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204 C H A P T E R 9 E N CO U N T E R I N G ZO R OA S T R I A N I S M : T H E WAY O F T H E O N E W I S E LO R D

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CHAPTER 9

Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

LO1 Explain the meaning of Zoroastrianism and related terms.

LO2 Outline how Zoroastrianism developed over time into what it is today.

LO3 Explain the essential Zoroastrian teachings of monotheism and moral dualism.

LO4 State the main ethical precepts of Zoroastrianism. LO5 Outline the way Zoroastrians worship and observe

rituals.

LO6 State the main features of Zoroastrian life in North America today.

Encountering Zoroastrianism: The Way of the One Wise Lord

BONNIE VAN VOORST © CENGAGE LEARNINGBONNIE VAN VOORST © CENGAGE LEARNING

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

205

Your Visit to Yazd, Iran

F or more than a year you’ve planned and prepared for a hiking trip through Iran. You’ve been careful to get the cor- rect visas and learn about cultural ways. Now that you’re hiking there, you come

across fascinating remains of the past as you approach the ancient city of Yazd (yahzd) on the ancient Silk Road. You already know about the importance of Silk Road caravan trade routes that ran from China to the Mediterranean Sea. Now you see the remains of a stone way station on the Silk Road, one of hundreds, each every thirty kilometers. They had lodging and food for humans and animals—even running water. It occurs to you that they were like full-service rest stops along this ancient highway.

Yazd is the historic center of Zoroastrianism (ZOHR- oh-ASS-tree-uh-NIHZ-uhm) in present-day Iran, although most Iranian Zoroastrians now live in the capital city, Tehran. Yazd has an active Zoroastrian temple, one of the most beautiful in the world, housing a fi re that Zoroastrians believe has burned for more than a thou- sand years. Zoroastrians are not “fi re worshipers,” as you may have heard some Iranians say, but use fi re as a sym- bol of the spiritual essence of God.

You hoped to hike out into the desert to Chak-Chak, an important pilgrimage site for Zoroastrians about 110 kilometers north of Yazd, to see a four-day festival that was about to start. But then you hear that only the faith- ful can attend the festival and that the temple will be closed at that time to non-Zoroastrians, so you travel out there right away before the festival starts. Chak- Chak, literally “drip-drip” in Persian, is a small group of buildings built onto the side of a mountain cliff . According to legend, a Zoroastrian princess who was fl eeing the invading Muslim Arab armies escaped from Yazd into the desert. She arrived at this cliff and was

cornered, with the army closing in on her. She prayed to God to be spared, and the cliff opened and she dis- appeared inside forever. From that time on, dripping water from a spring has marked the place of her res- cue. Legends such as this one have helped Zoroastrians cope with the predominantly Muslim nation in which they fi nd themselves.

Back in Yazd the next day, you hike out of town to the round stone “towers of silence” built on the hills, used as the funeral buildings for Zoroastrians until recent times. After climbing to the top of a tower, you think about the som- ber scene. For more than two thousand years, Zoroastrians didn’t bury or cremate their dead, believing that this would contaminate the earth. Instead, they left dead bodies in these towers to be eaten there by vultures until only clean bones remained to be bleached white by the sun. The bones were then swept into a central depository within the tower, but you can’t see them any longer. On the plains of Yazd below, you see partially ruined temples and build- ings used for funeral rites. Beyond the ruins, you can see the well-maintained, modern Zoroastrian cemetery where Zoroastrians now bury their dead inside concrete-lined graves. You take in the whole scene from the tower, amazed by how this site is so peaceful now. The towers are indeed silent.

“I acknowledge my faith in Good Thoughts, Good Words, and Good Deeds, the Good Religion of Ahura Mazda.” —from the Zoroastrian declaration of faith

The belief that the world is locked in a cosmic struggle between good and evil, as Zoroastrians believe, makes for a powerful faith.

Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

What Do YOU Think?

< A Zoroastrian priest lights candles to begin the Zoroastrians’ New Year festival of Nowruz at their temple in Suff ern, New York. Pictures of Zarathustra, the founder of the faith, are on the table and the rear wall.

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Begun thousands of years ago by Zarathustra, the prophet known to the Greeks as Zoroaster, Zoroastrianism became the state religion of the ancient Persian and Sassanid empires. Some historians estimate that it had as many as 40 million followers, making it one of the largest religions in the ancient world. Today, its numbers are severely reduced, for reasons we will explore in this chapter. About 150,000 adher- ents, almost all of them ethnic Persians, are clustered in eastern Iran and Mumbai (Bombay), India, and about another 50,000 are scattered in twenty-three nations of the world, including 20,000 in North America. These numbers are estimates, because exact numbers are hard to come by.

“Zoroastrianism has probably had more

influence on human life, directly and

indirectly, than any other single faith.”

—Mary Boyce

Despite these reduced numbers, the study of Zoroastrianism has an appeal all its own. Any religion from so long ago that is still present today deserves to be studied carefully. Scholars also study Zoroastrianism today for a wider reason, to discern the possible infl u- ence of Zoroastrianism on other Western religions. Most scholars conclude that Zoroastrianism had some direct infl uence on ancient Judaism and then some indirect infl uence (mostly through Judaism) on Christianity and Islam. The exact extent of this infl u- ence is sharply debated. On the one hand, a leading scholar of Zoroastrianism, Mary Boyce, argues for a maximum infl uence: “Zoroastrianism has probably had more infl uence on human life, directly and indi- rectly, than any other single faith.” She also argues that Zoroastrianism’s teachings on judgment, heaven and hell, the resurrection of the body, and life everlasting were borrowed by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.1

This position is frequently seen on the Web. On the other hand, Hebrew Bible scholar James Barr and others have argued that signifi cant borrowing of Zoroastrian ideas, directly or indirectly, cannot be demonstrated in early Judaism, aside from a few small points of contact. Barr argues as well that later Christian and Islamic beliefs

1 Mary Boyce, Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979), 1, 29.

cannot be shown to have drawn from Zoroastrianism.2

This debate continues today. In your study of Zoroastrianism, these unique, ini-

tially puzzling features may appear:

● Zoroastrians place a strong emphasis on morality in thought, word, and deed. But unlike many other reli- gions that stress moral purity, Zoroastrianism gives emphasis to dealing with hundreds of ritual impuri- ties, because they can ruin the effect of moral deeds.

● Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion, teaching that only one God exists. But it also features dozens of other spirits good and bad, most of them named, who have large roles in human life. Sometimes they are even called “divinities,” as for example on the opening page of a matchmaking website for Zoroastrians, which invokes the power of Ava Ardvisur, the “Divinity of fertility and childbirth.”

● Christians throughout the world, and many people who aren’t Christians, know about the Bible’s story of “wise men from the east” visiting the newborn Jesus to honor him and bring him gifts. Two of these gifts, frankincense and myrrh, have been offered in Zoroastrian worship for more than 2,500 years now. And most Christians don’t realize that the term the Bible uses for the wise men, magi (MAJ-igh), is a special Zoroastrian word for their priests.

LO1 Names for Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrians Zoroastrianism is the most common designation of the ancient Persian monotheistic religion. This name is built from the Greek form of the name of its founder, Zoroaster (ZOHR-oh-ASS-ter). The founder is known as Zarathustra (ZAHR-uh-THUHS-truh) in the religion’s most ancient writings. Zoroastrianism was originally a European name for the faith and refl ects the European tendency to name religions after their founders whether the religions themselves do so or not. Zarathustra would probably not have been pleased with this name. But Zoroastrianism “stuck,” and most followers of the faith use it happily today.

