HRMN 406: Training Implimentation and Evaluatiion

Chapter 9

Training Themes

It’s all about the story everyone!

Chapter Nine Learning Objectives

Readers will achieve the following learning objectives after reading Chapter Nine.

1 Define and describe knowledge-based training programs. 2 Define and describe skills-based training programs. 3 Define and describe personal development training programs. 4 Define and describe performance-based training programs. 5 Identify, describe, and explain with examples the different types of

leadership training programs. 6 Identify, describe and explain with examples the different types of

management training programs. 7 Identify, describe, and explain with examples the different types of

training programs that cover organizational policies. 8 Identify, describe, and explain with examples the different types of

professional development training programs. 9 Identify, describe, and explain with an example a process manage-

ment training program. 10 Identify, describe, and explain with examples training programs for

motivating trainees. 11 Identify and describe a training program for teaching trainees how

to design and implement training programs.

Learning Objective #1: Define and Describe Knowledge- Based Training Programs

Knowledge-based training programs can emphasize such topics as the pres- entation of facts, providing trainees with general information about a topic, introducing trainees to concepts and the application of a concept(s), or

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Book: Stanley C. Ross. (2019). Training and Development in Organizations: An Essential Guide For Trainers. Routledge.

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introducing trainees to a theory or theories underlying a topic (e.g., motiva- tion theories, learning theories, etc.).

A fact-based training program is frequently paired with either general topic information, a concept, or a theoretical focus. Decision-makers and training program designers use facts to support general information, a con- cept, or a theory(ies). For example, if the training topic involves understand- ing the problems associated with the opioid epidemic, the facts reflect the consequences of opioid addiction (e.g., number of deaths, the increase in the rate of deaths, etc.). Information covers the causes of addiction, the source of opioids, the location of the largest numbers of addicts, and the profile of a typical addict, along with common treatment programs.

Concept-oriented training programs are training programs that seek to explain or define some idea. For example, if the training subject is self-lead- ership development, the designers want trainees to understand the meaning of the term, the term’s application, and the relevance of self-leadership for trainees. Examples suffice to facilitate trainee understanding of the concept. A concept-oriented training program is often associated with a theory or theories which provide trainees with an understanding of the meaningfulness of the concept(s).

A theoretical training program covers a theory or a select group of related theories which explain the roots of a subject. For example, a training program can identify and describe several examples of motivation theories to a group of mid-level managers to enable these managers to understand the different perspectives on the factors that can motivate people. Training often includes application exercises so trainees learn how to apply one or more motivation theories in a work setting.

A knowledge-based training program aims to stimulate three trainee per- sonal attributes to engage the trainee in learning. Through the use of one or more communication methods, such as lecturing, handouts, video, and PowerPoint, the trainer’s objective is to engage a trainee’s cognitive sense- making process, perceptual abilities, and reasoning or logical analysis capabili- ties, with the goal of motivating the trainee to want to learn the subject of the training program.

There are three sources of types of knowledge. One or more sources can be included in a training program. The first type is knowledge derived from experience, if decision-makers consider the circumstances sufficient that trainees will benefit from learning through experience-derived knowledge. Because of the origin of this type of knowledge, it comes with certain limi- tations because the experiences associated with this knowledge are new and lack a context through which to best understand the knowledge; or else the knowledge is not supported by scientifically derived research-based evidence. Second, there is knowledge derived from empirical research studies that result in substantiated knowledge which it is beneficial for trainees to learn. Finally, there is intuitively derived knowledge that was originally based on experience

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but which lacks empirically-based scientific research and hence has no empir- ical support. This type of knowledge is speculative but it does offer trainees a logical underpinning associated with the knowledge. For example, people can have opinions about a subject that is not fully supported through scien- tific research, but that experience nonetheless offers individuals enough cred- ible information to have an opinion to offer trainees.

Learning Objective #2: Define and Describe Skills-Based Training Programs

A skills-based training program can emphasize three categories of skills. First, there are expertise-based training programs where the emphasis of the train- ing is to build on the existing skills of the trainees. For example, trainees skilled in engine repair work can further their skills for working on more sophisticated engines by learning to perform more sophisticated work on the engines they are already skilled in working on.

