Reading chapters and answer questions

Chapter 7 section 2

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

LO 7.5

Explain the major cognitive advances that occur during Piaget's concrete operations stage.

According to Piaget, children progress from the preoperational stage to the stage of concrete operations during middle childhood, as they learn to think more systematically and scientifically about how the world works and avoid cognitive errors. Cognitive advances during this stage include the ability to understand conservation, improved classification skills, and the understanding of seriation.

LO 7.6

Describe how attention, memory, and executive function change from early childhood

to middle childhood, and identify the characteristics of children who have ADHD.

In middle childhood, children become more capable of focusing their attention on relevant information and disregarding what is irrelevant. Children with especially notable difficulties in maintaining attention may be diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which includes problems of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness. Middle childhood is when children first learn to use memory strategies such as rehearsat organization, and elaboration. They also become better at executive function, including using efficient and multiple strategies to solve problems.

LO 7.7

Describe the main features and critiques of intelligence tests, and compare Gardner's and Sternberg's approaches to conceptualizing intelligence.

Intelligence tests assess a range of mental abilities, in domains including verbat memory, and processing speed. Critics have complained, however, that IQ tests assess only a narrow range of abilities and miss some of the most important aspects of intelligence, such as creativity. Average IQ scores have risen substantially over the 20th century, due to longer education and lower rates of infectious disease. In recent decades, alternative theories of intelligence have included Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences and Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence. In Gardner's theory there are eight types of intelligence, whereas Sternberg proposes three, but neither theorist has been able to develop an effective way of assessing the intelligences they proposed.

LO 7.8

Identify the advances in vocabulary, grammar, and pragmatics during middle childhood.

Language development continues apace with massive additions to children's vocabularies once they learn to read. There is a fourfold increase in children's vocabularies between the ages of 6 and 11, and the grammar of children's language use becomes more complex. Their understanding of pragmatics also grows substantially during middle childhood, which can be seen vividly in children's use and appreciation of humor.

LO 7.9

Explain the consequences for cognitive development of growing up multilingual.

When children learn two languages simultaneously, they understand that they are learning more than one language, and learning a second language does not interfere with mastering the first language. When children learn a second language after already becoming fluent in their first language, it takes longer to master the new language. Also, learning a second language is much easier in early and middle childhood than at later ages. Compared to monolingual children, multilingual children have greater awareness of the underlying structure of language and score higher on measures of cognitive ability. Research has not shown notable disadvantages of being multilingual.

LO 7.10

Summarize the variations worldwide in school enrollment, socialization practices, and academic achievement during middle childhood.

Attending school is a relatively recent historical development in children's lives, and even today 11°/o of children in developing countries do not attend primary school. School has important influences on children's social development because it separates children from the world of adults and places them among same-age peers. It also makes them less of an economic asset to their parents. Schools vary widely around the world depending on cultural beliefs about how children should learn, but it is economic development, not school philosophy, that mainly determines children's performance on international tests of academic performance.

LO 7.11

Describe how reading and math skills develop from early childhood to middle childhood and the variations in approaches to teaching these skills.

Most children begin to learn to read when they enter school and are able to read by grade 3. Phonics appears to be the most effective approach to teaching children to read. Most children learn math skills within school, at about the same pace they learn to read, but sometimes math skills can be learned effectively in a practical setting.

Chapter 8 section 2: Adolescent Cognition

LO 8.6

Explain the features of hypothetical-deductive reasoning and identify critiques of Piaget's theory of formal operations.

Hypothetical-deductive reasoning entails the ability to test solutions to a problem systematically, altering one variable while holding the others constant. The pendulum problem is one way Piaget tested the attainment of formal operations. Piaget proposed that when adolescents reach formal operations they use it for all cognitive activities; however, research has shown that most adolescents and adults only use formal operations in some areas of their lives. Piaget also proposed that formal operations is a universal stage of cognitive development, but its prevalence appears to vary across cultures as measured by standard tasks, although it may be used in culturally specific activities in ways that are not captured by the standard measurements.

LO 8.7

Summarize the major changes in attention, memory, and executive function that take place from middle childhood to adolescence.

