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Title of Book: Korgen, K. O., & Atkinson, M. P. (2019). Sociology in action (1st ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Chapter 10
Aggression
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Learning Objectives
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
· Define aggression and differentiate instrumental aggression, hostile aggression, and violence
· Describe the possible origins of aggression
· Explain whether men or women are more aggressive, what age group shows the most aggression, and howage and gender interact with types of aggression, including relational aggression
· Explain catharsis and whether it works to reduce aggression
· Describe displaced aggression and triggered displaced aggression
· Explain the factors that influence our aggression: frustration, media, weapons, alcohol, and environmentalfactors
· Describe the risk factors and consequences for antisocial behavior
Chapter Outline
10.1 Aggression
· Origins of Aggression
· Gender and Age Differences in Aggression
10.2 Aggression Cues
· Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
· Media
· Weapons
· Alcohol
· Environmental Factors
10.3 Catharsis and Aggression
10.4 Other Antisocial Behavior
Chapter Summary
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The video and computer game industry is large, with 67% of households in the United States having at least one member whoplays, and a total 24.75 billion dollars in yearly revenue (Entertainment Software Association, 2012). Though the amount ofidentified violence varies depending on who is doing the rating, many video games contain violent content (Carnagey, Anderson,& Bushman, 2007; Thompson, & Haninger, 2001; Walsh & Gentile, 2001). Both children and adults play such games, with half ofgame players between the ages of 18 and 49 (Online Education, 2013). The vast majority of adolescents, 97%, report that theyplay video games (Lenhart et al., 2008). Action and strategy genres are most popular, and more than half of games sold receivea rating of "Everyone" or "Everyone +10," meaning the game content in generally suitable for ages 10 and up (EntertainmentSoftware Association, 2012). Does the playing of such games allow for the release of aggressive feelings? Or does playing videogames with violent content teach violence? The debate concerning the effect of violent media is ongoing, with the video gameindustry, parents, children, gamers, and scientists all providing input (Ferguson, 2013; Entertainment Software Association,2012). In this chapter, we will discuss where aggression might originate as well as cues that contribute to our aggressivefeelings and behavior. Beyond the topic of aggression, the source and consequences of general antisocial behavior will bediscussed.
10.1 Aggression
While sitting in a public place like a park, you are likely to observe a variety of behaviors in the people around you. Two children by thesandbox are wrestling with one another. The man and woman are yelling at one another and the woman begins to cry. Are thesebehaviors aggression? Aggression is intentionally harming someone who is motivated to avoid that harm (Baron & Richardson, 1994;Berkowitz, 1993). In order to be labeled as aggression the behavior needs to be intentional. The result does not matter as much as theintent. If you were swinging your arm around with no intention of hitting someone and accidentally did, your behavior may be carelessbut it is not aggressive. Both the children and the couple at the park appear to satisfy this requirement: their actions have intention. Tobe labeled as aggression, the behavior must have the intent of harm, and the harm may be relational, such as an insult, or physical, suchas a punch. Harm can also differ in whether it is direct, like an insult or a punch, or covert, like gossip or adding poison to someone'sdrink. Also, the person toward whom the behavior is aimed must be motivated to avoid the harm. A visit to the oral surgeon, for example,may result in pain; however, the oral surgeon was not acting aggressively when she took out your wisdom teeth because you willinglysubmitted to the surgery.
At times we engage in an aggressive act that is a means to an end, not an end in itself. A bomber pilot who drops a bomb on a terroristtraining camp intends to harm individuals there, but the pilot's final goal is to stop terrorist attacks, not cause harm to those particularindividuals. Boxers throw punches to win a boxing match, not because of a desire to cause lasting harm to their opponents. A gamershoots a villain to gain points or get to the next level in the game. When aggression is a means to an end, we call it instrumentalaggression (Baron & Richardson, 1994; Feshbach, 1964). If one member of the couple in the park was saying hurtful things to bringabout a breakup, that would be instrumental aggression. In contrast, there are times when the goal of the aggressive behavior is to causeharm. A fifth grader who spreads a rumor about an enemy may have hurting that enemy as an ultimate goal. This type of aggression iscalled hostile aggression (Baron & Richardson, 1994). Physical aggression that has the potential of severely harming someone is violence (Felson, 2002; Krug, Dahlberg, Mercy, Zwi, & Lozano, 2002). A gunshot to the chest is violence, while a slap on the cheek isbetter described as aggressive behavior.