Another category of skills-based training programs are programs that focus on the development of talented individuals who have a natural ability and are interested in developing a particular skill or set of skills. The organization recognizes these talents and places the individuals in a training program to develop their skills with the long-term goal of making the trainees experts.

The third category of skills development is general skills development; building on an existing skills base. The organization does not intend to expand a trainee’s existing expertise. The organization’s intent is to create a basic skills set that will enable trainees to improve their job performance but with no intention of broadening the trainee’s overall skills set. This is like working on the same type of engine but being more proficient at doing similar work.

Like knowledge-based training programs, a successful skills-based training program needs to leverage the trainee’s cognitive processes or thinking capa- bilities, perceptual abilities, and logic or reasoning abilities, along with the trainee’s pragmatic values. Pragmatism emphasizes practical applications, and skills-based training is all about how to use a skill in a work setting.

There are six major types of skills that encompass all forms of skills-based training. The first of these are job-related skills. Job-related skills are skills that enable the trainee to perform their job more effectively. Examples of job- related skills include making something, assembly-type work, repair work, budgeting process presentation skills, problem-solving process skills, sales- manship, skills in customer relations, team development skills, and supervi- sory skills. These are representative examples of job-related skills.

Next there are professional development skills. Professional development skills refer to personal ability skills that enable trainees to function more effec- tively in performing their job. Examples of professional development skills include time management, rational decision-making, problem identification, and social skills.

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124 Training Themes

Another type of skills-based training is training that emphasizes hard skills. Hard skills are task-specific and emphasize a quantifiable output generated by the trainee. A call center with call receptionists is an example. The work of call center receptionists is measurable in terms of the average time per call, number of calls handled per hour, number of calls handled per week, etc. The baseline for each call center receptionist is an average among all call center receptionists. The use of baselines to focus training on improving the output of each receptionist results in improving the performance of the call center as a whole.

Communication skills represent another type of skill. Treating commu- nication skills as a separate type of skill depends on the importance of com- munication in the performance of a trainee’s job. Communication skills are important if verbal communication or any form of written communication with customers, peers, supervisors, and/or subordinates are essential to the performance of a trainee’s job.

People skills represent a fifth type of skill that a training program can focus on. People skills refer to the skills that enable trainees to work with oth- ers in performing their job responsibilities. People skills are a separate skill, emphasizing the importance and need to work with others at work. People skills training programs emphasize developing work-related skills intended to improve the individual’s ability to perform their job more effectively. Trainees focus on their ability to get along with others in a cooperative, goal- oriented approach leading to improved job performance.

Soft skills are the sixth type of skills-oriented training. The use of soft skills generates non-quantifiable outputs but they are essential in improving the individual’s work performance. Soft skills cover self-motivation methods, self-organization practices, time management practices, communication tech- niques, and the methods individuals use to aid them in making decisions. These examples are only representative of all soft skills and soft-skill training subjects.

Learning Objective #3: Define and Describe Personal Development Training Programs

Personal development training programs focus on developing an individual’s personal abilities. Personal abilities represent an individual’s personal skills and the personal attributes that define an individual. Personal development train- ing is frequently non-job specific. However, training that leads to individual self-improvement often benefits the organization that employs the individual.

Personal development training or self-improvement training commonly focuses on a theme. Examples of themes include:

• Improving the individual’s communication skills • Soft skills development • Time management skills

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• Organizational skills such as managing projects • Self-leadership skills • Problem-solving skills • Decision-making skills

Developing these abilities offers the individual the benefit of improved job performance along with improved career prospects. This is because most improvements to an individual’s personal abilities also benefit the individual’s employer. Organizations therefore provide self-development training pro- grams because of the mutual benefits.

Self-development training programs increase the individual’s potential for successfully improving their personal abilities because the training provides a formal structured learning process. A formal training program uses a planned framework to facilitate learning; the formal framework encompasses stages presented sequentially, with learning objectives to achieve, subjects to cover within each stage of the training process, instructional methods to use to guide learning, and assessment methods to evaluate if the trainee has achieved the learning objectives. Phrased as performance types of learning objectives, the learning objectives provide a measurable standard of performance that enables the trainers and trainees to assess progress in achieving the objectives.