Information processing abilities improve in adolescence, with notable advances in selective attention and divided attention, although divided attention usually results in less efficient performance. Adolescents are more likely than younger children to use mnemonic devices, such as organizing information. Abilities for executive function rise in adolescence and peak in emerging adulthood.

LO 8.8

Define the imaginary audience and the personal fable and explain how they reflect egocentrism in adolescence.

The imaginary audience is the exaggerated belief that others are paying intense attention to one's appearance and behavior. The personal fable is the belief that there is something special and unique about one's personal experiences and destiny. The imaginary audience results from adolescents' egocentric inability to distinguish their thoughts about themselves from their thoughts about others' thoughts.

LO 8.9

Produce an example of the zone of proximal development and scaffolding involving adolescents.

Scaffolding and the zone of proximal development are evident in adolescence, when the skills necessary for adult work are being learned. For example, male adolescents in the Dioula culture in Ivory Coast are first taught simple weaving patterns but learn increasingly complex patterns as their skills improve in response to correction and instruction by their fathers, until they can weave entirely by themselves.

LO 8.10

Compare and contrast the secondary education systems and academic performance of developed countries and developing countries.

Canada, Japan, and the United States have a comprehensive high school, but most other developed countries have at least three different types of secondary school. Many European countries have university-preparatory, vocational, and professional schools. Academic performance is generally higher in developed countries than in developing countries, but highest of all in Asian developed countries, where pressure to excel is high.

LO 8.11

Summarize the typical forms of adolescent work in developing countries and developed countries, and name the features of apprenticeships in Europe.

Adolescents' work is often hard and perilous in developing countries, and in some countries adolescent girls are subject to commercial sexual exploitation. In developed countries, adolescents usually work to earn money for leisure activities, but working more than 10 hours per week interferes with their school performance, sleep, and psychological health. In some European countries, apprenticeships are available, in which adolescents spend part of their time in school and part of their time in the workplace receiving direct occupational training.

Chapter 9 section 3

LO 9.11

Describe the course of self-esteem from adolescence through emerging adulthood and explain the reasons for this pattern.

Self-esteem often rises for emerging adults because they have moved beyond some of the difficult issues of adolescence, such as concerns about physical appearance. Another reason is that they have more control over how and with whom they spend their time.

LO 9.12

Describe the various forms identity development can take in emerging adulthood, and consider patterns of cultural and ethnic identity.

In the identity status model, James Marcia proposed four categories of identity development: diffusion, moratorium, foreclosure, and achievement. Research indicates that for most people identity achievement is not reached until emerging adulthood or beyond. Cultures influence

identity development by the extent to which they allow or restrict their young people's opportunities to make choices in love and work. Today, globalization often influences the cultural context of identity development, resulting in bicultural identities. For members of ethnic minorities, there are a variety of possible forms their ethnic identity may take, including assimilation, marginality, separation, and biculturalism.

Each of these classifications involves a different combination of exploration and commitment. Diffusion is an identity status that combines no exploration with no commitment. For adolescents in a state of identity diffusion, no commitments have been made among the choices available to them. Furthermore, no exploration is taking place. The person in this status is not seriously attempting to sort through potential choices and make enduring commitments.

Moratorium involves exploration but no commitment. This is a status of actively trying out different personal, occupational, and ideological possibilities, in order for adolescents to determine which of the available possibilities are best suited to them.

Adolescents who are in the foreclosure status have not experimented with a range of possibilities but have nevertheless committed themselves to certain choices- commitment, but no exploration. This is often a result of their parents' strong influence. Marcia and most other scholars tend to see exploration as a necessary part of forming a healthy identity, and therefore see foreclosure as unhealthy. This is an issue we will discuss further shortly. Finally, the classification that combines exploration and commitment is achievement. Identity achievement is the status of young people who have made definite personal, occupational, and ideological choices. By definition, identity achievement is preceded by a period of identity moratorium in which exploration takes place. If commitment takes place without exploration, it is considered identity foreclosure rather than identity achievement. Table 9.1 summarizes the four identity statuses.

LO 9.13

Summarize the changes in American gender beliefs in recent decades and include findings from research on gender stereotypes among college students.