Test Yourself
Which of the following qualify as aggression, according to the psychological definition of aggression? Why? Click on eachstatement below to reveal the answer.
· While stretching his leg into the aisle to get rid of a leg cramp, Mark accidentally trips someone coming down the aisle.
· Hoping to dislodge a bit of food caught in her friend's throat, Lindsey hits her hard on the back.
Origins of Aggression
DeAgostini/SuperStock
Evidence of aggression has been found in early human graves.
Where does aggression originate? Aggressive behavior is manifested in avariety of human cultures, and archaeologists and anthropologists havefound evidence of aggression in the discovery of weapons in humanburials and in marks on bones caused by aggressive behavior (Buss &Shackelford, 1997). Aggression is something that is innate to our person.Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that all people were endowed withaggressive energy, called Thanatos; and he argued that cultures wereneeded to control this aggressive drive. Today, evolutionary psychologistssuggest that humans developed a tendency toward aggression becauseaggression provides an evolutionary benefit; inflicting harm on a rival isone way of gaining territory or mates, thus making it advantageous to usesome degree of aggression in human relationships (Buss & Shackelford,1997).
Although most cultures exhibit some degree of aggression, widevariations between cultures suggest that aggression is, to some extent,influenced by the social environment (Bond, 2004; Munroe, Hulefeld,Rodgers, Tomeo, & Yamazaki, 2000). For example, rates of aggressionagainst partners tend to differ depending on the level of gender equalityand individualism in a culture. In cultures with greater gender equalityand more individualism, violence toward women is lower, althoughvictimization of men tends to be higher in these cultures (Archer, 2006).Greater aggression is often found in countries with fewer resources,unequal income distribution, and nondemocratic governing systems, aswell as those countries that have recently been at war (Bond, 2004). Theform aggression takes and the effects it has can also differ depending onculture. In Japan, for example, relational aggression by peers is particularly damaging to children, not surprising given the interdependentculture focus on relationships (Kawabata, Crick, & Hamaguchi, 2010). Overall, aggression is an inborn tendency that appears in mostcultures and is either increased or decreased by the norms of that culture.
Just as aggression rates among cultures vary, so do rates among individuals. Differences in rates of aggression between individuals aredue to a combination of inborn or innate qualities (nature), and the environment (nurture). Some degree of this variation in rates ofaggression between people can be traced to genetic differences. For example, the greater the genetic similarity between individuals in afamily, the more they resemble one another in domestic violence (also known as intimate partner violence). Identical twins, who sharethe same genes, are more similar to one another in rates of aggression than fraternal twins, who share only half of their genes (Hines &Saudino, 2009). But differences between twins with the same genes still exist, suggesting that, in the end, it is neither just genes nor justthe environment that influence aggression. Individuals whose genes predispose them toward aggression may become more aggressive inan environment that encourages aggression or not show this predisposition in an environment that does not encourage aggression. Forexample, in one study of adoptees, only 10.5% of the adoptees whose biological and adoptive fathers did not commit a crime, committeda crime. These individuals had neither the genetic predisposition toward crime nor the environment to support criminal actions. Thosewhose environment but not biology included criminality—those whose adoptive father but not biological father committed a crime—didnot show much more criminal behavior than the previous group; only 11.5% committed a crime. When the biological father, but not theadoptive father, committed a crime, 22% of the adoptees committed a crime themselves. Finally, of those individuals whose biologicalfather and adoptive father committed a crime, 36.2% committed a crime (Hutchings & Mednick, 1977). Studies like this one determinethat biology is an important factor in aggression. Individuals with inborn tendencies toward aggression are likely to be more aggressivethan those who do not have such inborn tendencies. But the environment also contributes to expression of aggression, building on thosegenetic predispositions.
Research Challenges
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The difficulty of social psychology research.
Critical Thinking Questions
· What are some of the challenges in determiningthe causes of aggression?
· What balance is hard to achieve when conductingresearch?