Table 9.1 presents a list of possible goals an individual could select with self- improvement as the focus. The goals are general; it is the learning objectives

Table 9.1 Examples of Personal Development Goals

Goals Explanation

Improve self-awareness • Learn about personal abilities to focus on developing Improve self-esteem • Develop feelings of self-worth that lead to a more

satisfying life Develop talents • Improve existing personal talents Develop potential • Identify areas where self-growth is possible Increase employability • Develop skills that employers seek Improve quality of life • Focus on circumstances to change or personal

abilities that can improve life circumstances Achieve dreams • Dreams are often the source of goals Increase self-efficacy • Take steps to assume greater control over own life Improve career choices • Enact self-improvements linked to more desirable

career options Add or improve skills • Focus on skills that strengthen the ability to perform

better Increase self-leadership

abilities • Develop ability to proactively direct own life

Improve stress management • Learn stress avoidance and stress reduction strategies

Improve personal code of conduct

• Lifelong effort to work on personal values that influence behavior

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that provide objective measures and a time frame for achieving each objec- tive. Learning objectives keep the trainers and trainees focused. Achieving the learning objectives results in the individual achieving the personal goal(s). Personal ability-type goals do not need to have a time limit in which to be achieved. These types of goals can be, and often are, life-long goals, where self-improvement is measured incrementally and subjectively, often assessed based on the individual’s attitude, changed behavior, or by their impact on the individual’s life.

Learning Objective #4: Define and Describe Performance-Based Training Programs

A performance-based training program represents a special type of training. Training programs typically emphasize either knowledge acquisition, skills development, skills acquisition, or the development of personal abilities. A performance-based training model focuses on the need for trainees to achieve or surpass a specific performance standard. For example, trainees would need to demonstrate achieving a certain level of knowledge by taking an objec- tive-based assessment test where they are required to achieve a minimum score to demonstrate successful learning. A skills-based objective assessment method might require performing a skills-based task within a time limit; or demonstrating a skill that shows the skill has been learned adequately, such as by repairing an engine and showing that the engine operates according to acceptable specifications that represent a clear performance standard.

The performance-based training program model is always outcome driven. This means that phrasing of the learning objectives needs to include a measurable standard. Here is an example of a knowledge-based perfor- mance learning objective: trainees can identify and describe five motiva- tion theories and achieve a score of 70 or more on a multiple-choice test covering motivation theories. Here is an example of a skills-based perfor- mance learning objective: trainees are able to disassemble and re-assemble a standard lawn mower engine within 45 minutes and the engine starts and operates for ten minutes.

A performance-based training program can be particularly important under certain conditions.

• Training program designers and trainers need to demonstrate the value of the training program to decision-makers to justify the continuance of the program.

• Job requirements demand a level of proficiency demonstrated through achieving the required performance standards.

• Trainees work in areas of the organization that focus on showing a com- mitment to quality management practices, which emphasize continuous and ongoing improvement.

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In a performance-based training program, assessment is a critical component in the training process and the selection of assessment methods is an impor- tant part of the design of the assessment component of the training program. Assessment methods need to be relevant to what needs measuring, and the method(s) needs to generate objective measures of performance.

Learning Objective #5: Identify, Describe, and Explain Using Examples the Different Types of Leadership Programs

There are three categories of leadership training programs. These are: self- leadership training, leadership development training, and advanced training for leaders. Self-leadership training is for individuals interested in becoming leaders but who first need to learn how to lead themselves. Self-leadership represents the stage prior to the actual leadership development stage. All lead- ers need to successfully navigate through the self-leadership stage. Managers typically represent the primary source of individuals identified as potential leaders. A manager can be a potential leader, but not all managers have the potential to become a leader.

Leadership development involves training individuals newly identified as able and interested in becoming leaders. The organization identifies these individuals as persons showing promise in becoming a leader through their actions and from the feedback from others. Training involves providing the basics of leadership in a leadership development training program.

The third category of leader training programs is training for individuals already serving as leaders for whom the organization recognizes the need for advanced leadership training to further the leadership abilities of the individuals. Advanced training includes advanced skills development and more sophisticated knowledge about leadership using advanced instruc- tional methods (e.g., mentoring, coaching, self-study, individual projects, etc.) intended to support advanced learning. Building an individual’s per- sonal abilities is also essential to ensure maximum growth potential as a leader.