Beliefs about gender roles have become less restrictive in American society over the last half century, although a substantial proportion of adults still believe women should be mainly at home and men should be the ones who are active in the world. However, gender stereotypes persist in occupational roles, in the expectations for men and women to perform different kinds of jobs, and in less favorable evaluations of women's work performance.

LO 9.14

Summarize the religious beliefs and practices of American emerging adults, and contrast them with young Europeans.

Religious beliefs and practices decline in emerging adulthood, reaching their lowest point in the life span. Emerging adults tend to hold highly individualized religious beliefs rather than adhering to a traditional doctrine. European emerging adults tend to be less religious than Americans, but even in the least religious countries a majority of emerging adults believe in some kind of afterlife.

LO 9.15

Explain why emerging adults have often been at the forefront of political movements, and contrast this with their involvement in conventional politics.

Political participation is low in emerging adulthood with respect to conventional measures such as voting. However, emerging adults are more likely than older adults to engage in volunteer work and to join revolutionary and extreme political movements, due to their ideological identity search and their lack of limiting social commitments.

LO 9.16

Describe patterns of home-leaving in the United States and Europe and how this transition influences relations with parents.

Emerging adults in the United States and northern Europe usually move out of their parents' household at age 19 or 20 to live on their own or with a friend or romantic partner. In southern Europe, emerging adults usually remain at home for longer and enjoy doing so. Relations with parents often improve when emerging adults move out of the household, but relations also improve because emerging adults become better at taking their parents' perspectives.

In most Western majority cultures, most young people move out of their parents' home sometime during emerging adulthood. The most common reasons for leaving home stated by emerging adults are going to college, cohabiting with a partner, or simply the desire for independence (Goldscheider & Goldscheider, 1999; Seiffge-Krenke, 2010).

Typically, relationships between parents and emerging adults improve once the young person leaves home. In this case, at least, absence makes the heart grow fonder. Numerous studies have confirmed that emerging adults report greater closeness and fewer negative feelings toward their parents after moving out (Aquilino, 2006; Arnett, 2015; Fingerman & Yahirun, 2015). Furthermore, emerging adults who move out tend to get along better with their parents than those who remain at home. For example, in one study of 18- to 30-year-olds, the emerging adults who lived with their parents more often felt irritated by them and wished they would change, compared to those who did not, al- though they also more often had positive experiences with them (Fingerman et al., 2016).

What explains these patterns? Some scholars have suggested that leaving home leads young people to appreciate their parents more (Arnett, 2015; Katchadou rian & Boli, 1985). Another factor may be that it is easier to be fond of someone you no longer live with. Once emerging adults move out, they no longer experience the day-to-day friction with their parents that inevitably results from living with others. They can now control the frequency and timing of their interactions with their parents in a way they could not when they were living with them. They can visit their parents for the weekend, for a holiday, or for dinner, enjoy the time together, and still maintain full control over their daily lives. As a 24-year-old woman in Jeff's research put it, "I don't have to talk to them when I don't want to, and when I want to, I can" (Arnett, 2015, p. 49).

In the United States, although most emerging adults move out of their parents' home in their late teens, a substantial proportion (over one third) stay home through their early 20s (Arnett, 2015). Staying at home is more common among African Americans, Asian Americans, and Latinos than among White Americans (Fry, 2016). The reason for this is sometimes economic, especially for African Americans and Latinos, who have high rates of unemployment in emerging adulthood. However, another important reason appears to be the greater emphasis on family closeness and interdependence in minority cultures, and less emphasis on being independent as a value in itself. For example, one emerging adult in Jeff's research lived with her Chinese American

mother and Mexican American father throughout her college years at the University of California-Berkeley. She enjoyed the way staying home allowed her to remain in close contact with them. "I loved living at home. I respect my parents a lot, so being home with them was actually one of the things I liked to do most," she said. "Plus, it was free!" (Arnett, 2015, p. 60). For Asian Americans and Latinos, an additional reason for staying home is specific to young women, and concerns the high value placed on virginity before marriage.