While humans are influenced by their genes, aggression is also a learnedbehavior. One of the earliest studies on the modeling of aggression involvedchildren who were 3 to 5 years old. The children were divided into a number ofgroups and each group observed different things. Some children watched as anadult across the room beat up a 5-foot-tall inflatable doll with a weight in thebottom, called a Bobo doll. Other children watched as the same adult did thesame actions on film. In one other condition, the children saw a cartoon catdoing the same actions the adult did. After frustrating the children by notallowing them to play with attractive toys, the researchers put the children in aroom with a variety toys, including a 3-foot-tall Bobo doll. No matter how thechildren saw the aggression toward the Bobo doll—real life, film, or cartoon—they showed more aggressive behavior toward the doll and more totalaggression than children who did not see any aggressive behavior (Bandura,Ross, & Ross, 1963). Bandura proposed that people learn how to behave byobserving others, a theory called social learning theory (Bandura, 1977).
Social learning theory helps us understand how experience with aggression inthe home might influence aggression in other places. Children who come fromhomes where there is more aggression tend to show more aggression outside ofthe home (Garcia, Restubog, & Denson, 2010). Although findings are mixed,generally, young adults who observe their same sex parent perpetrate domesticviolence are more likely to be aggressive toward their own partners as well asaggressive toward friends (Jankowski, Leitenberg, Henning, & Coffey, 1999;Moretti, Obsuth, Odgers, & Reebye, 2006). Employees who observe others acting aggressively in the workplace and are targets ofaggression are more likely to behave aggressively (Glomb & Liao, 2003; Mitchell & Ambrose, 2012). This modeling is stronger for physicalaggression than for verbal aggression (Kitzmann, Gaylord, Holt, & Kenny, 2003).
Gender and Age Differences in Aggression
As you sit in a park, you hear a fight happening behind you. When you turn around, who do you think would be most likely to be theperpetrator? A man or woman? A boy or girl? How old would you expect that person to be? When we look into differences in aggression,we find that across cultures, men and boys show more physical aggression than women and girls (Lansford et al., 2012). This does notmean that women are never physically aggressive; they simply show less of this type of aggression than men. Some studies show thatwomen are more relationally aggressive than men, though many studies show no difference (Bettencourt & Miller, 1996; Card, Stucky,Sawalani, & Little, 2008; Eagly & Steffen, 1986; Landsford et al., 2012; Ostrov, 2006; Scheithauer, Haag, Mahlke, & Ittel, 2008). Some of thegender differences in aggression may come from gender roles. Women are expected to be less physically aggressive than men, so theymay show less physical aggression in order to be in line with the expectations for their gender. Such an idea is supported by the findingthat when individuals are angered or aggression is instigated, essentially no differences in aggression are found between men and women(Bettencourt & Kernahan, 1997). Given the right situation, women can be as aggressive as men.
The most physically aggressive age group is, surprisingly, toddlers. Children begin to use physical aggression in their second year, and thisaggression decreases as they learn that hitting, kicking, and biting are not socially acceptable behaviors. Because the hit of a 2-year-old isgenerally not going to do much damage, we usually do not think about the frequency of physically aggressive behaviors in this age group(Tremblay, 2000). Overall, physical aggression tends to decrease through adolescence, though there is a great deal of variability amongstindividuals (Underwood, Beron, & Rosen, 2009). For at least a subset of individuals, aggression increases in adolescence and youngadulthood (Loeber & Farrington, 1998; Loeber & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1998). For some teens it may be the onset of puberty, with itsaccompanying physical and hormonal changes, that triggers aggression (Najman et al., 2009). Some individuals that become physicallyaggressive in adolescence or adulthood showed other types of antisocial behavior in childhood or an unstable personality and it was onlyin adolescence or adulthood that the behaviors became aggressive (Loeber & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1998; Pulkkinen, Lyyra, Kokko, 2009).
Hemera/Thinkstock
Toddlers are the most physically aggressive group.
Relational aggression shows a different developmental trajectory. Relational aggression is aggression focused on the destruction ofrelationships or social status through direct actions, reputation attacks, orexclusion (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). When a person spreads a rumordesigned to damage someone's reputation, excludes someone from asocial group, threatens to end a relationship, or tells others they cannotjoin one's group unless they do a favor for a group member, thatindividual is engaging in relational aggression. Original research on theconcept included direct, rather than covert, acts, but much of thesubsequent researchers have focused primarily on the nondirect types ofaggression, such as spreading rumors or exclusion (Crick & Grotpeter,1995; Geiger, Zimmer-Gembeck, & Crick, 2004; Tomada & Schneider,1997). Relational aggression largely begins in the preschool years, andrises through childhood. Children learn how to use techniques likeostracism and gossip to harm others and get what they want. Relationalaggression is common across cultures (Lansford et al., 2012; Tomada & Schneider, 1997).