2 James Barr, “The Question of Religious Infl uence: The Case of Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Christianity.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 53 (1985): 201–35.

207 ZO R O A S T R I A N I S M A S S H A P E D B Y I T S PA S T

Zoroastrianism was originally a European name for the faith and reflects

the European tendency to name religions

after their founders.

Ancient Zoroastrian sources called it the “Good Religion,” not in a generic sense (after all, what reli- gion doesn’t think of itself as good?) but as point- ing especially to the key role of struggle for good in Zoroastrianism. This moral dimension of the faith is richly refl ected in its symbol, the faravahar (or faro- har), which means “Divine glory.” More specifi cally, Zoroastrians have called their faith the “Mazda- worshiping” or “Mazdayasnian” (MAHZ-duh-YAHZ- nee-uhn) religion. The latter name refers to Ahura Mazda, the “Wise Lord,” who is the only God. He created the universe as a place in which good will eventually prevail. This book will follow the current scholarly convention of referring to the name of the religion as Zoroastrianism and the name of its founder as Zarathustra.

One other name for Zoroastrians has become important. Zoroastrians who moved to India from Iran in the 900s C.E. are called Parsis (sometimes spelled “Parsees”), a name derived from Persians. The Zoroastrian communities in east Africa, Great Britain, and North America descend largely from this group, so it has spread beyond India. Parsis is often used as a syn- onym of Zoroastrians.

LO2 Zoroastrianism As Shaped by Its Past

A prominent Zoroastrian of the twentieth century was the rock star Freddie Mercury (1946–1991), the lead singer in the British band Queen. Born as Farrokh Bulsara to a Zoroastrian family in what is now Tanzania, he was raised as a devout Zoroastrian and was initiated into the faith as a teenager.

faravahar [fahr-uh- VAH-har] “Divine glory,” winged symbol of Zoroastrianism stressing morality

Ahura Mazda [ah- HOOR-uh MAHZ-duh] “Wise Lord,” the single, all- powerful god worshiped by Zoroastrians

Parsis [PAR-seez] Name for Zoroastrians in India, also spelled “Parsees”

The Symbol of Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism has had a few diff erent sym- bols through- out its history. One ancient symbol still seen today is a sacrifi cial fi re burning in a ritual urn. But the symbol most associated with Zoroastrianism for more than 2,500 years is the faravahar, the fi gure of a human being with eagle’s wings. Its origins are debated. Some think that it originally represented Ahura Mazda, because it seems to draw some elements from the symbols of gods in Assyrian religion. However, Zoroastrians have always considered God to be an undepictable spirit.

The central human fi gure represents the individual Zoroastrian believer. The fi gure is obviously a male, with the long beard that Persian men wore, but this hasn’t prevented

Zoroastrian women from identifying with the symbol. He is aged in appearance, so the soul is wise. He wears a tradi- tional Persian hat, suggesting respect for culture. One hand is open and lifted upward, symbolic of faith in and obedi- ence to the goodness of Ahura Mazda. The other hand holds a ring, which may represent loyalty and faithfulness. The circle around the center of the human fi gure represents the immortality of the soul or the eternal signifi cance of human actions in the here and now.

The two wings have three main rows of feathers, representing good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. Doing these things lifts up one’s soul as on powerful wings. The tail below also has three rows of feathers, said to represent bad thoughts, bad words, and bad deeds. The two streamers below the human figure represent the spirits of good and evil. Every person must constantly choose between the two, so the figure is fac- ing the good and turning his back on evil.

A Closer Look:

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208 C H A P T E R 9 E N CO U N T E R I N G ZO R OA S T R I A N I S M : T H E WAY O F T H E O N E W I S E LO R D

Mercury sang many hit songs, including “Bohemian Rhapsody,” “We Are the Champions,” and “Crazy Little Thing Called Love.” Although he hadn’t formally observed his ancestral Zoroastrian religion as an adult, his funeral in London was led at Mercury’s wishes by Zoroastrian priests. It was conducted entirely in the Avestan language and included prayers and hymns from the Zoroastrian scriptures. After the service, his body was cremated. The debate over Mercury’s legacy indicates a divide in modern Zoroastrianism: Can it be followed by keeping just its main moral commands, as some argue Mercury tried to do, or is it necessary to keep the full, traditional way of life of Zoroastrianism, as he did not?

The early history of Zoroastrianism is still shrouded in the mists of antiquity. We aren’t certain of many key details about its beginnings, because most of its earli- est writings were destroyed in persecutions. But as it moved closer to our time, Zoroastrianism emerged from the mists and became a key religion in the world. It can be divided into three main periods: birth and for- mation (ca. 630–550 B.C.E.); growth into the offi cial religion of the Persian Empire, decline under Greek and Parthian rule, and revival and renewed offi cial status in the Sassanian Empire (550 B.C.E.–650 C.E.); and slow, steady decline under Islamic rulers and in the modern world (650 C.E.–today).

As it moved closer to our time,

Zoroastrianism emerged from the mists

and became a key religion in the world.

The Birth of Zoroastrianism (ca. 630–550 B.C.E.) The question of when Zarathustra lived isn’t easy to answer. A few scholars and many traditional Zoroastrians date it all the way back to 7500 B.C.E., at what they consider the dawn of human civilization; others hold to

a time between 1400 and 900 B.C.E. Most commonly today, historians put his birth around 630 B.C.E., at the beginning of the Axial Age in Europe and Asia. This term was given by phi- losopher Karl Jaspers to the

period from 600 to 400 B.C.E. when many religions and value (axial) systems were founded. This wide chronologi- cal range, so unusual for dating the founder of a major reli- gion, shows that fi rm evidence for the life of Zarathustra is lacking. The Zoroastrian scriptures that he is thought to have authored, the central chapters of the Gathas, do not locate him chronologically. No historical sources outside of Zoroastrianism give reliable information that can be used in dating his life. Moreover, most Zoroastrian scrip- tures weren’t written down until about 400 C.E., at least a thousand years after the events they relate.

The birth of Zarathustra was said by some sacred writings to be prepared by prophecies and accompanied by miraculous signs. For example, the glory of Ahura Mazda descended on Zarathustra’s mother, resulting in a virginal conception, and the newborn Zoroaster was said to have laughed when he was born. The main outline of Zarathustra’s teaching, which he gave to disciples and at the court of the Persian kings, can be reliably traced, although the details are sketchy. The ancient Persians were polytheistic, as were all other Indo-European peo- ples. The basic structure of Persian polytheism was prob- ably the same as that of Vedic Hinduism. For example, both religions worshiped many gods in nature, sacrifi ced animals whose souls were thought to join the gods, and used a hallucinogenic drug in some sacrifi ces.

Zarathustra saw this religion as mistaken. He had a revolutionary monotheistic vision that only one God existed, Ahura Mazda. He also had a vision of an evil fi gure (supernatural but not divine), named Angra Mainyu, who opposed God. Zarathustra taught that all people had to choose which of these two moral forces they would follow, a choice that would either improve the world or make it worse. This choice determined their judgment by God to heaven or hell when they died, but Zarathustra taught that a fi nal restoration would come when Ahura Mazda completely defeated the forces of evil. In this restoration, even hell would come to an end, and all people would be resurrected with a re-created body to an eternal, blessed life. Despite the up-and- down fortunes of this faith, Zarathustra’s powerful teaching has endured through today.

