged. A culture that was evolving toward “girl power” would likely be placing more value on female leadership and economic prowess, while one that held to the belief that only women were competent with young children would likely discourage such behavior, as it would interfere with keeping them at home.

The works of Eleanor Maccoby (e.g., Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974; Maccoby, 1998) have provided both hard data and an open forum for discussions about how people grow and the complex interaction between heredity and environment that makes child development so fascinating. These findings help teachers understand gender identity and its implications for education:

· By age 2, children name themselves as girl or boy and can identify adult strangers as daddies or mommies.

· By age 4, children label toys (dolls, trucks) and some roles (soldier, nurse) appropriate for one gender and not the other.

· Children develop gender stability (the understanding of staying the same sex throughout life) by age 4 and gender constancy (a person keeps the same gender regardless of appearance) by about 5 or 6.

· Sex-typed behavior begins to appear at age 2 or 3, when children tend to choose same-sex playmates and sex-typed toy preferences, and children become more selective and exclusive as they mature.

· By elementary school, the playground is like a “gender school,” with children showing a clear preference for same-sex peers.

Developmental Differences

What are the real differences between girls and boys? Physically, males grow to be 10 percent taller than females, and girls are less likely to develop physical or mental disorders than are boys. Boys are also more active than girls and physically more aggressive overall. However, there are fewer differences in verbal aggression, although males do show less self-regulation than females (Eisenberg, Martin, & Fabes, 1996). There are no significant differences between girls and boys in intelligence or reasoning behavior. However, classroom performance shows gender differences in almost every nation until puberty; girls have higher grades overall in all subjects (Berger, 2014). Some cognitive functioning and personality differences do exist, but overall the differences are small and do not account for the difference in school performance.

Teachers and parents, as well as researchers, have observed that boys and girls seem to show distinct differences in their play choices, play behavior, and toy selection from an early age. Although biology certainly plays a part, it would seem that parents and society exert powerful influences. The toys that parents and teachers choose (dolls for girls, trucks for boys), the predominance of females in early childhood settings, television shows and advertising, and toy store displays combine to communicate a very strong reinforcement of traditional sex-role expectations.

Gender Stereotyping

To break through the restrictiveness of gender stereotyping, teachers need to pay careful attention to the messages they give children. One challenge we face is the female culture of early childhood programs. Women dominate the early childhood education workforce, so children are often exposed only to women’s interaction styles (Wardle, 2004). If boys struggle in our learning programs, we must be alert to the activities and schedules we establish, behaviors we may reward or punish, and the “goodness of fit” for both boys and girls in our programs. In the environments we prepare for them, the materials they use, and the examples we model, children create their own ideas and learn behavior that works for them in the world.

Gender identity is a lifelong task, and as today’s world continues to evolve, it becomes one of self-definition. In large part, gender identity begins with one’s biological sex and leads to a gender role that the family, school, and the community considers appropriate for that gender. As society has changed in its definition of gender roles (men are not the only ones who work outside the home; women are not the only ones being primary parents), what is expected and acceptable is changing. Achievement of gender identity may be more complex at adolescence (Baumeister & Blackhart, 2007) but it also is more broad and open in childhood.

4-10aBasic Tenets

Most educators agree on some basic tenets. These are based in part on the theories of development and learning given in parentheses in this list:

· Basic needs. Children’s basic physiologic needs and their needs for physical and psychological safety must be met satisfactorily before they can experience and respond to “growth motives.” (Humanist, ecological, brain function)

· Factors in development. Children develop unevenly and not in a linear fashion as they grow toward psychosocial maturity and psychological well-being. A wide variety of factors in children’s lives, as well as the manner in which they interpret their own experiences, has a bearing on the pattern and rate of progress toward greater social and emotional maturity. (Psychosocial, behaviorist, maturation, ethnicity/cultural identity)

· Crises in childhood. Developmental crises that occur in the normal process of growing up may offer maximum opportunities for psychological growth, but these crises are also full of possibilities for regression or even negative adaptation. (Psychosocial, cognitive, ecological, moral development, play)

· Striving for mastery. Children work for mastery over their own private inner worlds, as well as for mastery of the world outside them. (Psychosocial, cognitive, multiple intelligences, play, language identity)

· Relationships and interactions. Children’s interactions with significant persons in their lives play a major part in their development. (Psychosocial, behaviorist, sociocultural, humanist, attachment, brain development, gender identity)