High aggression in childhood and adolescence can have negative long-term effects, including increased risk of alcohol and drug abuse,divorce, unemployment, and mental illness (Farrington, 1991; Loeber, Farrington, Stouthamer-Loeber, Moffitt, & Caspi, 1998; McCord,1983; McCord & McCord, 1960; West & Farrington, 1977). Onset of aggression in childhood that continues through adolescence is themost damaging to a successful transition to adulthood, although increased aggression beginning in adolescence is also problematic (Xie,Drabick, & Chen, 2011). The negative long-term effects of aggression are not limited to physical aggression. Both physical aggression andrelational aggression have negative effects on children's adjustment (Crick, 1996)
Social Psychology in Depth: Mean Girls
The 2004 film Mean Girls follows one teenage girl as she is plunged into an American high school and mentored intomeanness by a group of girls called the plastics (Michaels, Shimkin, & Waters, 2004). When conflict erupts because of aromantic entanglement, the girls engage in a variety of activities to discredit and harm one another. Do high school girls usethe tactics shown in this movie to make friends or manipulate situations?
Research on aggression focused for a long time on the types of physical aggression that leave physical traces. Relationalaggression, aggression that is focused on the destruction of relationships or social status, has become a more importanttopic in the last couple of decades (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). When gender gaps in relational aggression are found, they areoften largest in high school and are not seen in some populations (Crick & Werner, 1998; Kistner et al., 2010; Lansford etal., 2012; Smith, Rose, & Schwartz-Mette, 2010; Spieker et al., 2012). Researchers find that girls report being both victimsand perpetrators of relational aggression at least once within a year (Reynolds & Repetti, 2010). Nearly 20% of girls aredescribed as aggressive, although all girls, not just this 20%, may use relational aggression at some point (Crick & Grotpeter,1995).
The most commonly used and experienced types of relational aggression are gossip and intentionally ignoring someone,known as giving them the "silent treatment." The silent treatment is most often motivated by revenge. Spreading rumorsabout or excluding someone may also be used as a tactic for revenge, although these tactics are also described as ways tobecome closer to one's friends or to have some fun (Reynolds & Repetti, 2010).
Victims and aggressors report feeling sad, confused, and hurt at the time of the aggression. Aggressors also feel guilty, whilevictims feel angry and betrayed. Guilt is felt by victims when they perceive the aggression as revenge, and victims feelguiltier when they are receiving the silent treatment than when they are the victim of rumors or exclusion (Reynolds &Repetti, 2010). Those most hurt by the aggression are most likely to cope by becoming passive and using avoidantstrategies (Remillard & Lamb, 2005). Over the long term, relational aggression can lead to peer rejection and mental healthproblems (Crick, 1996; Tomada & Schneider, 1997; Werner & Crick, 1999). Relational aggression has been identified as afactor leading to depression, borderline personality disorder, and bulimia (Ellis, Crooks, & Wolfe, 2009; Spieker et al., 2012;Werner & Crick, 1999).
Relational aggression is often used as a weapon, with the most common reason for engaging in relational aggression beingrevenge. A perpetrator might use relational aggression as revenge for some behavior the perpetrator did not like. The nextmost common reason for relational aggression is to get closer to one's friends by aggressing against someone whom thosefriends do not like. Victims correctly perceive these reasons and believe they are being punished for something they did tothe perpetrator (Reynolds & Repetti, 2010). Fictional though Mean Girls may be, research shows that the tactics used in themovie are not at all fiction.
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· Does aggression differ from culture to culture?
· Do men and women ever show the same rates of physical aggression?
10.2 Aggression Cues
A variety of factors may lead to aggression or make aggression in a particular circumstance more likely. People or circumstances thatfrustrate us can make us feel more aggressive. Media can teach us aggression. Weapons may provide cues for responding to a situationwith aggression. Alcohol and uncomfortable environments, along with a triggering event, may lead us to respond with aggression.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
If you have been delayed in a bus station or an airport, you know what frustration feels like. Early on in the study of aggression, a linkwas made between frustration and aggression. Originally, aggression researchers made the statement that "the occurrence of aggressionalways presupposes the existence of frustration and, contrariwise, that the existence of frustration always leads to some form ofaggression" (Dollard, Miller, Doob, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939, p. 1). Frustration, in this context, refers to the blocking of behavior that wouldhave moved the person toward a particular goal. For example, if you want to get to Atlanta but the plane is having mechanical problems,you are blocked from your goal. The authors quickly realized that the use of terms like always would get them into trouble (Miller, Sears,Mowrer, Doob, & Dollard, 1941). While some people might respond to frustration with aggressive behavior, a frustrated person does notalways do so. That person might respond with a variety of other behaviors. A frustrated 3-year-old might hit his mother in response tohis frustration, but could also cry, go into another room, or start to whine.