About 40°/o of American emerging adults "return to the nest" to live at least once after they leave (Fingerman & Yahirun, 2015). There are many reasons why emerging adults sometimes move home again (Goldscheider & Goldscheider, 1999). For those who left home for college, moving back home may be a way of bridging their transition to post-college life after they graduate or drop out. It gives them a chance to decide what to do next, be it graduate school, a job near home, or a job farther away. For those who left home for independence, some may feel that the glow of independence dims after a while as the freedom of doing what they want when they want becomes outweighed by the burden of taking care of a household and paying all their own bills. An early divorce or concluding a period of military service are other reasons emerging adults give for returning home (Goldscheider & Goldscheider, 1999). Under these circumstances, too, coming home may be attractive to young people as a transition period, a chance to get back on their feet before they venture again into the world.

In European countries, emerging adults tend to live with their parents longer than in the United States, especially in southern and eastern Europe (Douglass, 2005, 2007; Kins et al., 2009). Figure 9.12 shows the patterns in various European countries, as compared to the United States (lacovou, 2011). There are a number of practical reasons why European emerging adults stay home longer. European university students are more likely than American students to continue to live at home while they attend university. European emerging adults who do not attend university may have difficulty finding or affording an apartment of their own. However, also important are European cultural values that emphasize mutual support within the family while also allowing young people substantial autonomy. Italy provides a good case in point.

Ninety-four percent of Italians ages 15 to 24 live with their parents, the highest percentage in the European Union (EU), and many of them continue to live with their parents even into their late 20s and early 30s (Bonino et al., 2012). However, only 8°/o of them view their living arrangements as a problem-the lowest percentage among EU countries. Many European emerging adults remain at home contentedly through their early 20s, by choice rather than necessity.

There is more to the changes in relationships with parents from adolescence to emerging adulthood than simply the effects of moving out, staying home, or moving back in. Emerging adults also grow in their ability to understand their parents (Arnett, 2015). Adolescence is in some ways an egocentric period, and adolescents often have difficulty taking their parents' perspectives. They sometimes evaluate their parents harshly, magnifying their deficiencies and becoming easily irritated by their imperfections. As emerging adults mature and begin to feel more adult themselves, they become more capable of understanding how their parents look at things. They come to see their parents as persons and begin to realize that their parents, like themselves, have a mix of merits as well as faults.

There has been little research on sibling relationships in emerging adulthood (Scharf & Schulman, 2015). However, one study of adolescents and emerging adults in Israel found that emerging adults spent less time with their siblings than adolescents did but also felt more emotional closeness and warmth toward them (Scharf et al., 2005). Conflict and rivalry were also reported to be less intense by emerging adults than by adolescents. Qualitative analyses showed that emerging adults had a more mature perception of their relationship with their siblings than adolescents did, in the sense that they were better able to understand their siblings' needs and perspectives.

LO 9.17

Describe the role of intimacy in emerging adults' friendships and the most common activities of emerging adult friends.

Friends are important to emerging adults, especially to those without a current romantic partner, and intimacy is more important to their friendships than it is in childhood or adolescence. Common activities among friends include unstructured socializing, which may involve alcohol use and media use. Activities with friends decline steadily during the 20s as emerging adults form stable romantic partnerships.

LO 9.18

Explain how romantic relationships and sexual behavior change during emerging adulthood.

In seeking romantic partners, today's emerging adults value most the interpersonal qualities that help build a relationship, such as being kind and trustworthy. Cohabitation is now normative in most Western countries. In northern Europe cohabitation relationships are as enduring as marriages, but in the United States they typically dissolve within five years. Worldwide, emerging adults' premarital sexual behavior varies greatly across countries and cultures. STis are more common in emerging adulthood than in any other age group, including chlamydia, herpes simplex 2, and HIVI AIDS.

LO 9.19

Explain how emerging adults use social media and texting to maintain social contacts.

Most emerging adults in developed countries use social media such as Facebook on a daily basis, and they often use these media as an arena for identity play. Most of them report that social media help them maintain regular contact with friends and family and allow them to draw on their support when necessary. Texting serves a similar function and is used more by emerging adults than by older age groups.