Self-leadership training programs emphasize three important themes asso- ciated with self-leadership. Self-leaders are doers, so it is important that most training program activities emphasize getting trainees to act or perform in some way. The second theme is to use SMART-type learning objectives and training goals. SMART learning objectives and training goals provide the focus that influences the “doing” or “performing” that trainees need to do. SMART learning objectives and training goals place time constraints on trainees to prevent procrastination, and they provide other objective meas- ures to keep trainees focused and to assess success. The third theme of self- leadership training is to emphasize putting trainees into situations that provide them with successful experiences. New experiences force trainees to learn

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new ways to succeed, and with success comes increased self-worth which inspires trainees to want to achieve more.

Important subjects to cover in self-leadership training, leadership develop- ment training, and advanced leader training include the following.

• Strategic thinking or the ability to look at the bigger picture and avoid getting caught in details.

• People skills to enable leaders to learn how to successfully work with subordinates who are critical to the success of the leader.

• Motivating others is an essential quality for leaders and so learning all the important ways to motivate people (including self-motivation) is an essential quality a leader needs to possess.

• Knowing the problem-solving process is important because there are always problems that leaders need to confront. The first step in the prob- lem-solving process is critical: identifying the problem and not thinking that the symptom(s) is the problem.

• Team building and team management are often overlooked subjects but they are essential to the success of leaders. Leaders need to know how to select a team, how to manage the team successfully, and how to craft a role with the team.

• Developing effective leadership skills often involves self-reflective exer- cises to aid the leader in understanding the qualities essential to being a successful leader (e.g., communication skills, empathic skills, etc.).

Learning Objective #6: Identify, Describe, and Explain Using Examples the Different Types of Management Training Programs

Management training focuses on providing managers with the knowledge and skills necessary to perform the manager’s work responsibilities effectively. Managers have three major types of work responsibilities:

• Overseeing the functioning of management systems that fall within a manager’s domain.

• Overseeing the implementation of organizational policies that fall within a manager’s domain.

• Ensuring that subordinates perform work processes correctly.

Management training can also offer a variant to the primary purpose of man- agement training:

• When management systems change managers need to learn the changes to supervise subordinates responsible for implementing the modified management systems.

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• Managers need to learn new policies or modifications to existing policies to ensure that the policies are implemented correctly.

• Changes to work processes require that managers understand the func- tioning of the changed work process to ensure that subordinates perform the work process correctly.

To ensure that managers perform their management responsibilities correctly, organizations design management training programs that focus on providing managers with the knowledge and skills needed, so that managers can super- vise subordinates in performing their jobs. A subordinate’s job involves the successful implementation of management systems, organizational policies, and various types of work processes.

Examples of the most important topics relating to the specific knowledge and skills that managers need to learn and perform well include the following.

• People skills: the ability to work with subordinates and peers to ensure cooperation and the successful completion of projects.

• Quality management: strategies and methods that managers can learn to create or re-design work processes and to assist subordinates to perform their job better.

• Communication skills: managers learn how to communicate through written and oral presentations to enhance their subordinates’ under- standing of the work issues they need to know to perform their job effectively.

• Performance management: managers need to be able to successfully pro- vide subordinates with guidance to ensure that subordinates perform their job correctly.

• Policies: managers need to be well-versed in organizational policies that impact subordinates’ job performance.

• Team management: because most projects involve the use of teams, managers need to know the methods for creating teams and overseeing successful team performance.

• Problem-solving skills: subordinates often turn to managers for ideas on solving problems. Managers need to know how to identify a problem from a symptom(s) and the strategy(ies) associated with solving a particu- lar problem.

• Decision-making process: subordinates turn to managers for decisions and managers need to learn how to objectify and rationalize their deci- sion-making process to ensure that effective decisions result.

• Process management: subordinates’ and managers’ jobs involve per- forming various work processes. Managers need to know how to design a work process and the function of a work process as well as strate- gies to improve work processes so as to improve subordinates’ work performance.