The Spread of Zoroastrianism in the Persian and Sassanian Empires (550 B.C.E.–650 C.E.) The fi rst certain date in Zoroastrian history is its estab- lishment in Persia during the reign of the Persian kings, beginning in 550 B.C.E. These kings created and ruled over the largest empire the world had yet seen, and

Axial Age Name given by philosopher Karl Jaspers to the period from 600 to 400 B.C.E. when many religions and value (axial) systems were founded

209 ZO R O A S T R I A N I S M A S S H A P E D B Y I T S PA S T

Zoroastrianism spread with it (see Map 9.1). Some Persian kings drew explicitly on Zoroastrianism for the legitimacy of their empire, claiming that Ahura Mazda wanted his fame and goodness spread throughout the world. However, the Persians never attempted to impose Zoroastrianism on subject peoples with other religions. Given Zoroastrianism’s monotheism and moral rigor based on individual choice, religious ideas not widely shared in the ancient Middle East, this was a wise policy. Persian rule was autocratic but tolerant and effi cient, respecting and even embracing cultural and religious differences in its subject peoples. As the ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote, “No nation so readily adopts foreign cus- toms as the Persians do.”3

“No nation so readily adopts foreign

customs as the Persians.” —Herodotus,

ancient Greek historian

Cyrus (SY-rus) II, later called Cyrus the Great, ruled the small Persia home- land from 550 to 530 B.C.E. He began the expansion of Persia by overthrowing the king of Media to the north, and he kept on marching. Within ten years he had conquered much of the Middle East. He was a faithful Zoroastrian, as were the emperors of Persia who came after him, but tolerant toward other reli- gions in his empire. When he cap- tured Babylon, he rebuilt the temple of its main god, Marduk (MAHR- dook). He released many captive peoples held in Babylonia, allow- ing them to return to their homes and pursue their religions. For example, Cyrus allowed the thou- sands of Jews taken to Babylon in 586 B.C.E. to return to Jerusalem in 539, to rebuild their temple and land as a loyal part of the Persian

3 William Stearns Davis, Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources, Vol. 2: Greece and the East (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1912), 60.

Empire. Historians who argue for a large infl uence of Zoroastrianism on Judaism typically point to this “Persian period” in Jewish history as the time when it occurred.

Darius (dah-RY-us) I, called “Darius the Great,” ruled from 521 to 486 B.C.E. He is known mainly for his great building projects, such as a spectacular new capital at Persepolis. He was adept at managing his empire and expanded Persian rule to its greatest extent. Darius referred to Ahura Mazda in his royal inscrip- tions as the source of his successes, and he had monu- mental faravahars carved on many walls in Persepolis and in older cities. He attempted to conquer Greece, but wasn’t successful.

Darius’s son Xerxes (ZUHRK-seez), who ruled from 486–465 B.C.E., also tried to conquer Greece, this time with a massive effort. Like his father, he failed. Several relatively small Greek city-states turned back the mighty Persian Empire, marking a turning point in Persian fortunes. (This story is told in historical-fantasy form by the much-mocked 2006 fi lm 300, with its false depiction of the Persians and of Xerxes.) Xerxes and his successors changed the policy of tolerating differ- ent religions and ethnic groups as their predecessors

had, betraying Zoroastrian values. Local and regional imperial offi cials were now drawn

only from Persian ranks, not as before from local national and ethnic groups. Over the next hundred years, the empire suffered from various revolts and struggles over the throne. It was greatly reduced in size and splendor by the time Alexander the Great of Macedon, a nation that had once been a part of the Persian Empire, easily toppled it in 334 B.C.E.

Zoroastrians today see much to be proud of in this period, includ- ing the birth and early growth of their faith. But they view the accom- plishments as short-lived due to the onslaught of Alexander. They blame Alexander for many of the troubles of later Zoroastrianism. They have so hated Alexander that they have called him not “Alexander the Great” but “Alexander the Accursed.” They cursed him for murdering priests and scholars, extinguishing ritual

fi res, destroying temples, and carrying off sacred writ- ings and having them burned or (worse) translated for non-Zoroastrians. Some of these charges are no doubt

Miniature relief carving of Cyrus the Great

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exaggerated; Alexander, like the Persians, tended to be basically tolerant of other religions. But the fact remains that Alexander overthrew the empire to which Zoroastrianism had become closely connected, and Zoroastrianism was greatly damaged in the process. In particu-

lar, the loss of much of the sacred literature at this time and in later book burnings means that we are no longer able to reconstruct the history of Zoroastrian teachings.

Zoroastrianism struggled under Hellenistic, Roman, and Parthian rule that controlled parts of its homeland from 334 B.C.E. until 224 C.E. Zoroastrian reli- gious leaders praised the kings of

the Sassanian Empire (224–651 C.E.; also known as "Sassanid") for powerfully reestablishing the religion. For the second time, Zoroastrianism was the offi cial religion of a large empire (see Map 9.2). This was the “golden age” of Zoroastrianism. Several Sassanian rul- ers featured Zoroastrian symbols in offi cial inscriptions and coins. Their patronage enabled the establishment of many Zoroastrian temples and the rise of a profes- sional Zoroastrian priesthood to staff them. The Avesta, the fi rst and basic Zoroastrian scripture, was collected.

Towers of silence, stone funeral struc- tures for the Zoroastrian dead, were

built throughout the land. In the Sassanian period, Zoroastrianism reached the basic form that it would keep through today.

The Sassanians presented themselves as pious Zoroastrians, putting religious images on their coins and buildings. Later sources celebrated some Sassanian kings as a blessing to Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrians still use the date of

Map 9.1 The Zoroastrian Persian Empire, ca. 500 B.C.E. At its height around 500 B.C.E., the Persians controlled a huge empire that included northern Greece, Egypt,

and most of western Asia, from the Mediterranean coast to the Indus River in India.

Avesta [ah-VEHS-tuh] First and basic Zoroastrian scripture

tower of silence Stone funeral structure where the Zoroastrian dead were placed and bones stored; no longer used in most locations

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Coin of Sassanian King Shahpur II (309–379 C.E.), with a fi re altar and priests

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the coronation of the last Sassanian king, Yazdgird, in 631 C.E. as the fi rst year of their calendar (for exam- ple, 2011 C.E. = 1380 Y.). However, modern Iranian Zoroastrians blame the Sassanians for beginning the decline of their religion, saying that its misuse for political purposes led to the down- fall of the empire. Zoroastrian religion had been too closely tied to imperial rule, they say, and the strong moral essence of the religion was compromised. The Sassanian Empire was conquered by Arabic Muslim forces around 650 C.E. As happened earlier with Alexander’s conquest of the Persian Empire, the brutal Muslim conquest of the Sassanian Empire caused great damage to the state-sponsored

Zoroastrian religion and to most Zoroastrians. They found themselves in a Muslim empire that would, over time, further reduce their numbers and infl uence.

Map 9.2 The Sassanian and Byzantine Empires, 600 C.E. By 600 C.E., the Christian Byzantine Empire controlled much of the eastern Mediterranean. The

neighboring Zoroastrian Sassanian Empire dominated most of western Asia. It was centered in the older Persian homeland, which today is in southern Iran.

The remnants of this Zoroastrian fi re temple show the destruction of holy places in the Arab invasions.