Frustration with another person is more likely to lead to aggression than frustration from an outside cause. Feelings of being attacked,rather than frustration, are more likely to lead to aggression (Tedeschi & Felson, 1994). If the bus you were waiting for passed you by,you would be frustrated. If this seemed a deliberate attack from a bus driver that did not like you, you might respond with aggression. If,however, the bus had a sign on it that said it was headed to the garage for a repair you would be less likely to respond with aggression(Pastore, 1952).
Media
Another possible source of aggression is the media. Children's television programs often contain displays of violence. On average, thereare 14 acts of violence per hour in children's programming (Wilson et al., 2002). Does this affect the amount of aggression childrenengage in? Bandura's study, as discussed earlier, showed that children copy what others do. As shown in this study, it does not matter ifthe model is seen on film or in real life, the children copied the adult's actions. Since Bandura's time a large number of studies haveshown that watching violence on television is related to greater physical aggression (Comstock, 2004). Longitudinal studies have shownthat effects of watching violent television content are not just immediate, but long term as well (Krahe, Busching, & Moller, 2012; Ostrov,Gentile, & Crick, 2006) Relational aggression can also be learned through television. Children who watched more television depictions ofrelational aggression were more likely to show relational aggression toward their peers (Martins & Wilson, 2012). Through social learningtelevision viewing can increase both physical aggression and relational aggression (Ostrov, Gentile, & Crick, 2006).
Stefan/Kiefer/imageb/imagebroker.net/SuperStock
Violent video games increase aggressive behavior, aggressivethoughts, and aggressive feelings in both the short and long term.
Another potential source of aggressive models is video games. Studiesshow that aggressive behavior, thoughts, and feelings are increased overthe short term and long term through the playing of violent video games(Anderson et al., 2008; Williams, 2009). Meta-analyses show thatexposure to violent video games increases aggressive behavior, aggressivethoughts, and aggressive feelings (Anderson et al., 2010). This effect wasshown in longitudinal studies as well as correlational studies, providingevidence that exposure to violence at an earlier time will result in moreviolence at a later time (Anderson et al, 2010; Moller & Krahe, 2009;Willoughby, Adachi, & Good, 2012). Violent video games, therefore, have apotential long-term impact on aggression.
Video game play leaves players with less empathy for others and higherdesensitization to violence and other disturbing materials, though thiseffect may be different for individuals who play often versus those whodo not (Glock & Kneer, 2009; Staude-Muller, Bliesener, & Luthman, 2008).For example, participants who played a first-person shooter game with alot of violence showed desensitization to unpleasant cues; in this study,these cues were pictures of seriously injured people or threateningsituations. Participants were also more reactive to aggressive cues,showing more aggression when later exposed to such cues (Staude-Mulleret al., 2008). The findings of this study suggest that violent video gameswill make future aggression more likely and reduce a person's emotionalreaction to the negative results of that aggression. The connection between violence in video games and aggressive behavior, thoughts,and feelings has been seen in Western cultures, like the United States, and in Eastern cultures, like Japan or China (Anderson et al., 2008;Anderson et al., 2010).
Weapons
The second amendment to the U.S. Constitution safeguards the right of U.S. citizens to keep and bear arms. Depending on which surveyyou consult, between 34% and 43% of Americans take advantage of their second amendment right by owning a gun (Jones, 2013;Tavernise & Gebeloff, 2013). While about 43% of Americans are satisfied with the gun laws as they currently stand nearly the samepercentage (38%) are dissatisfied and want more restrictive gun laws (Saad, 2013). Debates on gun control laws often arise followingcrimes involving firearms, such as the Sandy Hook school shooting of 2012. Firearms were a factor in 68% of the homicides in the UnitedStates in 2010 (Centers for Disease Control, 2010).