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130 Training Themes

• Interviewing: interviewing is one of the important aspects of a manager’s job. Managers conduct a variety of interviews such as hiring, conduct- ing subordinate performance evaluations, supervising team leaders, etc. Managers need to develop interview skills to strengthen their ability to acquire information from subordinates, peers, and superiors and they also need to learn how to provide information to these individuals.

• Safety: ensuring subordinate safety is a critical responsibility of an organi- zation; a safe workplace ensures that employees remain focused on their work responsibilities. One responsibility of a manager is to successfully implement an organization’s policies that provide for the physical and emotional safety of subordinates.

Learning Objective #7: Identify, Describe, and Explain Using Examples the Different Types of Training Programs that Cover Organizational Policies

Policy-focused training programs cover official organizational guidelines that aim to influence employee behavior to conform with what the organization requires and any specific government requirements. There are three major categories of policy-oriented training programs. One type of policy training program is to train employees when the organization creates a new policy that directly impacts all employees or a sub-set of employees. Another type of policy training is when an existing policy is modified and those affected need to be updated on the changes to ensure conformance. The third type of policy training is a re-fresher course or reminder session on an existing policy. An example is the sexual harassment policy that applies in all three scenarios. An organization might not have a sexual harassment policy but creates such a policy after several incidents. The organization might have modified the existing sexual harassment policy to include additional issues associated with sexual harassment. Issues could include male-to-male, female-to-male, or female-to-female contacts that need to be included within the policy. Finally, memories can lapse and so for really important policies, reminder training ses- sions help keep the policy clear to employees.

A policy training program can occur for one of three reasons. The first reason is new laws or updates to existing laws that lead to the creation of a new policy or the modification of an existing organizational policy. This requires an organization to create a training program that focuses on the policy influenced by the (new) law for any special group of employees or for all employees impacted by the law. OSHA (health and safety) require- ments is an example. Second, there are policy training programs mandated by law such as obligatory types of safety programs dictated by OSHA guide- lines. Finally, there are policy training programs initiated by the organization when organizational decision-makers consider training on a policy essential to ensure employee compliance.

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Policy training can focus on policies that cover the functioning of a man- agement system(s) or a work process(es). A management system is designed to perform a particular function. There is a cost control system with sub-systems such as an inventory control system or a supply chain management system. These systems focus employees work efforts. A work process represents a formalized sequence of stages or steps that employees must perform in fulfill- ing their responsibilities. For example, in an inventory control system, there are various work processes that employees working in this area must perform correctly to ensure the organization benefits from a fully functioning inven- tory control system. The goal of policy training is to ensure employee have a basic understanding of the management system and related work processes associated with implementing the system, along with learning how to per- form the work processes to meet work process performance requirements.

Another category of policy training is policy training programs for support systems. Support system policies refers to policies that are not directly associ- ated with providing a product or service but provide guidance to employees on issues that can impact everyone’s job performance. Examples of support systems policies include:

• Safety policies: policies aimed at ensuring the physical and emotional well-being of employees.

• Diversity policies: policies directed at ensuring that employees under- stand the benefits of a diverse workforce.

• Discrimination policies: policies that define discrimination, organiza- tional policy on responding to discriminating practices, and insight into the harm discrimination causes to individuals and the organization.

• Customer relations policies: polices that guide all direct and indirect con- tacts between employees and customers.

• Ethics policies: policies that reflect the important values of the organiza- tion. Knowing the organization’s core values that influence the creation and implementation of a policy is essential for employees to know the important ethical standards the organization seeks to promote.

• Benefits policies: policies on employee benefits, eligibility requirements, and procedures to follow are important as benefits represent a vital cat- egory of rewards that influence employee behavior.

Learning Objective #8: Identify, Describe, and Explain Using Examples the Different Types of Professional Development Training Programs

Professional development training is not primarily work-oriented train- ing. The focus of professional development training is to provide basic and advanced knowledge. Professional development training can emphasize developing basic skills or advanced skills. Individuals pursuing professional

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development training can pursue a degree program, a specialized certificate program, or a non-academic training program.

Professional development training can follow a systematic, stage-by-stage approach. The first stage of professional development training introduces trainees to the basic knowledge and skills professionals need to enjoy suc- cessful careers. Team management, decision-making, presentation skills, and process management skills represent examples of the types of knowledge and skills to develop in basic professional development training.