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212 C H A P T E R 9 E N CO U N T E R I N G ZO R OA S T R I A N I S M : T H E WAY O F T H E O N E W I S E LO R D

The Coming of Islam and the Zoroastrian Dispersion (650 C.E.–present) The Arabic conquest of the Sassanian Empire began a pro- cess of Islamic growth and Zoroastrian decline that would last for centuries. Muslim rulers considered Zoroastrians to be “People of the Book” and did not forcibly convert them, but most Zoroastrians converted to Islam none- theless, probably drawn by its rigorous monotheism and strict morality. Those who remained Zoroastrians had their religious liberty restricted, and they were often per- secuted. Up to three-quarters of their sacred literature was destroyed. A few times, various Zoroastrian communities openly revolted against their Muslim overlords, only to be crushed and decimated. By 900 C.E. the Zoroastrians were reduced to such a small minority that they were concentrated in a few areas of Iran.

These pressures on the Iranian Zoroastrians led many to fl ee to the western coast of India, in the Gujarat area, in 936 C.E. In the course of time, they developed a specifi c ethnic identity with a strong sense of shared history, and even a language they named Parsi-Gujarati. The Hindu authorities tolerated Zoroastrianism, but did not allow conversions of Hindus to Zoroastrianism (which Zoroastrians prohibited as well) or even Hindu visits to Zoroastrian temples. For centuries, Zoroastrians in India had their own dress and diet codes. These have now mostly disappeared in everyday life but are carefully observed on important occasions such as initiations, feasts, weddings, and funerals. Thus began the development of two different communities of Zoroastrians, Iranians and Parsis, a split that would last through today. An effort in the early twenty-fi rst century to found an organization for all Zoroastrians failed to overcome the old differences.

The Parsi communities blossomed during Mughal (Islamic) and British rule in India. These latter groups were more tolerant of Zoroastrianism than were the rulers of Iran. Many Parsis today regard these times as a high point of their community’s history, in material wealth, social prestige, cultural achievements, and political infl uence. Zoroastrians in India pros- pered economically in commerce and the professions. An unprecedented number of temples were built, most

of them in urban Mumbai, still the modern stronghold of Zoroastrianism.

At the same time, their religion underwent consider- able change beginning around 1800. The fear of demons and of unwitting ritual pollution that characterized ear- lier Zoroastrianism ended. The socioreligious position of the clergy declined, and lay participation in leader- ship was fi rmly established, along with certain rights for women. Social and religious reform movements representing a minority of Parsis started to fi ght against what they regarded as Zoroastrian “superstitions” and advocated a return to what their members regarded as the original teachings of Zarathustra. Since the late nineteenth century, the question of the permissibility of conversion to Zoroastrianism and mixed marriages has brought an ongoing debate about Zoroastrian identity. Parsis did not permit conversion to Zoroastrianism, and although intermarriage with people of other faiths hap- pens in many Zoroastrian families, it is still regarded as taboo. The religious status of persons of other religions who marry Zoroastrians, and the children born of such marriages, is still a matter of diffi cult dispute today almost everywhere Zoroastrians are found.

One of the several Zoroastrian fi re temples in Mumbai

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The Arabic conquest of the Sassanian

Empire began a process of Islamic

growth and Zoroastrian decline that

would last for centuries.

213 E S S E N T I A L ZO R O A S T R I A N T E A C H I N G S : M O N OT H E I S M A N D M O R A L D UA L I S M

Indian independence in 1949 was a mixed blessing for the Parsis. It brought a greater measure of freedom, but it also brought the challenge of numerical decline. Parsis now number fewer than 70,000, down from more than 100,000 a century ago. Part of this decline is due to a reluctance to procreate that is typical of mod- ern groups with upper-class social standing such as that of the Parsis, but this is clearly at odds with the exhor- tations to bear children that can be found throughout Zoroastrian religious literature. Migration has also contributed to dwindling numbers in India. Starting with the late 1700s, Parsis settled in distant parts of the British Empire, including in Chinese port cities, Burma, Ceylon, and parts of Africa, but mostly in Britain itself. Since the 1960s, new waves of immigration brought Parsis to North America, Australia, New Zealand, and the Persian Gulf nations.

In Iran, Zoroastrianism had been reduced to a tiny minority of fewer than 10,000 by 1900. These Zoroastrians had to bear a wide range of harsh discriminatory practices from the dominant Muslim population. Help from Zoroastrians in India and substantial political and legal changes improved the lot of the Iranian Zoroastrians and led to a tripling of their numbers. Many Zoroastrians left agriculture, migrated to the modern capital of Tehran (which is now the main stronghold of the Iranian Zoroastrians), and went into the new middle-class professions. As the Parsis did in India, some Iranian Zoroastrians found great success in commerce.

Modern Iranian Zoroastrianism has undergone fundamental changes. When Zoroastrians were freed during secular Iranian rule from many restrictions in much of the twentieth century until 1979, the religion has been reconceived as a message of moral freedom. Iranian Zoroastrians have claimed that this was the essence of Zarathustra’s message. The ceremonial rit- ual system has been deliberately neglected, and many rules and rituals that are still carefully upheld by Indian priests have been all but abandoned in Iran. The Yasna (YAHZ-nuh) ceremony, for example, which the Parsis regard as an important liturgy (it takes a pair of trained priests several hours to perform it), is celebrated only rarely nowadays, and in a drastically reduced format, by some Iranian priests. Most of the purifi cation ritu- als have been abandoned. The professional priesthood has seen a sharp decline, and the leading priests have joined the social and intellectual elite in a crusade to uproot ancient “superstition” in the faith, including some rituals for women, devotion to “lesser” divinities

such as Mithra, and animal sacrifi ce. The fear of being called “fi re worshipers” led the community to empha- size the symbolic role of fi re in their worship; some new temples even house gas fi res. Consecrated wood fi res are still kept burning but aren’t tended according to past ritual.

Zoroastrianism in Iran gradually transformed itself into a religion of freedom and morality, representing the splendor of ancient Iran. For most of the 1800s and 1900s, Zoroastrianism became an appealing alter- native to Shi’a Islam for many Iranians, where pride in Iran’s Persian heritage is deeply felt by many. Some even converted to Zoroastrianism. This more liberal form of Zoroastrianism is today also represented by an international organization based in California called the Zarathushtrian Assembly. This group advocates the modernized form of their religion and accepts people willing to convert. However, it is strongly opposed by other Zoroastrian organizations, including a traditional- ist organization based in Mumbai called the Zoroastrian Studies Association. When the Islamic Republic of Iran was established in 1979, conversion to Zoroastrianism or any other religion became almost impossible. The New Year festival, which is widely shared among Iranians who are Muslims, is among the few accepted occasions for celebration that include both Zoroastrians and Muslims.

LO3 Essential Zoroastrian Teachings: Monotheism and Moral Dualism

On the crowded streets of Mumbai, India, a young Zoroastrian woman sees an automobile with a familiar name: Mazda. The auto company’s logo she sees on this car looks like the wings of a bird, suggesting to her the main sym- bol of her faith, the faravahar. This causes her both wonder and consternation: Is it really connected to Zoroastrianism? Why should a car company abuse the name of God? So, like most young people today, she goes on the Internet and fi nds the website of the Mazda automotive company in Japan. The company website states that the name derives from Ahura Mazda, “a god of the earliest civilizations in West Asia, the god of wisdom, intelligence and harmony.” The company website further notes that the company name also comes from a shortening of Matsuda, the last name of its Japanese founder.