Chapter 10 section 1

Ageism:

Perhaps this history still influences our perceptions of late adulthood, despite the more positive recent reality. Many studies in Western countries have found that older adults often encounter ageism, which is prejudice and discrimination based on age (Rosenthal, 2014; Swift et al., 2017). Attitudes toward older adults are generally more negative than toward younger adults in a variety of respects, from competence at work- related tasks to physical attractiveness. Older adults applying for jobs are often assumed to be on the decline and lacking in cognitive sharpness and physical stamina (Macdonald & Levy, 2016). Social psychology studies that present participants with a hypothetical situation involving cognitive functioning-misplacing an object, for example-find that when the person in the scenario is described as young, participants assume the mistake is due to a temporary state ("He had a lot on his mind"), whereas when the person is old the mistake is assumed to be due to irreversible decline ("He's going senile") (Nelson, 2004). Other studies have found that older adults often experience being ignored or patronized (referred to as "honey") and are assumed to have difficulty hearing or understanding simple instructions (Palmore, 2001; Whitbourne & Sneed, 2004). Even many older people believe many stereotypes of aging, and when they do, their physical and mental health is negatively affected (Nelson, 2016).

Although ageism and a negative view of late adulthood is widespread today, there are cultural variations in how this life stage is viewed. In many Asian, African, and Latin American cultures the view of late adulthood is quite favorable. For example, in Japan, Respect for the Aged Day is an annual national holiday (Schmidt, 2016). Also, the transition from middle to late adulthood is marked with a ritual called kanreki, usually held around the person's 60th birthday. The ritual symbolizes the person's freedom from previous responsibilities of child care and household duties, and elevation to a new and respected status as an elder in the family and in society. In other Asian cultures, the tradition of filial piety continues through late adulthood (Yi et al., 2016). This means that no matter how old children are, they owe obedience and respect to their parents. In most traditional cultures worldwide, status is based in part on age: The older people become, the more authority and respect they have. Older people are also more likely to have high status in cultures where they control important family or community resources and where extended family households are common (Menon, 2013; Sangree, 1989). Even in the West the depiction of late adulthood is becoming more favorable in some ways. Many recent advertisements depict older adults as adventurous, active, and intelligent (Brooks et al., 2016). This positive depiction of older adults in advertisements may be due to their increasing economic power (Simcock, 2012).

LO 10.1

Compare and contrast criteria for adulthood according to young people across cultures.

Across developed countries, three common criteria for marking the attainment of adulthood are accepting responsibility for one's self, making independent decisions, and becoming financially independent. Emerging adults in Asian cultures often value being able to support parents financially as a criterion for adulthood, and in many traditional cultures, marriage is the primary marker. There are also culturally-specific criteria such as, in Israel, completing mandatory military service.

LO 10.2

Specify the signs of the beginning of physical aging and when they appear.

Physical health is generally very good in young adulthood, but the aging process is evident in changes such as graying hair, looser skin, and a less effective immune system.

LO 10.3

Explain how obesity is defined, its causes, its consequences, and the keys to prevention.

Among adults, a BMI above 25 is classified as overweight and above 30 is considered obesity. Obesity increases sharply in prevalence during young adulthood in developed countries, partly due to a decrease in the basal metabolic rate but also due to sedentary work, little regular exercise, and eating too much food containing fats and sugars. In the U.S., obesity is more prevalent among women, low-SES groups, African Americans and Latinos, and individuals with a genetic vulnerability. Obesity places young adults at risk for a variety of health problems and social consequences. Effective approaches to reducing obesity includes diet programs that provide healthy meals to participants, and surgery for severe obesity

BMI is used as a measure of overweight and obesity because it is an indirect measure of body fat. That is, the higher a person's BMI, the more body fat they are likely to have in proportion to their height. Body fat is, in turn, related to a wide variety of health risks, from high blood pressure to diabetes to heart attacks and strokes, and even to some forms of cancer. However, BMI is only an indirect measure of body fat. For most people it indicates body fat accurately, but there are exceptions. For example, women tend to have more body