Intermediate-level professional development training often focuses on building on the knowledge and skills introduced during basic professional training. There is no pre-determined limit as to what is or is not taught, but often the focus of training during this stage is to build on the existing knowl- edge and skills developed during the basic training stage.

Advanced professional development training expands on the knowledge and skills introduced during the prior two stages. In addition to the expanded knowledge introduced and more sophisticated skills taught, the instructional methods used are more sophisticated than those used during the basic level of training because sophisticated types of instructional methods advance the learning process of the trainee. Case studies, team projects, mentoring, reflective exercises, and behavioral modeling represent a group of instruc- tional methods often used during an advanced level of professional develop- ment training.

The organization of professional development training is often a formal, planned form of instruction. Most professional development training is organ- ized systematically to ensure learning occurs. The length of time can vary from two hours to extending over a period of several weeks, with some train- ing programs lasting up to a year. The longer the program, the more intense the focus of learning because of the commitment of time and resources.

Professional development training programs can be designed for indi- viduals or a group(s) of individuals. The instructional methods used for an individual’s personal training program will likely vary from the instructional methods used in group training because the focus is on one person. Finally, organizations can offer professional development training in-house, through a contract with a training organization to provide the training, or employees can pursue professional development training off-site under the auspices of another organization.

Learning Objective #9: Identify, Describe, and Explain Using an Example a Process Management Training Program

Work efforts almost always follow some form of process, whether the process is officially sanctioned through an organization’s policy or tolerated by the organization as an “official” unofficial process without a policy that defines the process or presents the process in defined, sequenced stages.

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A process represents a planned sequence of activities, with actions grouped into stages. Each stage has a common theme and each process has a common theme as well. The process theme can either represent a particular service provided or a product made. Rules in the form of policies govern the func- tioning of the process and decisions associated with the execution of the process. The first stage of a process defines the objective of the process; the end stage of the process completes the process with the objective achieved.

There are three categories of processes. Management processes represent the administrative processes associated with the governance of the organi- zation. Operational processes represent processes associated with the per- formance of all the core operational activities of the organization. Support processes represent processes that provide support to and aid in the execution of the core operational processes and the management processes.

A process can range from a small number of stages to a highly complex process with numerous stages and sub-processes within a stage. Simple pro- cesses typically have few related sub-processes. Complex processes often have multiple sub-processes connected with each stage, and stages are linked together to form an intricate network of stages governed by complex rules. A process has stages related to each sub-process.

Every process generates data that can be collected as information. Information is commonly presented in a report that provides an assessment of the performance of the process. The information is usually presented in an objective form to better evaluate the effectiveness of the process. To evalu- ate the effectiveness of a process, processes have performance standards so as to compare the results of the assessment against the standard. For example, a call center can expect a call center operator to handle each call according to a policy-defined process that includes a time limit. Through the use of technol- ogy, the average time spent per call is compared with a baseline number (the standard). An example of a sub-process is putting the caller on hold while the call center operator consults with a superior.

The goal of any process is to satisfy a need and be profitable, or fall within specified cost limits. Information reports can identify process problems in order to improve the process. Process management involves applying theo- retical knowledge and skills to assess, regulate, and improve a process.

Process management has three roles. First, process management involves the design of a new process or the re-design of an existing process, and defin- ing the rules that govern the functioning of the process. The second role of process management is to oversee the actual functioning of a process. The third role of process management is to solve problems when a process devi- ates from pre-defined performance standards, or to improve a process to achieve better performance.

A training program for novices on the subject of process management covers the concept of a process, identifies and describes the underlying the- ory and skills associated with process management, teaches trainees how to

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develop process standards and create rules to govern a process, helps train- ees learn how to identify data generated by a process, organize the data into relevant information, and report on the performance of a process, and it trains them to identify common process problems and typical solutions to these process problems. Practical examples of processes and creating and improving a process represent useful instructional exercises for trainees to learn from.

Learning Objective #10: Identify, Describe, and Explain Using Examples Training Programs for Motivating Trainees

The goal of a training program on motivation is to teach trainees how to self-motivate to impact their work performance. As reported by researchers, only 20–50% of respondents indicated that training led to a demonstrable change in work performance. Decision-makers, training program designers, and trainers seek to have a greater impact on trainees to improve organiza- tional performance and to justify the value of the training program.