Although people might use firearms to harm others, do the weapons themselves have any impact on how people behave? When researchparticipants were in the presence of a revolver rather than a badminton racket, they acted more aggressively toward another (fictitious)participant, giving more electrical shocks to the other participant (Berkowitz & LePage, 1967; Frodi, 1975). Weapons seem to cueindividuals toward more aggressive responses or escalation of conflicts (Phillips & Maume, 2007). Increase in aggression in the presenceof weapons is called the weapons priming effect, or the "weapons effect." Familiarity with weapons can affect how this manifests.Individuals with prior experience with guns, such as hunters, do not show an increase in aggressive thoughts when shown pictures ofhunting guns, although those without prior experience with guns, nonhunters, do show an increase. This effect of familiarity is quitespecific. When hunters are shown assault rifles, they do show an increase in aggressive thoughts (Bartholow, Anderson, Carnagey, &Benjamin, 2005). Overall it seems that when a weapon is present, people are primed to think aggressively and act more aggressivelytoward others.
Alcohol
Alcohol and aggression have also been linked. When people are intoxicated they may find themselves less able to think about long-termconsequences and less able to curb impulses. In the face of provocation, this can lead to greater aggression (Giancola, 2000; Parrott,Gallagher, & Zeichner, 2012). An insult that might have been ignored when someone was sober may result in a swinging fist when theinsulted person has had a few drinks (Denson et al., 2008). This is supported by research that shows those who generally have lowerexecutive functioning, which includes self-control and monitoring of one's behavior, are the most likely to aggress when intoxicated(Giancola, Godlaski, & Roth, 2012). These individuals are not very good at controlling their actions when sober, so a lowering ofinhibitions with alcohol leads to more aggression when provoked.
Alcohol may also affect aggression simply because it is expected to affect aggression. When research participants were given a substancethat tasted and looked like alcohol but did not have any intoxicating qualities, they showed just as much aggression as when they weregiven actual alcohol (Rohsenow & Bachorowski, 1984). Recent research has suggested that one does not even need to consume thealcohol to show increased aggression. As with the presence of weapons, simply being in the presence of alcohol or alcohol-related images(alcohol advertisements) is associated with increased aggression (Bartholow & Heinz, 2006; Subra, Muller, Begue, Bushman, & Delmas,2010), supporting the notion that alcohol-related images may trigger automatic associations with aggression. The tendency to expectalcohol to make one more aggressive is stronger in those who are dispositionally aggressive and drink heavily (Barnwell, Borders, &Earleywine, 2006; McMurran, 2009).
Environmental Factors
Generally, there are certain environmental factors that make people uncomfortable or stressed and are associated with aggression. If thewaiting area at the train station were crowded, do you think you would feel more aggression? Research suggests that you would. In astudy of nightclubs, researchers reported more acts of aggression when nightclubs were more crowded than when they were lesscrowded, or in locations where they were more crowded, like dance floors (Graham, Bernards, Osgood, & Wells, 2012; Macintyre &Homel, 1997). Although part of the reason for increased aggression may be frustration in not being able to get where one wants to go ornot being able to interact effectively, factors like feeling crowded, uncomfortable, and stressed in such an environment could increasefeelings of aggression. Bars that were unpleasant in other ways, such as smoky and unclean, also elicited more aggressive behavior intheir patrons (Graham, Bernards, Osgood, & Wells, 2006). Noise, particularly noise one cannot control, is connected to higher aggressionas well (Donnerstein & Wilson, 1976).
Figure 10.1: Anderson's study of temperature and aggression
Anderson (1989) found that aggressive behavior increases in hotter months of the year.
From Anderson, C. A. (1989). Temperature and aggression: Ubiquitous effects of heat on occurrence of human violence. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 74–96. doi: 10.1027/0033-29010.106.1.74. Copyright ©1989 by the American Psychological Association.
Discomfort in the form of heat is also related to aggression. Generally, greater heat is related to more aggression (Baron & Lawton, 1972).Uprisings, as well as assaults, murders, and rapes, are more likely in hot summer months than in cooler times of the year (Anderson,1989; see Figure 10.1). One surprising finding about this connection involves baseball. Researchers counted the number of batters hit bya pitch per game for three years of major league baseball games as well as how hot it was while those games were being played. Thenumber of batters hit when the temperature was 79°F or below was quite low. When the temperature was 80°–89° the number of battershit rose some, with a dramatic rise in hits with temperatures 90° and higher (Reifman, Larrick, & Fein, 1991). The researchers controlledfor confounding variables and other errors did not increase with the temperature, just the aggressive behavior of hitting a batter.