Zarathushtrian Assembly International group based in California advocating the modernized form of Zoroastrianism and accepting people willing to convert

214 C H A P T E R 9 E N CO U N T E R I N G ZO R OA S T R I A N I S M : T H E WAY O F T H E O N E W I S E LO R D

The teachings of Zoroas- trianism stress belief in one God and moral dualism. Zoroastrianism was prob- ably the first faith to put these two features together, and most Zoroastrian teachings are connected to them.

The One God, Ahura Mazda Zoroastrianism’s foundational teaching is that there is only one supreme God, Ahura Mazda, a name that means “Wise Lord” or “Lord of Wisdom.” Ahura Mazda is the source of all light, truth, goodness, and life. He is infi nite, and infi nitely good. Zarathustra emphasized the central importance of Ahura Mazda by portraying him as the one God, accompanied by many spirit-lords, all the other older Indo-Aryan gods who were “demoted” in the new religion. In later Zoroastrianism, the name Ahura Mazda was com- pacted into a single-word form, Ormazd. As the fi rst verse in the ancient Avesta scripture proclaims, “Ahura Mazda is the creator, radiant, glorious and best; the most beauti- ful, fi rm, wise, perfect and bounteous Spirit!” Zoroastrians look to Ahura Mazda as the source of all created things that are good, the one who sustains goodness and life in the present, and the one who at the end of time will defeat all evil and give eternal life to all people.

“Ahura Mazda is the creator, radiant,

glorious and best; the most beautiful,

firm, wise, perfect and bounteous Spirit!”

—The Avesta

For Zoroastrians, only Ahura Mazda is a true God; only he is to be worshiped. All the other “lords,” ahu- ras, and demons are beneath him and are not gods. They form an entourage of spirits that accompany the forces of either good or evil. In sum, Zoroastrianism is properly called monotheistic because it teaches the exis- tence of one God. However, it was never as assertively monotheistic against other faiths as Judaism, Islam, or Christianity tended to be. It lacks a clear denial of the existence of other gods, characteristic of the more radi- cal monotheisms. This may be connected to its historic tolerance toward other creeds.

The Spirit of Destruction, Angra Mainyu Opposition to the evil and impurities in the world was also a fundamental feature of Zoroastrianism from its beginning. Because Ahura Mazda is good and made the world to be a good place, he desires the people in his creation to be morally good as well. This entails a positive effort to do what is right and a negative effort to engage in a real fi ght with evils of all sorts. People who think, say, and do evil on earth are deceiv- ers and liars who turn others against the one true, good God by promoting all sorts of evils. Evil doesn’t always look like evil, nor is it always easily recog- nized. Instead, it disguises itself as good, hence one of the main fi gures of evil is known as the Druj (drooj), the “Spirit of Deceit” or the “Spirit of the Lie.” The supreme evil spirit, Zarathustra taught, is Angra Mainyu, the “Spirit of Destruction.” Zarathustra seems to have used this as only a title, to judge from the oldest parts of Zoroastrian scriptures, but later it became a proper name and was shortened to Ahriman (AH-rih-mun).

The Zoroastrian Creed

At key moments in a Zoroastrian’s life, the Fravarane is recited. This declaration of faith is a shortened version of the full creed from the Zoroastrian scriptures.

“Come to my help, Ahura Mazda. I am a Mazdayasnian according to [the way of ] Zarathustra. I fi rmly declare my faith. I acknowledge my faith in Good Thoughts well conceived. I acknowledge my faith in Good Words well spoken. I acknowledge my faith in Good Deeds well done.

I acknowledge my acceptance of the Good Religion of Mazda, which ends strife and disarms violence, which makes us righteous and self-reliant. It is the religion of those who have been, and shall be, the noblest, the best, and most sublime. The religion of Ahura Mazda was brought to us by Zarathustra. All good derives from Ahura Mazda. This is the declaration of the Mazdayasnian religion.”

A Closer Look:

Angra Mainyu [AHN-gruh MIGHN-yoo] “Spirit of Destruction,” supernatural head of all evil in the cosmos, opponent of Ahura Mazda

215 E S S E N T I A L ZO R O A S T R I A N T E A C H I N G S : M O N OT H E I S M A N D M O R A L D UA L I S M

Moral Dualism Another foundational feature of Zoroastrianism is dualism, the notion that the cosmos is composed of two competing forces. This opposition between good and evil is also found in early Vedic Hindu sources, so it must have been some part of pre- Zoroastrian Persian religion, but Zarathustra developed it sig- nifi cantly. From the beginning of the world, the Zoroastrian scriptures say, there have been two incompatible, antagonistic spirits in the world. One is the good God, Ahura Mazda; the other is a devil-like fi gure, Angra Mainyu. The Twin Spirits under Ahura Mazda made an ominous choice: The Bounteous Spirit chose to be truthful in thoughts, words, and deeds, but the Deceitful Spirit chose to be a follower of evil. When the Zoroastrian scriptures teach this dualism, it is always with a command to follow the good; for example, “Let those who act wisely choose correctly between these two, not as evil-doers choose” (Yasna 30.3).

Then it was the turn of the old gods of pre- Zoroastrian Persian religion to choose between good

and evil; these gods, called daevas (DIGH-vuhs), all chose badly. Ever since, the daevas have tried to corrupt people’s choices also. The two powers of good and evil are roughly equal to each other in this world, so the fi ght between good and evil is real. The two powers draw all people into their service as they fi ght this cosmic moral battle, as people decide which spirit to follow. These two forces will continue to limit and challenge each other until the end of time, when evil will fi nally be defeated.

Zoroastrianism’s form of moral dualism was never understood in an absolute fashion where good and evil are exactly equal, because it was qualifi ed by monotheism. If there is only one God, and this God is both good and has supreme power, evil at the end of the day doesn’t have much of a chance to win. Instead, the forces of good are assured of even- tual triumph. Ahura Mazda limits the exercise of his supreme power as this struggle plays out. Humans should join this cosmic war because of their capacity of free choice.

The dualism is moral, but it isn’t physical dualism, the idea that matter is evil and spirit is good. Humans serve either good or evil with both their souls and bod- ies, because both the human soul and the human body participate in the divine nature. For example, fasting and celibacy—important practices in many religions to control the body and its supposed impulse to do or think wrong—are almost unknown in Zoroastrianism. The fi ght has a ritual aspect as well: Humans must keep themselves pure in body and soul by avoiding defi lement by contact with dead humans and animals, treating fi re with great respect, avoiding demons in their dreams, and so forth. There are short but neces- sary rituals for cleansing oneself after cutting hair or nails, sneezing, eliminating bodily wastes, and using toothpicks. Thus, traditional Zoroastrianism has rit- ual aspects that are just as all-pervading as its ethical aspects.

Supernatural Intermediaries Zoroastrianism’s strong moral dualism is buttressed by supernatural intermediaries that personify and pro- mote what is morally good. Between Ahura Mazda and human beings there are six intermediary beings

dualism Notion that the cosmos is composed of two competing forces

Twin Spirits The Bounteous Spirit and the Deceitful Spirit, two supernatural beings under Ahura Mazda

Fire, such as this one in Yazd said to be burn- ing for more than a thousand years, symbol- izes the purity and power of good.