4-10bDevelopmental Research Conclusions

Research, as well as the information it yields, must serve the needs of the practitioner in order to be useful. Teachers can combine researchers’ systematic data with their own personal observations and experiences, including the significance of relationships, language and thinking, biologic factors, and special needs (see Chapter 6 ). To keep in mind the real child underneath all these theories, teachers apply developmental research to their own classroom settings. “Theories of child development can serve as guides for assessing the developmental levels of any children. They can help us know what children’s competencies are and where we should begin instruction. Theories of development can serve as guides for planning instruction for individuals and for groups” (Charlesworth, 2011). Figure 4-21 consolidates what developmental research has found and how it can be put into practical use with young children.

One of the conclusions of research and theory is that children’s interactions with significant people in their lives play a major role in development.

Figure 4-21

Developmental research tests theories of growth and learning to find out about children and childhood.

Research Implications for Teachers

Developmental Research Tells Us	Teachers Can
1.	Growth occurs in a sequence.	Think about the steps that children will take when planning projects.
		Know the sequence of growth in their children’s age group.
2.	Children in any age group will behave similarly in certain ways.	Plan for activities in relation to the age range of children. Know the characteristics of their children’s age group.
3.	Children grow through certain stages.	Know the stages of growth in their class.
		Let the family know of any behavior that is inconsistent with general stages of development.
4.	Growth occurs in four interrelated areas.	Understand that work in one area can help in another.
5.	Intellectual growth:
	Children learn through their senses.	Have activities in looking, smelling, tasting, hearing, and touching.
	Children learn by doing and need concrete experiences.	Realize that talking is abstract; have children touch.
	Cognitive growth happens in four areas: Perception (visual, auditory, etc.)	Provide materials and activities involving matching, finding the same or different things, putting a picture with a sound, a taste, or a symbol.
		Provide opportunities to find and label things, talk with grown-ups, friends, tell what it “looks like,” smells like, etc.
	Language	Know that memory is helped by seeing, holding objects, and interacting with people.
	Memory	Recognize that reasoning ability is just beginning, so children judge on what they see, rather than what you may want them to realize.
	Reasoning	Be sure that adult explanations aid in understanding reasons. Practice finding answers to open-ended questions such as “How can you tell when you are tired?”
6.	Social growth:
	The world is seen only from the child’s viewpoint.	Expect that children will think of only their own ideas at first. Be aware that the rights of others are minimal to them.
	Seeing is believing.	Remember that if they cannot see the situation, they may not be able to talk about it.
	Group play is developing.	Provide free-play sessions, with places to play socially.
		Understand that group play in structured situations is difficult because of “self-orientation.”
	Independence increases as competence grows.	Know that children test to see how far they can go. Realize that children will vary from independent to dependent (both among the group and within one child).
	People are born not knowing when it is safe to go on.	Understand that children need to learn by trial and error.
	Adult attention is very important.	Know the children individually.
	Young children are not born with an internal mechanism that says “slow down.”	Move into a situation before children lose control.
7.	Emotional growth:
	Self-image is developing.	Be alert for each child’s self-image that may be developing.
		Give praise to enhance good feelings about oneself.
		Know that giving children responsibilities helps self-image.
		Talk to children at eye level.
		Children learn by example.
		Model appropriate behavior by doing yourself what you want the children to do.
8	Physical growth:
	Muscle development is not complete.	Do not expect perfection, in either small- or large-muscle activity.
	Muscles cannot stay still for long.	Plan short times for children to sit and rest.
	Large muscles are better developed than small ones.	Give lots of chances to move about; be gentle with expectations for working with the hands.
	Hand preference is being established.	Watch to see how children decide their handedness, but don’t try to influence it one way or the other.
		Let children trade hands in their play.
	A skill must be done several times before it is internalized.	Have materials available to be used often. Plan projects to use the same skill over and over.
	Bowel and bladder control is not completely internalized.	Be understanding of accidents when children wet or soil themselves; do not punish or shame them.
		If possible, have toilet facilities available always, and keep them.

Enlarge Table

There is so much information out there now about children and their development. It is easy to feel overwhelmed, and easier still to believe what we read without further reflection. Santrock (2009) advises us:

· Be cautious about what is reported in the popular media.

· Do not assume that group research applies to an individual.

· Do not generalize about a small or clinical sample.

· Do not take a single study as the defining word.