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· Does frustration always cause aggression?
10.3 Catharsis and Aggression
Cultura Limited/SuperStock
A person might displace aggression on inanimate objects whenaggression toward the actual source of anger is unacceptable.
Have you ever been told to vent your anger? Do you believe thatexpressing aggression toward the object of your aggression or some otherobject will reduce your aggressive urge? If so, you believe in catharsis. Catharsis refers to the idea that we can purge our emotions through aform of release. In the context of aggression, catharsis would involveengaging in aggressive actions to reduce aggressive feelings. SigmundFreud believed that verbally venting one's aggressive urges would reduceaggression. He proposed that without the release of emotions, the energyfor these emotions would build up inside and cause physical orpsychological problems (Breuer & Freud, 1893–1895/1955). Peopleengage in cathartic activities because they believe such activities willimprove their mood or reduce the likelihood that they will expressaggression in the future (Bushman, Baumeister, & Phillips, 2001).
The problem with catharsis when it comes to aggression is that it doesnot work. In study after study, researchers found that engaging inaggression did not reduce feelings of aggression, or likelihood of actingaggressively in the future (Berkowitz, 1964; Bushman, 2002; Geen &Quanty, 1977; Mallick & McCandless, 1966). In some cases, acting out increased aggression rather than decreasing aggression. Believingcatharsis works to subdue anger or aggression does not make it more successful. Research participants who read a message convincingthem that catharsis was helpful in reducing aggression were not less aggressive after punching a punching bag; in fact, they showed moreaggression (Bushman, Baumeister, & Stack, 1999). Acting out, particularly if you are ruminating on the object of that aggression while youare acting out, seems to serve as practice for more aggression.
Expand Your Knowledge: PsychologicalResearchers on Catharsis
Psychologists who research anger and aggression oftencome up against the cultural belief in catharsis for thataggression. For several short blog posts featuringpsychologists on the topic of catharsis and aggression,click here .
In acting out aggression, people may direct anger to a punching bag,some other inanimate object, or a person other than the real target.This targeting of aggression toward some other person or entity is displaced aggression (Marcus-Newhall, Pedersen, Carlson, & Miller,2000). If you threw a pencil at the wall rather than hitting your bosswhen the boss made you angry, you would be displacing youraggression. We displace aggression for a variety of reasons. We mightdisplace aggression if the object of our anger is unavailable. When thebus drives away without you, the garbage can is the only thing left foryou to yell at and kick. Other times, we displace aggression because itwould not be acceptable or advantageous to act aggressively towardthe true focus. If your boss made you angry, you may not express it toward your boss for fear of losing your job (Mitchell & Ambrose,2012).
If you have ever been unreasonably aggressive toward a person who did something minor to annoy you, you may have experienced a typeof displaced aggression called triggered displaced aggression (Pedersen, Gonzales, & Miller, 2000). With triggered displaced aggression,the person you are upset with has done something to bother you but your reaction to this minor event is really due to a larger event thathappened earlier. Here, your aggression is triggered by some minor incident and displaced upon the cause of that minor event. In linewith research on catharsis theory, when we ruminate on the cause of our aggression we tend to show more displaced aggression whenwe are triggered (Bushman, Bonacci, Pedersen, Vasquez, & Miller, 2005). For example, if your boss made you angry earlier in the day andyou thought about it all day, and then your friend was a few minutes late when you met for drinks later in the day, you might blow up atyour friend. Brooding over your boss' behavior meant you engaged in a great deal of aggression, which your friend triggered by hislateness. Individuals who engage in triggered displaced aggression are primed to interpret provocations, even mild ones, in an aggressiveway, particularly if the triggers are part of the outgroup and are dissimilar or disliked by the person (Pedersen, 2006; Pedersen, Bushman,Vasquez, & Miller, 2008; Pedersen et al., 2000).
What should you do if you are feeling aggressive? If you want to lower your aggression, doing nothing is a better idea than venting youranger. Doing something opposite of your aggressive urges may be even more helpful. Send someone a text expressing your appreciation for him or her, pet the cat, or look at a picture of your family (presuming that it's not your family you're mad at). Playing prosocial videogames will also reduce aggressive thinking and feelings (Greitemeyer, Agthe, Turner & Gschwendtner, 2012).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· Does catharsis work to reduce aggression?