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216 C H A P T E R 9 E N CO U N T E R I N G ZO R OA S T R I A N I S M : T H E WAY O F T H E O N E W I S E LO R D

called Amesha Spentas, or benevolent immortals. They are Good Thoughts, Perfect Truth, Desirable Lordship, Benefi cial Devotion, Plenty, and Immortality. These immor- tals are the entourage of personifi ed virtues that constantly surround Ahura Mazda. They are indi- vidual divine beings and at the same time cosmic moral virtues. Humans who choose to follow Ahura Mazda take on the

moral characteristics of these immortals, and they prog- ress from Good Thoughts to Immortality.

Judgment and the Final Victory of Ahura Mazda In Zoroastrian belief, the soul hovers above the body for three days after death. On the fourth day, it takes a rapid journey to the next world and faces judgment on the Chinvat Bridge. The deeds of the soul dur- ing all of life are weighed. If its good deeds outweigh evil ones, the soul ascends to the stars (representing good thoughts) then to the moon (good words), to the sun (good deeds), and fi nally to paradise, where eternal lights shine. There the soul is led to the golden throne of Ahura Mazda by the Good Mind. However, if evil outweighs good, the soul is dragged off to hell, to be punished there until the end of time.

At the end of time, hell will be emptied

of souls and sealed forever, and Angra

Mainyu and all his forces will be

annihilated.

In the last great struggle near the end of time, the armies of good and evil will battle to the death, and Ahura Mazda’s soldiers will defeat their evil enemies. Then a fi nal judgment comes at the end of the world,

after all bodies of the dead are resurrected and reunited with their souls, whether they have been in heaven or hell. A fi nal cleansing of fi re purifi es the souls and bodies of evil human beings, so that all people are fi t to live in paradise. This will restore the goodness of the world at the time of creation. The personifi ed Spirit of Fire and Angra Mainyu will cause the metals of the mountains to melt and to fl ow down as a river of fi re. All resurrected humans must walk through this valley of trial. The fi re will burn off the sins of the wicked for three pain- ful days, but to the righteous it will be as delicious and restorative as warm milk. Then all people will enjoy hap- piness and divine blessing forever. On the renewed earth, men and women will have no shadow because they are sinless. Hell will be emptied of souls and sealed forever, and Angra Mainyu and all his forces will be annihilated.

LO4 Zoroastrian Ethics

A young Zoroastrian man in California logs onto a Zoroastrian matchmaking website. Because his religion is important to him and because it commands marriage within the faith, he is now looking for a suitable Zoroastrian who could possibly become his wife. He has tried to fi nd a possible mate in San Francisco, but the Zoroastrian community there is too small, and the website gives him worldwide possibilities, especially in India, where his family came from generations ago. Some of his friends, both male and female, have married non-Zoroastrians, and his religious community has refused to welcome them or recognize their children as Zoroastrians. The young man would like to avoid these diffi cult problems.

As we have seen previously, the two main doctrinal teachings of Zoroastrianism are monotheism and morality. These are deeply intertwined. In a culture that rarely thought of its gods as morally good, Zarathustra proclaimed that the one God, Ahura Mazda, was infi - nitely good and was attended by six spirits who per- sonify his righteousness and mediate it to humankind. Ahura Mazda fi ghts a cosmic battle against evil, a force that is strong and real (Gathas, Yasna 44:10; 53:1).

Because Ahura Mazda does what is good, he expects all people to follow him in doing what is right and putting away evil. In this way, they join the ongo- ing cosmic spiritual and physical battle for righteous- ness, a battle that Ahura Mazda will certainly win. Zoroastrians do not simply fi ght against evil in them- selves or society around them, but by their good actions they fi ght against demons and Angra Mainyu himself. People have the freedom to know right from wrong and choose what is right, and Ahura Mazda holds them

Amesha Spentas [uh-MAY-shuh SPEN- tuhz] Six benevolent, immortal spirits who are intermediaries between Ahura Mazda and humanity

Chinvat Bridge [CHIN- vaht] “Requiter Bridge,” where deeds are weighed for a soul’s assignment to either heaven or hell until the resurrection

217 ZO R O A S T R I A N R I T UA L S

responsible for these choices. Most Zoroastrians have a lively sense of the heavenly reward for doing right and the hellish punishment for doing wrong.

Zoroastrian General Morality Zoroastrian ethics focus on the maintenance of life and the fi ght against evil, but this abstract ideal is carried out in very concrete ways. The most ancient scriptures of Zoroastrianism relate that one must earn an honest living by means of cattle raising and agriculture. This wasn’t just a cultural given—it was a religious norm. Over time, many Zoroastrians went into commerce and prospered in it, in part because they had a reputa- tion for being honest with all people, not just those of their faith or ethnic group. At one time, Zoroastrians in Mumbai owned more businesses than did Hindus, who vastly outnumbered them.

Zoroastrians hold to values of saying and doing the truth, being faithful to Ahura Mazda, and doing what is good in the world. Goodness in one’s individual life can be attained only by living a balanced, morally healthy life of good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. In the Avestan language, these three have the same begin- ning sound, suggesting they go together: Humata (hoo- MAHT-uh), Hukhta (HOOK-tuh), and Huvereshta (HOO-vuh-RESH-tuh). This threefold statement of morality is so important in the faith that it is a key part of the Zoroastrian confession of faith, as we saw previ- ously. It is inscribed over many a door to Zoroastrian temples and community centers. In the past few cen- turies, generous giving to Zoroastrian philanthropies has become a hallmark of Zoroastrian moral effort. The steady work of Zoroastrians to spread good in the world has improved the education of girls and the social status of women in India, Iran, and other countries.

At one time, Zoroastrians in Mumbai

owned more businesses than did Hindus,

who vastly outnumbered them.

Traditional Zoroastrians live their lives in this world with a view of their individual judgment after death. Their future life in the next world, at least from the time of their death to the end of the world, is determined by the total balance of good and evil deeds, words, and thoughts. This principle, however, is fl exible enough to

allow for human weakness. Zoroastrians don’t believe that all their sins must be weighed on the scales. There are two means of erasing now their negative effects at one’s personal judgment. The fi rst of these is confession of one’s sins, which brings forgiveness and lightens the weight of sin at the judgment. The second means is the transfer of merits from the Zoroastrian saints, whose good thoughts, words, and deeds are far more than what the saints need to pass judgment and enter heaven. This is the rationale for Zoroastrian funeral prayers and rituals asking Ahura Mazda for mercy on and forgive- ness of the souls of the dead.

A Current Ethical and Social Issue: Marriage and Children Another key moral command in Zoroastrianism is the duty to marry and have children. To Zoroastrians, the world is a good place even though evil has marred it. Marriage and children are good things for every Zoroastrian; in contrast with some other religions among whom Zoroastrians have lived (for instance, Hinduism and Jainism), one won’t see any form of celi- bacy at any stage in life. Moreover, marriage must be to another Zoroastrian, preferably a member in a clan rela- tionship, although avoiding incest. In other words, mar- riage must be close, but not too close. Zoroastrians have even called their religion the “faith of kindred marriage.”

The fact that many Zoroastrians in India and the Western world have only one or at most two chil- dren, and others marry outside the faith, means that these ancient values are threatened. Unless marriage takes place more often within the faith, and unless Zoroastrian couples have more children on average than one or two, Zoroastrians may all but disappear in a few centuries. Many Zoroastrians are apprehensive about the future of their faith. Some other Zoroastrian groups that call themselves “reformist” accept children of mixed marriages into the faith, but this is strongly rejected by the main body of Zoroastrians.