fat than men, and older people more body fat than younger people, even when their BMls are equal. Also, some people have a BMI that is below the overweight range, but they nevertheless have high levels of abdominal fat-that is, a roll of fat right around the midsection-and abdominal fat is a predictor of health problems.Another issue in the use of BMI as a measure of overweight and obesity is the cutoff points. An adult with a BMI of over 25 is classified as overweight, and an adult with a BMI over 30 is obese. There is, obviously, nothing magic about 25 or 30 that make them ideal cutoff points. A person with a BMI of 31 isn't notably more at risk for health problems than a person with a BMI of 29 is, even though the first is classified as "obese" and the second is not. But the classifications help adults and their health care providers to have a general idea of whether or not their current weight is within the healthy range. Finally, there may be ethnic differences that should be taken into account. For example, Asians generally have higher proportions of body fat than non-Asians who have the same weight. For this reason, some researchers have proposed that the BMI overweight and obesity cutoffs should be lower for people of Asian backgrounds than for others. However, currently the 25 and 30 BMI cutoff points are used as the

international standard. CAUSES OF OBESITY Young adulthood is a crucial time for the development of obesity. An important physiological change takes place beginning at age 25 in the basal metabolic rate (BMR), which is the amount of energy the body uses when at rest (Kumagai & Yahagi, 2013; Peitilainen et al., 2008). From age 25 to 50 the average person's BMR declines as a natural part of the aging process. This change makes it easier to accumulate weight, because the body no longer burns as many calories when resting. Even to maintain the same weight from the late 20s through the 30s, a young adult would have to eat less or exercise more (or both) over that time. Consequently, young adulthood is a stage when many people whose weight was in the healthy range become overweight or obese, and many of those who were already overweight become even heavier. A national American study involving thousands of adolescents, known as the National Study of Adolescent Health, followed them longitudinally from their teens to ages 24-32 (Gordon-Larsen et al., 2010). Obesity rates increased from 13°/o among the adolescents to 36°/o by the time they were young adults. There were substantial differences by gender and ethnic group, with obesity rates higher among females than among males (across age periods), and higher among African Americans and Latinos than among Asian Americans and Whites, as shown in Figure 10.2. Rates of obesity in young adulthood were highest of all among African American women (55°/o). basal metabolic rate (BMR} amount of energy the body uses when at rest

An other biological contributor to weight is genetics. Even when eating the same diet, people will vary in how much weight they take on or off (Das, 2010). Studies of twins show that weights are more similar in monozygotic (MZ) twins than in dizygotic (DZ) twins, even when the twins grow up in different families (Collaku et al., 2004). Researchers have found that a specific protein, leptin, is involved in weight levels in both animals and humans (Zhang et al., 2006). Leptin is released by fat cells to signal that the body has had enough to eat, and

it also influences BMR. Animals and humans with relatively low leptin levels become heavier, have a higher percentage of body fat, and lose weight more slowly following a reduction in

food intake. Some people appear to have a genetically-based resistance to leptin, making obesity more likely (Crujeiraset al., 2015). Rates of obesity vary greatly worldwide, as Map 10.1 shows, and are strongly correlated with affluence. The countries with the highest rates of obesity are also the wealthiest countries, the developed countries. Rates of obesity are lowest in Africa, the poorest region in the world. Obesity rates are increasing in some developing countries, such as China and India, along with economic growth (Bhurosy & Jeewon, 2014; Poobalan & Aucott, 2016). Another contributor to obesity in developing countries is the adoption of Western foods containing unhealthy levels of fats and sugars, including "fast food" such as hamburgers, french fries, and fried chicken (Wright et al., 2016).

LO 10.4

Summarize the benefits of exercising in young adulthood.

Regular exercise that includes aerobic activity promotes a healthy weight and reduces the risk of a variety of diseases. It also promotes mental health by increasing well-being and reducing anxiety and depression.

Chapter 12

Section 1

LO 12.1

Compare cultural views of older adults, and distinguish between the three substages of late adulthood.

In many Asian and traditional cultures, status is based partly on age, and older adults are treated with respect and authority. Depictions of late adulthood are becoming more positive in the West as well, as shown in advertisements. Developmental psychologists divide late adulthood into three substages: young-old (ages 60-74); old-old (ages 75-84); and oldest-old (age 85 and up). While declines in functioning are steepest among the oldest-old, adults within each of these substages may differ in how they perform activities of daily living (ADLs), so gerontologists today also often refer to the concept of functional age.