· How is triggered displaced aggression different from displaced aggression?
10.4 Other Antisocial Behavior
Aggression is one type of antisocial behavior. Antisocial behavior also includes behavior that goes against injunctive norms, deviantbehavior like stealing, using illegal drugs, and vandalism. Although aggression does fit within the realm of antisocial behavior, it tends todevelop at a different pace than the rule-breaking type of antisocial behavior, such as stealing. As noted, aggression tends to peak in earlychildhood, while rule-breaking types of antisocial behavior tend to increase until adolescence (Moffitt, 1993; Stanger, Achenbach, &Verhulst, 1997). A decrease in the rule-breaking type of antisocial behavior occurs in young adulthood, although, some still engage in suchbehavior and the effects of antisocial behavior earlier in life remain.
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A variety of life circumstances increase the likelihood of antisocialbehavior. The environment in which children are raised can have atremendous influence on the manifestation of antisocial behavior. Forexample, children whose childhood is marked with maltreatment orharsh or inconsistent discipline are also at greater risk for laterengagement in antisocial behavior (Gershoff, 2002; Jaffee, Strait, &Odgers, 2012). Some of the connection between harsh discipline andantisocial behavior can be explained by parents who respond in aparticularly harsh way to children whose behavior is difficult to dealwith. However, such discipline seems to have an effect on antisocialbehavior above and beyond any influence of a child's temperament (Jaffee et al., 2004). A breakup of the family is also related to higherlevels of antisocial behavior at that time and later in life (Christoffersen, Francis, & Soothill, 2003; Peris & Emery, 2004). Individualswhose parents experience mental illness, particularly depression, anxiety disorders, or alcohol addiction are also more prone to antisocialbehavior (Herwig, Wirtz, & Bengel, 2004). These difficult early experiences may prevent children from learning positive copingmechanisms, and may provide them with aggressive models for dealing with circumstances they encounter.
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Antisocial behaviors include stealing, drug use, and vandalism.
Children and adolescents who fall in with the wrong crowd are at greaterrisk for deviant behavior. Yet this works both ways; youth who areengaging in more antisocial behavior tend to make friends with otheryouth who are also engaging in such behavior (Elliot & Menard, 1996;Kendler, Jacobson, Myers, & Eaves, 2008). A teenager who occasionallyshoplifts may become friends with another teen who does the same thing.Together they may talk about stealing and encourage one another to stealmore often and more expensive items from stores (Patterson, Dishion, &Yoerger, 2000). Often times, deviant teens are drawn to other deviantteens, leading to even greater antisocial behavior in all involved.
Intelligence and personality also contribute to antisocial behavior. Teenswith lower IQ test scores are more likely to commit criminal acts thanthose with higher IQ test scores (Möttus, Guljajev, Allik, Laidra, &Pullmann, 2012). Boys who are low in the personality characteristics ofagreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability were also morelikely to engage in deviant behavior (Möttus et al., 2012). A study of twinsin Sweden showed that a great deal of the variance between people inantisocial behavior can be explained by genetic influences (Tuvblad, Narusyte, Grann, Sarnecki, & Lichtenstein, 2011). In this study, theidentical twins were more similar in their aggressive antisocial behavior than the fraternal twins. Given the large contribution of genes onintelligence and personality, much of this genetic influence may be coming through intelligence and personality factors.
Antisocial behavior in adolescence has consequences later in life and may be a risk factor for antisocial behavior in adulthood (Bor,McGee, Hayatbakhsh, Dean, & Najman, 2010; Brook, Zhang, & Brook, 2011). Those who engage in antisocial behavior as adolescents are athigher risk for depression and show more symptoms of anxiety (Bor et al., 2010; Reef, Diamantopoulou, van Meurs, Verhulst, & van derEnde, 2009). Aggression also increases substance abuse risk. Those who were aggressive early in life show greater use of cannabis andalcohol (Bergman & Andershed, 2009; Bor et al., 2010). Antisocial behavior early in life also relates to more health problems later in life(Bor et al., 2010). Overall, antisocial behavior has negative effects, both in the present and later in life.
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· What factors are related to greater antisocial behavior?
Conclusion
Aggression is a behavior with a variety of causes. Aggression comes from within the person and is affected by external forces. A singlefactor may not determine whether someone is aggressive, but several factors together may lead to harm. Antisocial behavior, whichincludes aggression as well as other deviant behavior, also has a variety of causes.