In a previous section, Kilpatrick’s Three-Stage Motivation Model was described. The stages identified included pre-training, training, and post- training. Decision-makers, designers, and trainers who need to implement the training program need to understand that each stage is essential in the process of motivating trainees, culminating in a change in work performance. The field of andragogy is helpful in understanding how adults learn when designing a three-stage process because motivating adult trainees requires knowing the triggers to pull that motivate the adult learner to want to learn and change their work effort.

Along with the adult learning theory of andragogy, the use of expectancy theory by designers during the pre-training stage is helpful in structuring the pre-training stage leading up to the training program. Actively involving trainees in the design process commits the trainees to a process that they have helped to design. The trainee’s role is most important in determining what topics about motivation are essential to learn, as well as the choice of instruc- tional methods to use to facilitate learning.

During training, important motivational triggers include the use of teams that involve trainees in a project-related activity. Working with others is important to the adult learner during the learning process. The use of per- sonal goals along with achieving the learning objectives provides focus. The personal goals offer the trainees the opportunity to achieve ends that are ben- eficial after training. Goal theory is an important motivation theory that pro- vides trainees with the understanding of the value of goals linked to trainee motivation. Personal goals linked to career goals are particularly impor- tant motivators for trainees because personal goals will always rank higher in importance to a trainee. The use of tangible rewards is useful because rewards appeal to an individual’s feelings of self-worth associated with being

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successful. The reward itself is often of less significance than being successful and earning a reward. During the initial stages of training, creating a suc- cessful experience sets the tone for the remainder of the training program. Attitude, once set, is often difficult to change.

The motivation of trainees post-training is essential for changing trainee work behavior and improving job performance. Supervisory support of a trainee’s interest in applying the knowledge and skills learned during training often represents the difference between applying what was learned and not applying what was learned. Allowing trainees greater flexibility in performing their work responsibilities increases the trainee’s feelings of self-efficacy; this is important for a trainee to feel because people often prefer being in control of their work responsibilities and work performance. Trainees want to bene- fit from being recognized for positive changes in their work performance and treated fairly as a result. Public recognition, positive performance reviews, and promotions represent some of the motivating factors an organization can employ during the post-training period. Equity theory is a relevant motiva- tion theory during post-training, as trainees want to know they are treated as well as peers. Reinforcement theory is relevant as well, because trainees seek both extrinsic and intrinsic types of rewards to continue to apply what was learned in performing their work responsibilities.

Learning Objective #11: Identify and Describe a Training Program on Teaching Trainees How to Design and Implement Training Programs

Training is an essential activity in many organizations as organizations seek to respond to dynamic environmental factors that can impact an organization’s ability to perform successfully. Formalized, comprehensive training programs along with well-executed training programs are essential for training to posi- tively impact the organization. Training the trainer is an important contribut- ing factor to a training program’s success.

There are three types of trainers. Each trainer type warrants a different approach to training to provide each type with the necessary knowledge and skills set to successfully conduct a training program. First, there is the new trainer type, who is either newly hired for the role or has been selected from interested employees to fill the position as an organizational trainer. Experienced trainers are another trainee type. Experienced trainers might need to learn how to conduct complex training programs with a wider range of subjects to cover as well as a broad range of trainees to work with – train- ees can range from novices to experts in a field. The third type of trainer is the non-trainer trainer. Some individuals are called upon by the organization to conduct a training program. This role is secondary to their primary work responsibilities but nevertheless the organization periodically utilizes them as trainers.

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136 Training Themes

Basic training for the new trainer involves an introduction to the funda- mentals of training. Though prior training in training, such as coursework, can be expected, the organization nonetheless needs to know that this trainee understands the fundamentals of the role and the responsibilities as defined by the organization. Here is an overview.

• Knowing how to conduct a training program that lasts no longer than 1.5 hours because lengthy training programs require experience in know- ing how to pace the presentation of the subject.

• Simple subjects are preferable to cover to avoid overwhelming the new trainer with the delivery of complex subject(s) along with a complex training program.