LO 12.2

Define the old-age dependency ratio, and explain its impact on developed countries.

The old-age dependency ratio (OADR) is calculated by dividing the number of persons age 65 or older by the number of persons ages 20-64 and multiplying by 100. The OADR in developed countries is rising because of decreasing fertility rates and increased life expectancy, due largely to medical interventions. Countries such as Japan face serious strains on their social welfare systems due to the rising OADR.

LO 12.3

Identify the signs of physical aging in late adulthood, and differentiate the impact of primary and secondary aging on appearance.

Signs of physical aging include graying and thinning hair, age spots, decrease in body weight, and possible loss of teeth. Many of these changes are due to primary aging, although secondary aging influences such as sun exposure and diet have an effect as well.

LO 12.4

Summarize the changes in vision, hearing, taste, and smell in late adulthood.

Changes to the cornea, lens, retina, and optic nerve in late adulthood may lead to cataracts, macular degeneration, or glaucoma. Hearing typically declines in late adulthood, although hearing aids may help compensate for this decline. Taste and smell also decline, which can have a negative impact on the diet and health of older adults.

LO 12.5

Describe the changes in sleep patterns that occur during late adulthood.

In late adulthood many people take longer to fall asleep, wake up more often during the night, and sleep less deeply. Many older adults also experience sleep apnea. Changes in sleep patterns are due both to normal aging and to psychological and medical conditions.

LO 12.6

Identify the major health problems associated with late adulthood, and list some treatment options.

One common chronic health problem of late adulthood is arthritis, a disease of the joints that especially affects the hips, knees, neck, hands, and lower back. There is no cure, but medication and surgery can be used to treat the pain. Loss of bone mass continues in late adulthood, causing the risk of osteoporosis to rise, mostly for women. Osteoporosis can be delayed or even reversed with a combination of regular bone-strengthening exercise (such as weightlifting) and a calcium-rich diet. Rates of hypertension, or high blood pressure, rise in late adulthood due to primary and secondary aging, and raise the risk of heart attack and stroke.

LO 12.7

Identify three lifestyle practices that have a positive influence on health.

Eating a healthy diet, exercising regularly, and avoiding unhealthy practices such as cigarette smoking and excess alcohol consumption, all have a positive effect on health in late adulthood. Consuming a glass or two of alcohol per day enhances health.

LO 12.8

Define "successful aging" and explain how it is different than past conceptions of old age.

Theorists and researchers have recently begun to turn their attention to how successful aging can be promoted, as represented by maintaining physical and cognitive health and remaining engaged with others and with productive activity. In this new field there is an emphasis that social institutions need to change to adapt to the changing needs and capacities of older adults.

Section 2

LO 12.9

Describe how attention and memory change during late adulthood.

Several different types of attention decline in late adulthood, including selective, divided, and sustained attention. Memory declines vary based on the type of memory involved. There is relatively little decline in procedural memory and semantic memory, but declines are steeper in working memory, long-term memory, episodic memory, and source memory.

LO 12.11

Define wisdom, and summarize research on the impact of age and culture on wisdom.

Wisdom is defined by Baltes and Staudinger as "expertise in the conduct and meaning of life." Research on responses to hypothetical situations has found that wisdom is as likely to be found among the young as among the old. Wisdom accumulated by late adulthood may be more valuable in a culture where social change is slow than in a culture where change is rapid, because if it is slow, the life experiences of elders may be more relevant to the current experiences of people of younger ages.

LO 12.10

Explain how the brain changes during late adulthood, and identify the symptoms and risk factors for Alzheimer's disease.

In late adulthood the brain shrinks and total brain mass declines. Declines also take place in neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine. The earliest symptom of Alzheimer's disease is a loss of memory for recent events and familiar names and tasks. Personality is often negatively affected, along with the ability to control bodily functions. A specific gene known as the ApoE gene indicates risk for Alzheimer's disease, but not everyone with the gene develops the disease. Diets high in fats and sugars increase the risk of developing the disease, and maintaining a high level of cognitive activity appears to be a protective factor against it.

LO 12.11

Define wisdom, and summarize research on the impact of age and culture on wisdom.

