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ChapterFiveTheLearningofMotorSkills.pptxChapter Five:The Learning of Motor Skills
By Julie Aguilar and Tomas Pena
Performance
Performance Definition: qualitative or quantitative assessment of what can be observed during the execution of a skill
Performance is Observable Behavior
Performance is the execution of a skill at a specific time and in a specific location or situation
Examples of Performance:
Measurement of Quantitative Performance: a 200-yard drive
Measurement of Qualitative Performance: the Bobcats had a poor season
Learning
Learning Definition: a relatively stable change in performance resulting from practice or experience
Learning is the process of when people acquire a new capacity to perform a skill
We can determine if learning has occurred or not based on observations or performance
Learning is not (and never is) observed directly, but rather is inferred from performance observations
Learning
Learning has occurred when these three conditions have been met:
1.) Learning is a change in performance or the capacity to perform
2.) Learning results from practice to experience
3.) learning is relatively stable or permanent
The Learning-Performance Distinction
The major problem with assuming that performance is an accurate reflection of learning is that such thinking leads to further assumption that learning is best facilitated when it is accompanied by good performance
Performance is a temporary expression of a learner’s ability to execute a skill
Performance variables are the presence of temporary factors that are existing within the practice of performance; it includes instructional, environmental, and learner characteristics
Instructional Characteristics
Type of practice schedule
The order in which various skills are sequenced
The relative intensity or restfullness of practice
The use of simplification techniques such as part practice
Type of instructions provided to learners
The amount and type of feedback given to learners
Environmental Characteristics
The physical characteristics of the practice setting as well as any equipment that is used in executing skills
Learner Characteristics
Anxiety
Fatigue
Motivation
Physical condition
The use of stimulants or drugs
Whether practicing alone or in the presence of others
Learning-Performance Distinction
Finding that performance measures during acquisition may mask the true degree of learning that has occurred
Some factors may help or depress a learners capacity to perform but these factors are not permanent
Overview of Performance and Learning
Assessing Learning-Measuring ART
ART (Acquisition, retention, and transfer measurements): acronym used in assessing learning in an experiment
Acquisition: those practice experiences of a skill designed to influence the learning of the skill
Direct measurement of performance experiences
Any changes in performance observed over practice
Analogous to practice periods
acquisition trials include all practice attempts designed specifically for purposes of skill learning
Acquisition measurements are direct, faithful recordings of observed performance
Performance Curve: a series of acquisition measures that are graphed to illustrate changes in performance over the course of practice
Illustrate effects of various performance variables on skill attainment
Retention Test: a measurement of performance conducted subsequent to acquisition trials and after sufficient time has elapsed to allow any effect of performance variables to dissipate
Retention: the persistence of improvement in the performance of a skill over a period of no practice; it is interpreted as a measure of learning
Retention Interval: the time elapsed between the completion of acquisition trials and a retention test in a learning experiment
Retention
Learning is a relatively permanent improvement in performance, then performance that has retained over a period of non-practice can be said to have been learned
Performance variables may influence performance positively or negatively but their effects are temporary
Transfer Test
Transfer Test: A type of retention test in which the object is to measure the amount of learning that can be transferred to a similar but different skill, or to the original skill in a new context
Transfer tests measure learning effects in terms of the adaptability, or generalizability of learning
John Shea and Robyn Morgan (1979)
Conducted an experiment to research motor skills
Blocked Practice: a practice schedule in which the same skill is rehearsed in repetitive fashion
Random Practice: A practice schedule in which different skills are rehearsed in an unpredictable trial to trial order
They conducted a transfer test in which subjects from the blocked practice group were transferred to a randomly presented block of six trials as a transfer test, whereas subjects from the random practice group were presented with a block of six trials of the same pattern as their transfer test (with an equal number of each of the three patterns distributed among them). The remaining half of the subjects in both the blocked and random practice groups, those not receiving the retention test, were then transferred to a transfer test of the opposite condition from that under which they had practice.
Shea and Morgan concluded that even though skill performance was better under a blocked practice schedule than under a random practice schedule, retention and transfer were better for those practicing under a random schedule of skill order. Based upon these results, Shea and Morgan concluded that random practice results are better for learning than blocked practice, at least for conditions similar to those of their experiment.
The Shape of Learning
Performance Curve: a two dimensional graph of the changes in performance measures over time as a result of practice
Units of performance are measured on the vertical or y-axis and trials on the horizontal or x-axis, once the data is plotted a “line of best fit” can be drawn to represent the general pattern or shape of performance
The presence of any number of performance variables may be clouding the true degree of learning, which could be either greater of less than indicated by the performance curve alone
The more trials, no longer the acquisition period, the more stable performance appears to become over time, and the more accurately the performance curve can be considered representative of learning
Types of Performance Curves
Linear Performance Curve: A performance in which equal amounts of time or number of trials during practice correspond to equal increases in performance measures
Negatively Accelerating Performance Curve: A performance curve exhibiting diminished improvements in performance measures as a function of time or trials of practice
Positively Accelerating Performance Curve: A performance curve exhibiting increasing improvements in performance measures as a function of time or trials of practice
S-Shaped Performance Curve: A performance curve exhibiting relatively slow rates of improvement both early and late during acquisition, but accelerated rates of learning during the middle phase of acquisition
Types of Performance Curves
Is There a “Normal” Performance Curve?
The most common learning curve is negatively accelerating curve, when acquiring motor skills most people experience the greatest rate of improvement early on and once the skill has been learned to moderate level the improvements begin to diminish
When performance requires difficult skills a positively accelerating or S-Shaped performance curve is more likely to result, early on will be difficult then there is improvement but once the difficult skills are acquired a negatively accelerating curve will typically follow
Performance Curves May Represent Only
Performance curves are representations of learning patterns only during early and intermediate phases of learning
After an intermediate stage of learning has been achieved, all four curves merge into a negatively accelerating pattern
What Performance Curves Reveal about the Nature of Learning
When learning new motor skills you experience rapid improvements in performance but as practice continued the rate at which you improved slowed down
The Law of Practice: improvement in performance continues as long as practice continues, but the rate at which it occurs gradually and predictably diminishes over time or number of practice trials; it can be expressed mathematically as a power function
Logarithmic Power Function: mathematical expression exhibiting that performance continues to improve toward an upper limit, but at a progressively diminishing and predictable rate
Monotonic Benefits Assumption: the notion that learning occurs at the same rate as long as practice continues, though its manifestations in performance decreases at a predictable rate
The Asymptotic Nature of Learning
Asymptote: theoretical upper limit to learning that is progressively approached with practice but that is never reached
Overlearning: the concept that practice of a newly acquired skill beyond the point of mastery benefits long-term retention of the skill
Overlearning
the concept that practice of a newly acquired skill beyond the point of mastery benefits long term retention of a skill
Mastery Level: a predetermined performance level established as the goal of practice
Original Learning: The amount of practice required to attain a specific level of mastery
How much overlearning is required to maximize retention of learned skills?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GwbT8XWeens
The Transfer of Learning
Transfer: the influence of practicing one skill on the learning of another skill or of the same skill in a new context
The practice of any motor skill typically assumes some degree of transfer.
Target Skill: The task a person wishes to be able to perform as a result to practice.
Target Context: The environmental situation in which an individual wishes to perform a particular skill as a result of practice.
Positive Transfer and Negative Transfer
Positive Transfer: when learning one skill positively influences the learning of another skill or of the same skill in a new context
Negative Transfer: when learning one skill negatively influences the learning of another skill or of the same skill in a new context
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhRL17T28Ho