· Do not accept causal conclusions from correlational studies.

· Always consider the source of the information and evaluate its credibility.

4-10cConditions for Learning

Caring for children means providing for total growth and creating optimal conditions for learning in the best possible environment. Developmental theory helps define conditions that enhance learning and from which positive learning environments are created. Research on all theories extends the knowledge of children and learning. Coupled with practical application, both theory and research have helped all to recognize that:

· Learning must be real. We teach about children’s bodies, their families, their neighborhoods, and their school. We start with who children are and expand this to include the world, in their terms. We give them the words, the ideas, and the ways to question and figure things out for themselves.

· Learning must be rewarding. Practice makes better, but only if it is all right to practice and to stumble and try again. We include the time to do all this by providing an atmosphere of acceptance and of immediate feedback as to what was accomplished (even what boundary was just overstepped). Also, practice can make a good experience even better, as it reminds children in their terms of what they can do.

· Learning must build on children’s lives. We help connect the family to the child and the teacher. We realize that children learn about culture from family and knowledgeable members of the community, such as teachers, librarians, grocers, and the like. We know important family events and help the family support happenings at school. For children, learning goes on wherever they may be, awake and asleep. Parents can learn to value learning and help it happen for their child.

· Learning needs a good stage. Healthy bodies make for alert minds, so good education means caring for children’s health. This includes physical, emotional, and mental health. Psychological safety and well-being happen through the insight, availability, and awareness that teachers bring to their classrooms. Because good teachers are always on the lookout for each child’s successes, they prevent distractions in subtle but powerful ways, such as knowing how furniture should be arranged, controlling the noise level, and minimizing interruptions. Mental health is both emotional and intellectual. We try to have a variety of materials and experiences and provide a flexible schedule when someone is pursuing an idea, building a project, or finishing a disagreement.

Teaching with Intention

Put Those Theories to Work!

Decision making in teaching can be difficult. Can theory help us?

It is 10 AM at the infant-toddler center. Fifteen-month-olds Kenya and Peter are crying and fussy this morning. Neither has eaten since breakfast. They have been indoors all morning.

Theory: Maturation theory. Children’s physical developmental needs affect their emotional states.

Topics: Attachment and ethnic/cultural identity. Secure relationships will help young children adapt. Narrow any “culture gap” between caregivers and children/families.

Plan: Schedule regular times for active movement. Be sure to offer food and watch for signs of hunger.

Mario and Therese, both in wheelchairs, joined the first grade last month, but their parents report that neither wants to come to school. Their academic work is at grade level, but they participate very little. They seem familiar with their teacher.

Theory: Sociocultural theory. Children need to feel part of the class culture in order to learn well.

Theory: Psychosocial theory. The children can identify with the teacher and become successful but may feel incompetent with unfriendly or indifferent classmates.

Theory: Cognitive theory. They can understand other points of view so long as it is in real situations.

Topics: Play and brain function. Give the group pretend play opportunities to carry out inclusive group play; attend to stress that the wheelchair-bound children may be feeling.

Plan: Put each child in a small group to design and build wheeled toys for pets. Building on the newcomers’ expertise in a cooperative activity gives all the children the scaffolding needed to be successful and helps the new children become accepted into the class.

Preschoolers Jared and Panya have been arguing about who has brought the “best” toy to child care. Others have heard the ruckus and have stopped to watch the two start a fight.

Theory: Cognitive theory. Their egocentric thinking prevents them from seeing any view other than their own. Also, they are unable to hold two ideas at the same time, so they cannot see that both toys are “good.”

Theory: Behaviorist theory. The children can learn from watching others and applying other’s example to their own behavior.

Topics: Moral development and gender identity. Use the situation as an opportunity for prosocial reasoning experiences; Be attentive to gender stereotyping in roles around power during conflict.

Plan: The teacher engages the children in a conflict resolution method that gets all children to express their own ideas, both about the problem and about possible solutions, so they can practice hearing another’s ideas while still holding their own. The teacher models praising each child’s positive characteristics in the other’s presence, showing other ways to behave appropriately and how the children can play together.

Think about This

1. How can theory illuminate what is going on with a child or in a center?

2. Which theories make the most sense to you—and why?

So long as we care for children, we will have our hands full. With the theoretical underpinnings presented here, we have the tools with which to make our own way into the world of children and of early childhood education.

PEA#2:Play Categories

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