Wisdom is defined by Baltes and Staudinger as "expertise in the conduct and meaning of life." Research on responses to hypothetical situations has found that wisdom is as likely to be found among the young as among the old. Wisdom accumulated by late adulthood may be more valuable in a culture where social change is slow than in a culture where change is rapid, because if it is slow, the life experiences of elders may be more relevant to the current experiences of people of younger ages.

LO 12.12

Describe the effects of intervention studies on cognitive decline, and explain how older adults adapt to physical and cognitive changes.

Intervention studies show that regular mental exercise enhances mental abilities and slows the cognitive decline that takes place with primary aging. This could include activities such as crossword puzzles, playing card games, watching educational television, and reading books. The most successful adaptation to declining physical and cognitive abilities in late adulthood involves selective optimization with compensation (SOC).

Section 3:

LO 12.13

Summarize the evidence on emotional well- being in late adulthood and its relation to

physical functioning.

Among Americans (but not Europeans), positive emotions rise and negative emotions decline during late adulthood. However, older adults with severe physical and cognitive problems suffer a decline in self-esteem and are at risk for depression. Caring for an ailing spouse also increases the risk for depression, as does the death of a spouse.

LO 12.14

Distinguish between Erikson's theory and Carstensen's socioemotional selectivity theory of late adulthood.

Erikson proposed that late adulthood is a period when the central challenge is ego integrity versus despair. Ego integrity means looking back on one's life and accepting the outcome of it, whereas despair entails regrets and bitterness about the course of one's life, and a conclusion that it has not gone well and now cannot be changed. Carstensen's socioemotional selectivity theory states that older adults maximize their emotional well-being by becoming increasingly selective in their social contacts. Carstensen argues that in late adulthood, knowledge-based goals fade in importance as people leave the workplace and no longer have daily responsibilities as coworkers and parents, causing relationship goals to become more emotion-based.

LO 12.15

Describe how relations with children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren change during late adulthood.

Across cultures, contact with children continues to be frequent through late adulthood, and there may be a role reversal between parents and children, with parents now depending on their children for care and support. Although grandparents and grandchildren often decrease their frequency of contact as the grandchildren become busy with the tasks of adult life, feelings of closeness and affection established earlier remain strong for most. Relations with great-grandchildren tend to be less close than with grandchildren, and contact is less frequent.

LO 12.16

Review cultural differences in living situations during late adulthood.

There is great variety in living situations for older adults: Some live independently, others live with children, and still others live in assisted living facilities or nursing homes. In Asian cultures, where filial piety is strong, older adults have traditionally lived with their children, although this pattern is changing as more families have just one child who may live far from the parents.

LO 12.17

Explain how romantic relationships and sexuality change during late adulthood.

Marital satisfaction increases from middle adulthood to late adulthood and reaches its highest point of the entire lifespan. Many people, especially women, lose their spouse during late adulthood, a painful and difficult transition for most. Rates of remarriage are low but tend to be more successful in late adulthood than at earlier ages. There are wide cultural variations in views of the acceptability and appropriateness of sexual activity in late adulthood. Sexual activity depends crucially on physical health. A U.S. study reported that frequencies of kissing, hugging, and sexual touching and caressing were higher than rates of intercourse in late adulthood.

LO 12.18

Describe variations in retirement, and identify the impact of retirement on older adults.

The decision about precisely when to retire is based on a variety of factors, especially financial considerations, physical health, and job satisfaction. Many older Americans enter retirement gradually, through bridge jobs that do not require full-time hours. Most older adults adjust well to retirement, but those who were forced into retirement are less happy with retirement than those who retired by choice. People who choose to retire generally experience improvements in their physical and mental health follow- ing the transition, whereas people who retired involuntarily tend to decline.

LO 12.19

Summarize how leisure activities, community involvement, religious involvement, and

media use change in late adulthood.

Leisure activities in late adulthood tend to be a continuation of things adults had enjoyed earlier in life. Many older adults travel, but most of older adults' leisure time is spent watching television, reading, and visiting family and friends. Volunteering, involvement in civic organizations, and religious participation are high during late adulthood. Television use is also high, and internet use can enhance the health care and social lives of older adults.