• Introductory types of instructional methods provide the new trainee with a range of instructional methods to use but do not overwhelm the new trainer with instructional methods that require a great deal of experience to use.

• Assessment is part of most formal training programs so trainers need to know how to introduce and use the preferred assessment methods. Simple subjects with easy-to-achieve learning objectives do not require anything beyond easy-to-use assessment methods.

• Motivational techniques are important to keep trainees focused. An introduction to motivation theory and easy-to-use motivation methods are introduced to the new trainer.

• Starting and ending a training program are important first and final steps in the training process. Each sets a tone, so getting a good start and pro- viding an ending that is meaningful are important experiences to learn how to deliver.

• Problems will occur and trainers need to learn strategies on how to deal with common types of problems that can occur during a brief simple training program.

An overview of training for the non-trainer trainer follows a similar model to that used for training new trainers, though there are differences in emphasis.

• Trainees are taught how to conduct a training program with a duration of no more than 1 hour, along with learning time management strategies to keep within time limits.

• Trainees are taught how to teach simple-to-teach, non-technical sub- jects, preferably avoiding teaching complex subjects. Trainees might be experts in a field, but they likely do not have the relevant knowledge, skills and experience to teach complex subjects.

• A small number of easy-to-use instructional methods is optimal for this group of trainees to learn how to use. Lectures, PowerPoint, and handouts represent the type of instructional methods to learn how to use effectively.

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Training Themes 137

• Formal types of assessment methods are unlikely to be used in the training program conducted by these trainees because formal assessment methods can involve knowledge beyond what is expected of a non-trainer trainer. However, informal assessment methods can be used. Knowing how to conduct a Q&A session, ask direct questions, and use observation tech- niques in monitoring trainees are essential to learning how to use infor- mal assessment methods.

• Because training is short (i.e., a maximum of an hour), trainees need to learn how to offer brief but meaningful introductions and endings that serve their respective purposes without reducing the time needed to cover the primary subject of the training session.

• Trainees need to learn how to deal with the inevitable problem(s) that can occur, but because of the short training time frame, trainees need to learn quick response strategies to deal with the problems to avoid dis- rupting the trainees’ learning experience.

Experienced trainers possess the fundamentals of training sufficient to move forward by participating in training to learn advanced training practices. Advanced training provides these individuals with the opportunity to con- duct more sophisticated forms of training. Training for the experienced trainer involves the following.

• Learning how to conduct a training program with a duration of up to 3 days and understanding the time management strategies needed to con- duct a long training program without overwhelming the trainees.

• Training on technical subjects or the need to cover a subject in depth often involves the use of experts to present the information. In this situa- tion the trainers are more facilitators or moderators of the learning expe- rience rather than actual teachers. The trainer needs to learn facilitative strategies to ensure sufficient coverage of the subject to meet the require- ments enumerated in the learning objectives.

• Advanced types of instructional methods are commonly used in lengthy and sophisticated training programs. Many of these, such as behavioral modeling and team-based exercises, require knowledge of people skills and experience in using the people skills associated with using these instructional methods.

• Assessment methods that generate objective feedback are often employed in advanced training because the learning objectives used are frequently performance-based learning objectives, and the training program (i.e., technical program) often employs the use of a building block strategy where later stages depend on a requisite level of learning in prior stages.

• An introduction and a conclusion serve the same purpose as discussed in the above sections on training the novice trainer or training the non- trainer trainer, with the caveat that preparing the trainee for conducting

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138 Training Themes

a long training program requires the ability to set the tone for the upcoming training during the introduction stage. The ending of training needs to provide an overview of the training and connect the themes of the various training subjects. An important skill for trainers to develop is the ability to offer trainees a “big picture” perspective by linking the subjects together.

• More unique forms of problems typically occur in long training pro- grams and trainee mental fatigue is at the top of the list of potential problems. Trainers need to learn the important strategies for dealing with all the common types of problems than can occur during a long train- ing program.

Questions

1 What is knowledge-based training? 2 What is skills-based training? 3 What is personal abilities training? 4 Identify and describe two types of leadership development training

programs. 5 Explain the importance of organizations offering management training

programs. 6 Professional development training programs are important. Explain. 7 Training programs that teach individuals how to design and implement

training programs are important. Explain.

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