LO5 Zoroastrian Rituals

As he sits on the fl oor in a Zoroastrian temple in a Chicago suburb, a priest off ers sacrifi ce for the souls of the dead. In his secular occupation, Kersey Antia is a clinical psychologist

218 C H A P T E R 9 E N CO U N T E R I N G ZO R OA S T R I A N I S M : T H E WAY O F T H E O N E W I S E LO R D

specializing in panic disor- ders. As a Zoroastrian priest, he offi ciates at fi re ceremo- nies, feeding sandalwood and frankincense into a blazing fi re in a large urn. He recites prayers that he learned to

pronounce by special training in the Avestan language at a school in India. Although Zoroastrians today understand only a few Avestan words, the Zoroastrian god Ahura Mazda does speak Avesta, so the words are still eff ective.

Fires in the Fire Temple The Zoroastrian house of worship, in which all worship takes place, is the fi re temple. In the Western world an “eternal fl ame” is a symbol of honored memory; in Zoroastrianism every temple has an eternal fl ame for the worship of Ahura Mazda. Fire temples and their activities center on the fi re within them, and they are named by three types of fi res.

In the Western world an “eternal fl ame”

is in memory of an honored person; in

Zoroastrianism every temple has an eternal

fl ame for the worship of Ahura Mazda.

The Appointed Place Fire is the fi rst classifi cation of sacred fi re. It can be consecrated in a few hours by two priests, who recite scriptures as they light and tend the fi re. An approved layperson may tend the fi re when no services are in progress. The smallest and most humble Zoroastrian temples have only this sort of fi re. It is also found with the two greater fi res in more impressive temples, where priests celebrate the main rituals of the faith and believers invoke blessings in front of the fi re.

The next level is the Fire of Fires. It requires a gathering and mingling in one sacrifi cial urn of fi res from representatives of the four main social groups: priests,

soldiers and civil servants, farmers and herdsmen, and artisans and laborers. These are the traditional classes in Zoroastrian society from ancient times. Eight priests must consecrate this fi re in a ritual that takes up to three weeks.

The highest level is the Fire of Victory. Its consecra- tion involves the gathering of sixteen different fi res from sixteen different sources, including from lightning and a metal-molding furnace. Each of the sixteen fi res goes through a purifi cation ritual before it joins the others in a common fi re. Thirty-two priests are required for the ceremony, which takes up to a year. Veneration of the Fire of Victory and the Fire of Fires is addressed only to the fi re itself, using the songs of praise in the Zoroastrian scriptures. Priests and believers don’t ordinarily make requests of Ahura Mazda before these two higher fi res.

Interior Plan of the Fire Temple When they enter a fi re temple, both men and women must wear a head covering. First, one goes through a large hall where ceremonies take place. The faithful then enter an anteroom smaller than the main hall. Connected to this anteroom, but not visible from the hall to ensure a sense of holiness and quiet, is the “place of the fi re” in which the actual fi re altars stand. These fi re altars are usually large urns that sit on the fl oor; priests sit or stand in front of them as they offer sacrifi ces of spices and incense in the constantly burning fl ame. Lay Zoroastrians stand before the fi re to offer their prayers to God.

fire temple Zoroastrian house of worship centering on sacred fire burning in it

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AZoroastrian temple in Kolkata (Calcutta), India, showing Indian infl uence

219 ZO R O A S T R I A N R I T UA L S

Only priests enter the inner, most sacred room, which has a double-domed roof. The double dome has vents to allow the smoke to escape, but the vents of the outer dome are offset from the inner dome’s vents, preventing debris or rain from entering the room and potentially desecrating the holy fl ame. The walls of the inner room are almost always tiled or of marble but otherwise undecorated. The only lights are those of the fi re itself in the inner room, an arrangement that is powerfully symbolic to Zoroastrians.

In one corner of the main fi re-room hangs a bell, which is rung fi ve times a day to mark each new “watch” period. The fi re is usually fed at this time with dried sandalwood or other sweet-smelling wood. Tools for maintaining the wood fi re are hung on the wall or stored in an adjoining room. In Parsi temples, non-Zoroastrians are prohibited from enter- ing any space from which one could see the fi res. This typically means no entry into a temple at all, and many Parsi temples in India have “Parsis Only” signs at their front door. If non-Zoroastrians are permit- ted to enter them during ordinary times, they are closed during feasts and holy days. Traditionalist Zoroastrians insist that these restrictions aren’t meant to offend non-Zoroastrians and point to similar practices in other religions. Iranian and “Reformist” Zoroastrians more often open their temples to non-Zoroastrians.

Worship When the adherent enters the room where the fi re burns, he or she will offer wood for the fi re. The person making an offering doesn’t put the wood directly into the fi re, but gives it to the priest. At the proper time, the priest places the offering in the fi re, using silver tongs. He wears a cloth mask over nostrils and mouth to pre- vent his breath from polluting the fl ame. The priest then uses a special ladle to give some holy ashes to the lay- person, who in turn dabs them on his or her forehead and eyelids; the layperson may take some home after an initiation ceremony.

A Zoroastrian priest doesn’t preach or teach, but tends to the sacrifi cial fi re, offering prayer and sacrifi ce there. Fire temple attendance is particularly high dur- ing seasonal festivals, and especially for the New Year’s festival. There is no instrumental music or group sing- ing in Zoroastrian worship, only the musical chant- ing of the scriptures and prayers by the priests. Social events may occur in the main hall, especially at fes- tivals and initiations, but rarely as a part of regular worship.

Priesthood The magi, an order of priests not originally Zoroastrian, apparently became acquainted with the prophet Zarathustra’s teachings before 400 B.C.E. and converted to the faith. The priests rose to power quickly and had a monopoly on priestly power at the Persian court. Under the Sassanians, a three-level hierarchy of priests devel- oped among the magi. Admission to the priesthood is hereditary, but all priests have to go through one or more ceremonies of ordination over and above those practiced by all the faithful. In 2010, a violent confrontation broke out in India when a group of more liberal Zoroastrians unsuccessfully tried to ordain a Russian convert to Zoroastrianism as a priest. Training for the priesthood has always centered on performing the ceremonies, espe- cially the ritual words and actions.

The chief ceremony, the Yasna, is essentially a sac- rifi ce of haoma (HO-mah), the sacred liquid. The sacri- fi ce is celebrated before the sacred fi re with recitation of large parts of the Avesta. There are also offerings of bread and milk, which replace the former offerings of meat or animal fat. The sacred fi re must be kept burn- ing continually and is fed at least fi ve times a day, at the beginning of each watch. Prayers are also offered fi ve times a day in the presence of the fi re.

A Zoroastrian priest doesn’t often preach

or even teach, but rather tends the

sacrificial fires.

Other Rituals All young Zoroastrians must be initiated in the navjote ceremony when they reach the age of seven (in India, Africa, Europe, and North America) or ten (in Iran). The ceremony is led by a priest, and the young people must receive instruction before the navjote. They receive the shirt and the sacred cord (kusti), which they are to wear their whole life. The kusti is tied around the waist and symbolizes a lifelong commitment to keeping the tenets of the religion.

In a religion that stresses ritual purity, Zoroastrian rit- uals of purifi cation are par- ticularly important. There are three types of purifi - cation, in order of increasing

magi [MA-jigh] An order of priests not originally Zoroastrian

navjote [nahv-JOH-tee] Initiation ceremony when young Zoroastrians reach the age of seven or ten

220 C H A P T E R 9 E N CO U N T E R I N G ZO R OA S T R I A N I S M : T H E WAY O F T H E O N E W I S E LO R D

importance: the ablution, ordinary washing for the small- est compromises of one’s purity; the full-body bath, for medium-sized impurities; and the fullest purifi cation ritual—the bareshnum (ba-RESH-num)—a complicated ritual performed at special places and lasting several days.

It includes the participation of a dog, whose left ear is touched by the person seeking cleansing and whose gaze makes evil spirits fl ee.

Penance for sins is necessary to keep the accumula- tion of one’s sins from resulting in condemnation after death. It entails reciting the patet (PAH-teht), the fi rm resolve not to sin again. The patet also calls for one to confess one’s sins to a priest.

Festivals are an important aspect of Zoroastrianism, and full of happy celebration. There are six seasonal festivals throughout the year. and at year’s end a few days are dedicated to the memory of the dead. The New Year feast, Nowruz

(often spelled Noruz) is the most joyous of all Zoroastrian festivals.

Funeral Rituals The following traditional funeral ritual isn’t fully followed in most of the Zoroastrian world today. After death, the body is washed and clothed in a simple white garment. A dog is then brought before the body—preferably a “four-eyed” dog with a spot above each eye. This indicates its ability to frighten evil spir- its into fl eeing and not posing a threat to the soul of the dead person, which hovers above the body for three days. The ritual is repeated fi ve times a day. On the

second day after death, fi re is brought into the room and burns there until three days after the corpse is moved to the tower of silence. This placement in the tower had to be done during the daytime.

The interior of the tower of silence was originally built in three concentric cir- cles (one each for men, women, and children), with a large central well in the center of the tower. The clothing on the body was then removed, and after it was exposed, naked, the mourners left the tower. The vultures descended from their circling fl ight and took only about an hour to strip the fl esh off the bones.

Nowruz or Noruz [NOH-rooz] Iranian New Year festival celebrated by both Zoroastrians and Muslims

A Parsi woman weaves a kusti, the sacred thread given in the navjote.

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Priests at a contemporary sacrifi ce

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Dried by the sun for a few days, the bones were swept into a large stone box in the central well to preserve them reverently until the resurrection. The morning of the fourth day after death is the most solemn in the death ritual; on that morning the soul goes into the presence of Ahura Mazda and is judged. Special prayers are offered for souls of the dead on this day.

Zoroastrian funeral practice changed in Iran. In its role as a religion in a modernizing country, Zoroastrianism replaced the towers of silence during the twentieth century with cemeteries. By the 1960s, the towers in Iran had fallen into complete disuse. In the new cemeteries, care was taken to protect the earth from direct contact with bodies of the dead, a key Zoroastrian value. The towers of silence are still used in Mumbai, India, despite the fact that there are no more vultures there to devour the corpses. Bodies are put in the towers to decay in the sun and open air, a practice that has led to some inner Zoroastrian controversy and confl ict with local offi cials over health issues.

LO6 Zoroastrianism in North America

Residents of a rural area outside Washington, D.C., are upset about the construction of a Zoroastrian temple in their community. One man who lives

next to the temple property worries that the temple, which will include a parking lot for fi fty cars and its own water and septic system, will limit the already-declining water supply for residents. Others say the worship center will bring an unwanted infl ux of traffi c. Most of the complaints, government offi cials say, have nothing to do with the religious nature of the project, but are about allowing the temple in a residentially zoned area. But the Zoroastrian community has all its permits for construction in order. The leader of the Zoroastrian commu- nity has said, “We are a very small reli- gion,” adding that only three hundred Zoroastrians live in the Washington, D.C., area. “Our fi nances aren’t good. We have no home for gathering together for worship.”

Most Zoroastrians in North America are from India; they speak English and their own dialect of Gujarati. More recent Zoroastrian immigrants are from Iran; they speak Farsi. Because these two communities were separated in Asia for more than a thousand years, they developed some differences in their rituals and festivals that are still refl ected in North America today.

Zoroastrians began to arrive in North America in the 1860s, in very small numbers, settling on the East and West coasts. They engaged in a variety of pro- fessions, from gold prospecting to farming and com- merce. The fi rst Zoroastrian “congregation,” formed by seven Zoroastrians in New York City in 1929, met in private homes. As with other people of Asian origin, Zoroastrians were largely prohibited by U.S. immi- gration laws from entering the country from about 1900 until the 1960s. Then, when the laws were lib- eralized, many Zoroastrians came to North America seeking a more prosperous life, and more Zoroastrian organizations were founded. The main goal of these organizations, like those of almost all other Asian religions that came to North America, was to estab- lish the faith in the New World so that it would be successfully passed down to the Zoroastrians’ chil- dren. Maintaining Zoroastrian culture—language, dress, food, and festivals—through the generations is also important in North America. Many Zoroastrian temples have cultural centers attached to them where these cultural values are emphasized.

Tower of silence in Yazd, Iran

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222 C H A P T E R 9 E N CO U N T E R I N G ZO R OA S T R I A N I S M : T H E WAY O F T H E O N E W I S E LO R D

“Marry inside our community, and

SAVE our religion.” —from a Zoroastrian

website

After the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran top- pled the more religiously tolerant regime of the Shah, many Iranian Zoroastrians no longer felt safe there. Thousands fl ed their ancient ancestral homeland, and most came to North America. The numbers of Zoroastrians there quickly doubled, but some ten- sions arose between Indian and Iranian Zoroastrians. For the most part, they manage to coexist, if only because their small numbers force them to get along. In a few larger Zoroastrian communities, worship services are held separately for each group, with only some important festivals celebrated by Iranians and Indians together. In 2010 it was estimated that the entire population of Zoroastrians in North America was around twenty thousand. Zoroastrians have taken to cyberspace, with many websites to pro- mote the common faith of all Zoroastrians and also some of the distinct groups such as the “reform- ist” Zarathushtrian Assembly and the traditionalist Mazdayasni Zoroastrian Anjuman. Many observers of North American Zoroastrianism expect these dif- ferences to soften over time—especially when the second and third generations take over—and an “American Zoroastrianism” to be established. Some of these sites have matchmaking areas to encourage Zoroastrians to marry each other; as one pleads, “Marry inside our commu- nity, and SAVE our religion.” This will help to keep alive into a new millennium one of the world’s most ancient faiths.

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A young girl dances at a Zoroastrian cultural center.

Thus Spoke Zarathustra

The most infl uential work on Zarathustra in North America today—Thus Spoke Zarathustra by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (FREED-rik NEE-chuh)—is, ironically, not about Zoroastrianism at all. This book is widely regarded as a literary masterpiece and has had a wide cultural impact in the arts and in philosophy. It uses Zarathustra to express Nietzsche’s views, including the introduction of the controversial doctrine of the “Superman,” a term later twisted by Nazi propagandists to connote racial supremacy. (The comic-book and fi lm hero known today by the same name isn’t drawn from Nietzsche’s book; that Superman is traditional in moral matters.) A passionate, semi-biblical

style is employed to inspire readers to transcend conven- tional morality. This work remains a standard on college reading lists.

However, Thus Spoke Zarathustra has been disavowed by almost all Zoroastrians from the time of its publica- tion, because its theme of an individual getting beyond conventional morality, and then even beyond morality itself, contradicts one of the main beliefs of Zoroastrianism. The universe is deeply moral, because it is based on Ahura Mazda’s goodness, and people must follow the way of Zarathustra to live out Ahura Mazda’s morality, not invent their own.

A Closer Look: