Group Communication & Business Presentations

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9 Leading Groups

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Communicate effectively in formal and informal groups. 2. Manage communication through the stages of group development. 3. Successfully lead team and group meetings. 4. Create effective business and management communications when acting as part of a group or team.

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Even though Harley-Davidson produces highly individualistic products, the company operates using teams and groups, from the production �loor to the executive suites.

9.1 Business and Management Communication in Groups Learning Objective # 1: How can individuals effectively communicate in formal and informal groups?

Today's business world features a considerable number of tasks that cannot be performed by a single employee. Complex assignments demand the attention of a series of individuals. Managers designate teams and groups to complete such projects.

Business management requires effective communication in groups. A group consists of two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal (Schein, 1980). Formal and informal groups function in companies on a daily basis. It may be tempting to think of a group and a team as the same thing. Recent literature suggests otherwise. Both consist of a small set of people and seek to achieve goals, but differences exist. Teams become distinct from groups when synergies emerge from greater interdependence and shared effort (Katzenbach & Smith, 1999; Rico et al. 2008). This chapter focuses on groups and the communication processes involved in managing them, although team-building represents an important aspect of group management and leadership.

For Review

De�ine group and team. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

A group consists of two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal. Teams become distinct from groups when synergies emerge from greater interdependence and shared effort.

Harley-Davidson: Building Strong Groups

Harley-Davidson should be considered one of the more iconic U.S. companies. Many things stand out, including the product itself (motorcycles), the customers who buy the products (individualist riders), and the organization's marketing program. The Harley-Davidson brand remains strong with intense customer loyalty. The HOG (Harley Owners Group) program serves those who purchase products.

The company's management program may be lesser known. Harley- Davidson's management team focuses on a strong company culture, built on open communications among all levels of employees and a commitment to teaching all workers about the organization's operations, and utilizing teams and groups to complete numerous company activities. Top management developed a shared vision of the company's values that permeates all group activities. Among these values are:

Tell the truth. Be fair. Keep your promises. Respect the individual. Encourage intellectual curiosity.

Management sought to earn and keep the respect and trust of employees through these principles (Infotechdesign.net, 2008). Imperato (1997) describes the management program this way: "Beneath the image of a hard-riding, tough-as-nails Harley-Davidson bike is a company that thrives on the 'soft' side of management, emphasizing participation, inclusion, learning, and cooperation."

At the core of the management program, self-managed teams operate at both the manufacturing and executive levels. At the production level, semi-autonomous work groups include members who are cross-trained and set their own work schedules. To support the program, management created the Harley-Davidson Learning Center, a facility dedicated to lifelong learning with the primary role of helping employees to keep their skills current. In some cases, this means remedial training in basic skills, but the Learning Center deals mainly with requests for speci�ic job-training courses.

At the executive level, the organization chart became three overlapping circles representing various groups: a Create Demand Circle, a Produce Products Circle, a Support Circle, and in the center where the three circles intersect, a Leadership and Strategy Council. The Create Demand Circle is responsible for sales and marketing issues; the Produce Products Circle handles engineering and manufacturing; and the Support Circle takes care of legal, �inancial, human-resources, and communications concerns. The Leadership and Strategy Council

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coordinates the efforts of the three circles without the use of a standard chain of command, instead relying on interactive group communication. The idea is to apply the concept of self-directed, factory work teams to the executive level.

An important link was established between the union and management through the employee involvement program, which established the goal of overall company long-term success to be achieved through continuing cooperation among all members. Following the reorganization at both levels, Harley-Davidson's sales and pro�itability began to soar. The company has been able to withstand economic hard times and expand to an international base of satis�ied hog owners.

Questions for Students

1. Do you think the internal culture of Harley-Davidson matches external perceptions of the company? 2. What types of communication skills would be needed to work in a self-managed production team? 3. What types of communication skills would be needed for an executive to work in a self-managed team?

Communicating in Formal Groups

When an organization's leaders establish a formal group, the purpose is to achieve company goals and objectives. Formal groups are established through a notation in an organization chart or by a management directive. Three common types of formal groups are work groups, committees and boards, and project teams.

Communication in a work group or department consists of the standard chain of command, as a supervisor directs the activities of members who also interact with one another. The same will be true for a committee or board directed by an elected or appointed leader, although many times such groups also keep formal minutes to record their activities and elements of discussions. A project team, which is led by a team leader, will interact in many of the same ways as work groups. Project teams often are asked to �ile progress reports as stages of the project or task are completed.

For Review

De�ine formal group and name the three most common types. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

When an organization's leaders establish a formal group through a notation in an organizational chart or by a management directive, the purpose will be to achieve company goals and objective. Three of the most common types of formal groups are work groups, committees and boards, and project teams.

Communicating in Informal Groups

An informal group, or a friendship group, emerges for the purposes of socialization and friendship. Such groups form without the endorsement of organizational leaders and do not have a designated structure (Shirky, 2004). People make friends on the job for various reasons. Three items tend to bring informal groups together: activities, shared values or sentiments, and interactions. Communication patterns in informal groups involve networks such as gossip and rumors via various media, and in-person conversations. Many employees depend on informal groups for social support and a sense of belonging, as well as an outlet to discuss company actions, decisions, and policies.

The distinction between formal and informal groups has become blurred. New forms of of�ice design, coupled with the emergence of social media, lead to sets of individuals simultaneously engaging in formal and informal interactions and activities. Employees increasingly rely on social media to stay in contact with the home of�ice but also with friends and peers inside and outside the organization. The use of Twitter and instant messages or texts to contact a manager to notify her that an employee is sick results in a follow-up to check on the person and offer assistance, but also results in another immediate message to other employees to cover for the employee who is ill. The same media allow employees to make social contacts with each other on and off the job.

Group Members

Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion leaders, members in good standing, and the gatekeeper. The leader directs group activities. Formal leaders are assigned by the organization. Informal leaders emerge based on the group's choice over time. Members who are most closely aligned with the leader become opinion leaders. These individuals are most willing to express group values. Members in good standing are those included in the group who do not share its leadership. The gatekeeper determines who will be in the group and who will be excluded. The gatekeeper will be one of the �irst three, a member, opinion leader, or leader. At times, the entire group serves in the role, which is then known as the gate-keeping function. An employee who agrees to chair a committee, on the condition that a certain co-worker not be included in the group, is acting as a gatekeeper; when several employees form a bowling team and deliberately exclude one person, the group has performed the gate-keeping function.

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The gatekeeper determines who will be included in or excluded from the group.

For Review

What are the four types of group members found in formal and informal groups? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion leaders, members in good standing, and the gatekeeper. The leader directs group activities. Members who are most closely aligned with the leader become opinion leaders and are the most willing to express group values. Members in good standing are those in the group who do not share its leadership. The gatekeeper determines who will and who will not be included in the group.

Styles of Group Behavior

Individual members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behavior in groups—con�lict, conformity, or consensus (Phipps, 2007; Tubbs, 1995). Con�lict can occur as a natural consequence of social interaction. Conformity involves acceptance of the will and agenda of the majority or leader in order to move on. Pressures for conformity or premature consensus can lead to less-than-ideal decisions or decisions without true agreement, as the side with the greatest authority or willingness to defend a point of view wins as the other side concedes. Consensus occurs when genuine agreement among members emerges.

Several tactics help in avoiding con�licts, and achieving conformity and consensus. Various problem-solving techniques (as will be noted later in this chapter) are open communication, goal clari�ication, and the creation of superordinate goals that all members agree can be used to facilitate group interactions.

For Review

What are the three styles of behavior present in groups? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

Individual members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behavior—con�lict, conformity, or consensus. Con�lict can occur as a natural consequence of social interaction. Conformity involves acceptance of the will and agenda of the majority or leader in order to move on. Consensus occurs when genuine agreement emerges among members.

Concept Check

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9.2 Stages of Group Development Learning Objective # 2: How can a leader effectively manage the stages of group development?

Tuckman and Jensen (1997) developed an often-cited explanation of how groups evolve. The model suggests a sequence in which individuals gradually surrender a sense of independence in favor of greater interdependence. The sequence is not as precise as the one depicted in Figure 9.1, but it does provide a general sense of how groups tend to operate. Table 9.1 identi�ies the communication issues in each stage.

Figure 9.1 The stages of group development

Communication issues are present at each stage of group development.

Table 9.1: Communication issues in group stages

Stage Communication Challenge

Forming Resolving feelings of uncertainty Acquainting members with one another Seeking to become a leader Testing behaviors to see if they are acceptable to the group (feedback)

Storming Reduce and resolve con�licts Overcome resistance to group standards

Norming Inform members about norms Provide feedback to someone who violates or ignores a norm Explain the consequences of not following norms Offer encouragement and assistance to new and ongoing members

Performing Support team members Coordinate activities Quickly resolve disputes

Adjourning Provide closure formally or informally Ceremonial skills

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For Review

What are the �ive stages of group development? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

Forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

Forming

Initially, new members of a group are less likely to trust one another to some extent and to experience feelings of uncertainty. Two behaviors appear in the forming stage. The �irst is to try out actions and activities to see if others in the group deem them as acceptable. The second is tentative action by a designated leader, or by those who seek the role when a leader has not been appointed. The forming stage ends when suf�icient compliance suggests that members see themselves as part of the larger group.

Communication skills can give you an advantage in the forming stage. The ability to make others feel comfortable, remembering names and individual idiosyncrasies, and building cooperation can help you attain a leadership role. Those wishing to be effective team players also rely on communication skills to coordinate and work with others.

Storming

Although members now view themselves as part of something, they sometimes disagree with the constraints imposed by the group or simply test to see what the limits are. In the storming stage, the leader faces resistance as individuals seek to discover their place in the group's structure (Tuckman, 1965). If the leader cannot manage the group successfully, the possibility of subgroups, member procrastination, con�licts between members, and open rebellion emerges. Group survival may be at risk.

Con�lict resolution skills and the ability to reduce potential new con�licts, as Chapter 7 notes, are the key communication skills required in the storming stage. They include having the ability to listen and �ind common ground among disputing parties, and seeking or encouraging the willingness to make tradeoffs as part of the con�lict resolution process. A leader and group members who cannot effectively communicate run the risk of a dysfunctional group. Leaders who are able to de�ine limits and �ind common ground among members help navigate the group through the storming stage.

Norming

The close of the storming stage occurs when a leader has been established, often through the efforts of another member who challenges the group to come together. Closer relationships build between members, and discussions of power become less emotional and more matter of fact. The norming stage is complete when members share a common set of expectations about behaviors and contributions to the group. The communication approach used by the leader and group members de�ines the way a group works, such as by integrating new members into the group, offering advice and encouragement to all members, and coordinating group activities.

Also in this stage, group norms develop. Norms are rules governing behaviors in the group. As shown in Table 9.2, norms apply to three main areas in both formal and informal groups. Many times, norms overlap between the two. When a member violates a norm, group members will express disapproval, formally or informally.

Table 9.2: Types of norms

Effort/Productivity Units of production Time on the job and working overtime Department-speci�ic activities (e.g., sales calls, sales totals, follow-ups with customers)

Work Behaviors Clothes worn, jewelry, hairstyle, other features of appearance Use of language, cursing, formality Following or ignoring work rules and procedures Punctuality versus tardiness

Social Behaviors Fraternization between management and labor Of�ice romances

Norms summarize group in�luence processes, including the rules for joining and maintaining membership (Hackman, 2003). Norms apply to workplace behaviors rather than off-work circumstances. They often develop slowly but then become dif�icult to change. Norms also apply to behaviors rather than private feelings and thoughts. Some group members may "go along" with norms they think are foolish or insigni�icant. High-status members may choose to ignore some norms, because they do not fear losing membership. In the norming stage, these rules of behavior clarify the group or organization's key values and convey a sense of identity. Enforcing norms assists an individual in meeting behavioral expectations and in avoiding making behavioral mistakes (Feldman, 1984).

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Norms apply to a variety of workplace behaviors, from the level of effort given on the job to starting of�ice romances.

Communication informs members of the presence of norms, violations of norms, and the potential consequences of ignoring or violating a norm. Formal and informal messages convey such information. For example, someone who is chronically late might receive a memo (formal) regarding the behavior or may be taken aside by group members who informally remind the individual that the norm is to be on time.

For Review

Name three types of norms present in formal and informal groups. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

Norms regarding effort or productivity, work behaviors, and social behaviors.

Performing

The performing stage has opened when the group reaches the point at which the primary activities revolve around solving problems. Clear lines of communication connect members, and members support one another and cooperate. Disputes in the performing stage are handled quickly and constructively (Mason & Grif�in, 2005). At this point, interdependence reaches its peak and independence has been surrendered as much as it will be. Ongoing work groups and committees that reach the performing stage remain there unless drastic events interfere. The performing stage often involves moving from a formal group to a successful team. Then, project teams and informal groups with an end point (such as when a task is complete or the bowling season ends) move to the �inal stage, adjourning.

Adjourning

Groups that successfully complete tasks often end with a ceremony or celebration. These take the form of parties, of�icial statements of appreciation by company leaders, and even graduations and mock funerals. Individuals resume a stronger sense of independence as the group disbands. In the adjourning stage, a leader can summarize group accomplishments and express gratitude for good work, providing a role model for future group efforts. Adjourning can provide closure to group members and let every member know what the next assignment is.

The group development models proposed by Tubbs, Fisher, Tuckman, and Jensen combine the elements of con�lict, conformity, and consensus with individual willingness to subsume personal agendas to larger group goals and activities. Positive outcomes occur only when communication skills are effectively utilized.

Leading Groups

Two forms of leadership appear in groups as they develop. Formal group leadership occurs when an individual has been selected or designated by the organization to ful�ill the role. A person who has been assigned to manage a task force or serve as a chair of a committee is a formal group leader. Informal leaders, or emergent leaders, evolve into the role and are selected by the group.

Poole (1983) suggests that groups move back and forth between three "tracks." Effective leaders work to understand the natures of and interrelationships between the task track, topic track, and relation track. The task track represents the process by which a group seeks to accomplish goals. A group can complete tasks by individuals working separately and then coming together at a key moment or it can subdivide into sets of individuals working on different parts of a project. The task track affects communication patterns within the group as it functions. The topic track is the speci�ic topic a group discusses when it meets. The relation track focuses on the role and state of relationships in the group as they affect functioning.

When a group meets, the leader will experience "breakpoints" at which the group switches from one track to another. Shifts in the conversation, postponing discussion of topics, and seeking to adjourn are examples of breakpoints. As groups operate over time, leaders coordinate activities while seeking to ensure that the group functions ef�iciently.

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The term "tight knit" applies to groups exhibiting higher levels of cohesion.

One key aspect of leading effective groups involves building cohesion and encouragement of effort by group members. At times, group members tend to give less effort to a group than they would if working individually or alone, a problem known as social loa�ing. At times, a member may decide to take a free ride and contribute nearly nothing. Effective group leadership includes �inding ways to persuade a social loafer to at least get involved and show an effort. One method is to assign the individual speci�ic tasks and require progress reports to be made in front of the group. The leader can encourage the social loafer to offer opinions during meetings, thereby increasing the person's involvement with the group (Liden & Erdogan, 2003).

For Review

De�ine social loa�ing. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

The problem known as social loa�ing occurs at times when group members give less effort to a group than they would if working individually or alone.

Building Cohesion

Group cohesiveness re�lects the degree of goal commitment, conformity, cooperation, and group control over members. The term "tight knit" applies to groups exhibiting higher levels of cohesion. A link exists between the level of cohesion in a group and subsequent performance, most notably when the group focuses more on the task (the task track) than on mere interpersonal relationships (the relation track) or group pride (Mullen & Copper, 1994). Leaders have vested interests in developing and maintaining cohesive groups (Litterer, 1973; Seashore, 1954). A cohesive work group often experiences lower levels of member turnover and con�lict. Cohesive committees use time more ef�iciently and engage in fewer counterproductive arguments. Cohesive task force groups focus on �inalizing the job and work together more ef�iciently.

A group with too little cohesion often suffers from the lack of productivity. The problems associated with low cohesion begin with goal disagreement rather than agreement. Members do not conform to any potential group norms. They fail to cooperate, and group sanctions do not affect them. A dysfunctional group can result, one that demonstrates (Lencioni, 2002):

lack of trust fear of con�lict little or no commitment to the group avoidance of accountability inattention to results

In contrast, groups with desirable levels of cohesion tend to enjoy the highest levels of success. Among the bene�its of a cohesive, functional group are:

Members achieve high productivity. Members help those experiencing problems. Members extend extra effort during a crisis. Members work without supervision. Members share a positive social atmosphere.

A leader can build cohesion among group members through the tactics in Table 9.3.

Table 9.3: How to build group cohesiveness

Keep the group size from four to seven members

Provide opportunities for members to interact frequently

Create common goals for all members (superordinate goals)

Communicate expectations for individual members and the overall group

Source: G. C. Homans (1950). The human group. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Effective leaders help build cohesion; ineffective ones drive wedges between members (Homans, 1950).

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Group leaders should also understand that cohesion might grow to a point at which problems begin to emerge. Overly cohesive groups are more likely to set norms to reduce output or lower levels of effort. They may be inclined to view other groups as rivals and create unnecessary con�licts. At times, the formal leader in the group becomes unable to function because of the in�luence of the informal leader.

The most substantial problem with overly cohesive groups is labeled groupthink, which results when group pressures for conformity become so intense that the group avoids unusual, minority, or unpopular views (Janis, 1991). At the extreme, groupthink becomes a process by which the group develops a sense of invulnerability, believing it can function without outside in�luence or sanction. The group self-censors information, and it fails to perform effectively within organizational con�ines (Von Bergen & Kirk, 1978). Some observers suggest that, under the leadership of Kenneth Lay, the executive team at Enron engaged in groupthink by failing to challenge instances of fraud and corruption. These instances involved the use of accounting loopholes, special purpose entities, and poor �inancial reporting, which were used to hide billions in debt from failed deals and projects, along with coercion directed at the Arthur Andersen accounting �irm that audited Enron's books (Healy & Krishna, 2003).

To combat groupthink, leaders can introduce new members (at least two) who have divergent opinions. Members may be isolated from each other in order to reduce interactions that reinforce groupthink opinions. Also, members may be assigned to new groups to encourage involvement in other parts of the organization. A group leader combating groupthink (if not a part of the groupthink process) needs to �ind ways to introduce divergent opinions and attitudes into the group. During interactions, differences in points of view should be encouraged. The leader or highest-ranking person should not be �irst to express an opinion. A second group can be established to examine the �indings of the original group. The use of a devil's advocate to challenge ideas can be helpful (Janis, 1982).

In summary, effective communication skills facilitate every stage of a group's development. Further, an effective leader �inds ways to establish the most productive level of group cohesion. This includes dealing with problem members, such as social loafers. Communication skills assist in managing a team's efforts and social relationships. These skills include decision-making, persuasion, and coordination.

For Review

De�ine group cohesiveness and groupthink, and explain the relationship between the two concepts. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.

Group cohesiveness re�lects the degree of goal commitment, conformity, cooperation, and group control over members. Groupthink results when group pressures for conformity become so intense that the group avoids unusual, minority, or unpopular views. Groupthink emerges when groups experience levels of cohesion that are too high.

Concept Check

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Digital Vision

Effective group leadership requires successful coordination of meetings.

9.3 Leading Meetings Learning Objective # 3: What steps and tactics are involved in successfully leading team and group meetings?

Effective group leadership requires successful coordination of meetings. Unfortunately, attending meetings can be one of the more universally despised aspects of organizational life. People easily become bored, frustrated, and even gloomy. At the same time, tasks assigned to teams and groups often require going to meetings (Dvorak, 2006). Effective managerial communications programs use meeting time wisely and lead to productive results. Ineffective systems cause people to waste time and become annoyed (Armour, 1997).

Meetings take place for a variety of reasons. They can be called at the unit or departmental level to discuss issues pertaining to that group. A task force or project team may meet frequently to coordinate activities. Meetings held at the companywide level often transmit information that applies to every employee. To facilitate the success of any type of meeting, follow these steps:

stating the motivation for holding a meeting preparing for the meeting managing the meeting session following up on the meeting

The technologies that create virtual meetings present new challenges to leading meetings. Leaders will still need to tend to these steps, but face additional challenges. Time differences must be accounted for when scheduling meetings with those in other locations. The manager will need to be able to overcome the problems associated with a less-rich information channel in which members cannot see all nonverbal and paraverbal cues. Additional information about virtual teams is provided later in this chapter.

For Review

What four steps are involved in holding meetings? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

When seeking to hold meetings the steps to be followed include stating the motivation for holding a meeting, preparing for the meeting, managing the meeting session, and following up on the meeting.

The Motivation for Holding a Meeting

Meetings take time and cost the organization money in terms of the payroll devoted to attendees. For example, a meeting with six attendees, each averaging $25 per hour in wages, costs $150 per hour. Therefore, a manager should determine that the bene�its of holding the meeting exceed those costs. Table 9.4 identi�ies legitimate reasons for conducting meetings.

Table 9.4: Reasons for calling meetings

Reason Activity

Initiate a new activity Planning and goal setting sessions

Invigorate a stagnant activity Brainstorming or creativity technique; progress report

Information session Present �indings of a report or analysis

Discussion session Evaluate pros and cons of a proposal, plan, or product

Performance session Update on progress of an activity

Motivate employees Pep talk, set goals and rewards

Educate employees Updates on events or outcomes of events

Networking Panel or breakout sessions with other professionals

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Reward high-performers Public recognition with prize, trophy, certi�icate

Recreation Team-building exercises off-site

Adapted from: J. S. O'Rourke, IV (2010). Management Communication: A case analysis approach. (4th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Managers should not call meetings when a key person will not be available. They should not hold meetings unless attendees have suf�icient time to prepare. And, managers should avoid scheduling meetings that they know will lead to con�licts rather than positive results. The next phase begins when the manager has become convinced that holding a meeting will be worthwhile.

Meeting Preparation

The �irst assignment in meeting preparation is to decide who should attend. This includes the number of people, the organizational elements they will represent, what function(s) each might serve, and potential compatibility with others at the meeting. As discussed earlier, a more limited group of �ive to seven employees will be the most effective in many situations (Filley, House, & Kerr, 1976; Levine & Moreland, 1990).

When you are assigned to lead a meeting, the level of preparation put into the process will determine whether it will succeed. Following these steps helps to create a systematic, organized meeting:

1. Obtain clearance for the meeting place or location. 2. Make sure the meeting location has all needed equipment. 3. Send out advance notice to participants that a meeting will take place, and con�irm their attendance at the meeting. 4. Create a detailed agenda for the meeting, including any ground rules. 5. Distribute the agenda to all the con�irmed attendees, allowing enough time for them to read it thoroughly (Stoneman & Dickinson, 1989; Hynes, 2008).

A detailed agenda, as shown in Figure 9.2, contains four elements: logistics, purpose, agenda items, and attachments.

Figure 9.2 : A meeting agenda A meeting agenda for a workplace safety committee is shown.

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Agenda for Workplace Safety Committee Meeting

Prepared on: June 27, 2011

By: Jennifer Jones, human resource department

Attendees: Jennifer Jones, Fred White, Susan Ward, Roger Smith, Marvin Johnson, Yen-Wen Kuo

Date and Meeting Time: July 2, 2:00 p.m.

Location: South Conference Room, 2nd �loor

Subject: Recent Fire in Storage Facility

Agenda items:

1. Call to Order 2. Reports (time allotment: 20-30 minutes)

a. Fire Department assessment of the cause -- Fred White b. Injuries to personnel -- Jennifer Jones c. Insurance claim �iling -- Yen-Wen Kuo d. Contacts and counseling of families of the injured -- Marvin Johnson e. Company liability and legal concerns -- Susan Ward

3. Resolution of current crisis (time allotment: 20-30 minutes) a. Recommendations b. Discussion

4. Avoidance of similar accidents in the future (time allotment: 20-30 minutes) a. Recommendations b. Discussion c. Set goals and deadlines

5. Adjournment

Attachments:

Fire Department of�icial report Injury roster

Even the seating arrangement of the meeting deserves attention. A meeting held at a circular table reduces the in�luence of the leader, because the person does not sit in a dominant position, but the arrangement increases communication among members. A rectangular table with a chair at one end establishes greater dominance but may limit interaction and communication. The leader should consider power dynamics and the intent of the meeting when setting up a seating arrangement (Hackman & Morris, 1975). After establishing the meeting time and place, and distributing the agenda, the next phase will be conducting the actual event.

Managing the Meeting

Effective participation in meetings becomes the responsibility of every person involved. The leader plays the pivotal role, but other individuals can contribute in ways that are helpful or detrimental. Part of career success involves the perception by others that you can participate in a team or group setting without being the source of problems. As a leader, conduct the meeting in four stages: introduce and restate the meeting's purpose, provide a brief review of the agenda, tend to all matters stated in the agenda, and summarize and present conclusions to establish closure. The �inal stage often includes assigning various tasks to speci�ic group members and following with an email or memo that lists these responsibilities. The leader can then ask for follow- up reports about completion of the assigned tasks.

As a meeting begins, four roles can be assigned to participants. First, the leader normally will be the person who called the meeting and formulated the agenda. This person holds primary authority during the course of the meeting. Second, a recorder takes notes that will later be used as meeting minutes or a meeting summary. Third, a timekeeper makes sure the agenda stays on a reasonable schedule without running too long. Fourth, participants are those who actively engage in the discussion and agenda.

Formal meetings that will include votes often employ mechanisms such as Robert's Rules of Order, which spells out protocols for enumerating agenda items, entertaining motions, seconding of motions, discussion of motions, and how to conduct the actual vote, including the vote to adjourn the meeting. These

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John Howard/Corbis

When emotions run high, meeting leaders can use communication tactics such as "time out" periods in which the group disbands to take a break.

instruments help maintain order and make it easier to record decisions, votes, and outcomes, including passed motions, rejected motions, and tabled motions. Less-formal meetings still need order. Table 9.5 lists three other styles of meeting formats.

Table 9.5: Meeting formats

Format Explanation

Staff Conference Each team member reports to the leader, answers any questions, and makes recommendations with little input from other team members

Congressional System Leader is in charge; members raise hands to participate or contribute

House of Commons Style

Leader delegates conduct of the meeting to another member; all members speak freely

Source: New York Times. Chairing a meeting: To keep order, be true to form, September 22, 1999 p. C25.

The primary problems that meeting leaders encounter include topic drift, running over time, and con�licts rather than conversations. Unexpected topics can cause the discussion to drift away from the intended agenda. For example, in the meeting agenda shown in Figure 9.2, the group convened speci�ically to discuss a �ire in the facility. Drifting into discussions about the union protecting the person who accidentally caused the �ire quickly becomes counterproductive (Matson, 1996).

A meeting that runs over often results when people dominate discussions with personal opinions and observations. Everyone has experienced a meeting in which one participant loves "the sound of his own voice." Effective meeting management seeks to contain these individuals with comments such as, "Let's move on to the next agenda item," or, "We only have about �ive minutes left, so let's �inish this up."

The most dif�icult issue involves communicating during meeting con�licts. Tempers can �lare when emotions run high and people hold strongly different positions on an issue. Meeting leaders can use communication tactics such as "time out" periods in which the group disbands to take a break, and other con�lict management techniques, to hold emotions in check. Angry participants can be separated. All members can be reminded of the group's purpose, and the leader can acknowledge that some might have intense opinions or feeling about an issue. Humor often diffuses charged con�lict situations, but the leader must be aware of the parties involved before making jests during a strong disagreement. Even a phrase such as, "Let's all take a deep breath here," might help. Summary statements are used to record con�licting positions (Mann, 2006).

Group Decision-Making Processes

One pitfall of trying to avoid confrontation is that a manager might seek to balance levels of con�lict by arriving at a consensus too early, before the ideal course of action has been identi�ied. To avoid this pitfall, one discussion technique, dialectical inquiry, involves inspiring genuine debate on an issue. The approach requires that all points of view be presented, discussed, and debated until a resolution is decided. Dialectic inquiry stands in contrast to the consensus method, in which the goal becomes to reach consensus rather than to conduct a genuine debate of the issue. Research suggests that dialectic inquiry achieves better results than the consensus method in the areas of �inal group consensus, individual member acceptance of the decision, and member satisfaction with the group (Priem, Harrison, & Muir, 1995; Schweiger, Sandberg, & Rechner, 1989).

In certain situations, a devil's advocacy approach to con�lict resolution provides the needed discussion and debate. The "devil's advocate" is the person in the group (leader or otherwise) who willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force individuals and subgroups to defend their positions. Devil's advocacy appears to share the advantages of dialectic inquiry over the consensus approach (Murrell, Stewart, & Engel, 2011).

Group decision-making represents a key element in achieving goals. Successful analysis of alternatives and choosing the appropriate course of action involves the efforts of the members and the leader working cooperatively. Communication skills, including listening, con�lict resolution, and the ability move the group forward by summarizing positions, can assist in reaching the desired decision.

For Review

Explain dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, and the devil's advocacy approach to group decision-making processes. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Dialectic inquiry involves inspiring genuine debate on an issue. The approach requires that all points of view be presented, discussed, and debated until a resolution is decided. Dialectic inquiry stands in contrast to the consensus method in which the goal becomes to reach consensus

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Disruptions of meetings take many forms.

rather than conduct a genuine debate of the issue. The devil's advocacy approach to con�lict resolution provides the needed discussion and debate in which the "devil's advocate" willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force individuals and subgroups to defend their positions.

Responsibilities of Attendees

Those attending the meeting also have responsibilities. Punctuality means the meeting will not be disturbed by late arrivals. Other forms of considerate behavior, coupled with effective listening skills, are in order. Participants may take notes to help remember key points or to raise questions at appropriate times. Disagreements that remain civil stand the best chance of resolution. Participants should remain aware of and sensitive to the verbal and nonverbal messages they transmit while in attendance.

Disruptive Members

At times, communication and decision-making processes suffer from the disruptions of a single member. An individual may have strong objections to some aspect of the meeting or may have a hidden agenda to pursue. Tactics used by disrupters are:

attempting to change the subject making accusations against other members or the leader dominating and interrupting clowning and joking to interrupt the �low of discussion

A leader can seek out a potential disrupter prior to a meeting and ask for cooperation. The leader can attempt to settle the disrupter's agenda before going to the meeting. At times, the leader can assign the disruptor a role, such as taking notes or summarizing the viewpoints of others. To confront the disrupter, the leader may pre-arrange allies to deal with the behavior. The disrupter can be told in advance that his or her actions may lead to negative consequences from other members of the group.

During a meeting, the leader should make sure that emotional issues do not get out of hand. Summarizing viewpoints allows time to prepare more reasoned responses. Asking questions may help prevent the disruptor from dominating the agenda (Jones, 1980).

Follow-up

After a meeting, completing follow-up documents begins. Formal meetings normally require minutes, which are a summary record of what transpired during the meeting. Minutes are recorded by one of the group members and will be �iled at a key location. Meeting summaries or minutes may be sent to participants via email or a memo following less-formal meetings. One purpose is to make sure that events and decisions during the meeting are accurately recorded. A second purpose will be to remind participants of any activities they have volunteered to take care of as well as commitments made to future activities.

Meetings continue to offer the possibility of coordinating activities, making better decisions, gathering expertise for discussion and negotiation, and even serving as a place to train managers, who can conduct meetings in order to practice taking charge in a structured setting. Meetings also offer the potential of wasting time and money, leading to con�licts, and allowing members to disengage and take a free ride. The quality of the leader or manager determines the outcome.

Concept Check

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9.4 Formal Group Business Communication Learning Objective # 4: Preparing effective management communications by groups and teams involves what processes?

Two levels of communication take place when a group operates. The �irst involves communication among members as the group completes its assignment, as has been described in this chapter. The second occurs when the group seeks to send a message or messages to others, among them managers at higher ranks, other groups, sets of employees, and outside publics such as the government. Group communications such as these appear in written and oral forms.

Group and Team Writing Projects

Formal groups are often asked to prepare formal written documents. Three of the more common are of�icial letters, reports, and proposals, although other variations may be prepared, such as a manifesto or mission statement, a revision to the mission statement, a statement of corporate vision (including those pertaining to ethics and sustainability), a planning document, and even smaller items such as memos.

Communicating in an authoritative voice that represents the viewpoints of all group members—including the voices of consensus and dissent—constitutes the primary challenge for formal team writing projects. The �inal product should speak with one voice, as if the document had been prepared by a single individual, even though more than one person has been involved. Three options for preparing a team's writing project are single writer, co-authorship, and multiple authors. Each exhibits distinct advantages and disadvantages.

For Review

What three methods can be used when preparing group and team and writing projects? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Three options for preparing a team's writing project include a single writer, co-authorship, and multiple authors.

Single Writer

Most of you have probably experienced a situation, at work or in class, in which one individual clearly has superior writing skills. Oftentimes the group, individually or collectively, will ask that person to write the report or proposal. This should not mean others in the group abdicate responsibility. Instead, single authorship allows the document to be prepared in a consistent voice, including the level of formality or informality as well as the preciseness of language with regard to both technical terminology and not-so-technical aspects of the message.

The other members of the group assist the process by collecting materials for the �irst draft and offering suggestions for revision. Group members might provide feedback that a point should be added, omitted, or expanded upon. The more concrete the suggestions, the better the odds that the document will communicate exactly as it should.

Two potential disadvantages of employing a single author are con�licts and social loa�ing. Members may genuinely disagree about what the document should say and not say. Some may decide not to participate, either because they believe their opinions will be ignored or because they wish to attend to other matters (Ede & Lunsford, 1990).

The role of the group leader in a single-author situation will be to make sure everyone contributes his or her fair share, that con�licts about content are resolved in a professional and ef�icient manner, and that the process stays on schedule. An effective leader expresses appreciation to both the single writer and to those in the group who continue to participate in preparing the �inal document.

Co-authorship

Several forms of co-authorship can be used when preparing formal documents. It may be that two individuals are assigned the responsibility. In other circumstances, nearly every member of the group writes a part of the document and then it is compiled and �inalized by one or more members.

The advantages of co-authorship include the ability to break the document down into areas of interest or specialization, which can then be assigned to the individuals best suited to each one (Allen et al., 1987). Doing so may allow each part of the report to receive greater scrutiny by the person with the greatest level of expertise. Collecting materials moves more quickly, as each part is prepared separately during the same time period. Collaborative writing helps group members socialize with one another, including allowing more senior members to assist and counsel newer employees. Co-authorships can also foster communication among members. In some instances, the process of collaboration improves the writing skills of team members (Gebhardt, 1980).

Co-authorship also creates challenges. Writing in one voice becomes considerably more dif�icult. Making transitions from one part of the document to the next also requires attention. Those who complete individual sections may be more prone to be defensive if the segment is challenged or if other members of the group request revisions.

The role of the group leader in co-authorship begins with making sure the project does not break down into "turf wars," with each section of writers and/or individual person defending their work. The leader assumes larger coordination responsibilities, making sure that each part arrives on schedule and that the

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Co-authorships can also foster communication among team or group members.

IT Stock/Thinkstock

Group verbal presentations require preparation and practice.

whole document can be completed on time. The leader ensures communication between all members so that the whole report works toward a consistent voice in content and writing style. The leader may need to adjudicate the decision to select a �inal person to polish and edit the completed document before submission.

Multiple Authors, Single Editor

Similar to co-authorship, the multiple-authors-single-editor approach involves individuals and sets of employees that are assigned to segments of work. The difference is that one individual is placed in charge of each draft and the �inal document at the outset. Each segment will be submitted to the editor for revision individually. Then, the editor prepares the �inal document for consideration by the overall group.

The multiple-authors-single-editor approach takes advantage of one person's writing skills and ability to view the project from a micro and macro perspective. Many times, this talent can be hard to �ind. When a person is available, the �inal document stands a better chance of being written in a clear voice and with a consistent style. At the same time, multiple authorship often allows for greater specialization, making it possible for

each part of the report to be detailed and clari�ied by someone with speci�ic knowledge about that area.

The primary disadvantages of the multiple-authors-single-editor approach continue to be the potential for turf-building and con�lict over content. Someone, or a few people who have invested considerable effort into a section, may have such a sense of ownership that they do not take criticism or suggestions for revision well. Con�licts among these authors can arise as well as con�licts between the authors and the editor (Ede & Lunsford, 1990).

The role of the group leader in a multiple-authors-single-editor context remains basically the same. The leader continues to be responsible for deadlines, coordination, and con�lict resolution (Bacon, 1990).

The role of a member in all three of these writing circumstances should be to contribute as a responsible team player. Doing so involves communicating concerns in a nonconfrontational manner, offering assistance when needed, meeting deadlines, and seeking to help successfully achieve the group's objectives. Effective team players are also good listeners. They respect differences, value diversity, and are willing to use the resources provided by others (Harper & Harper, 1993)

Group Speaking Projects

A group may be asked to make a verbal presentation of �indings or group activities. Many of the principles, as discussed in previous chapters, that apply to individual verbal communications also pertain to a group presentation. It is important to understand the target audience, including its size and composition, in order to construct an effective message. The group should seek to predict the audience's probable reaction to the presentation—positive, neutral, or negative—in order to be able to respond. The presentation should put forth a key idea or limited set of ideas, and the message should be tailored to those ideas. At that point, the group can collectively decide whether a single-speaker or multiplepresenter approach will be most effective.

For Review

What two methods can be used when making group or team presentations? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The group can collectively decide whether a single-speaker or multiple-presenter approach will be most effective.

Single Speaker

A single speaker may be chosen for the same reason as a single author. One group member may possess superior public-speaking skills, and the group wishes to take advantage of that talent. Members of the group may be seated in the audience together or separately to reinforce the speaker and provide additional support.

The primary advantage of a single speaker, especially one who is gifted, will be the ability to control the tone and pace of the presentation. Other members of the group can assist by running any audiovisual equipment or other features incorporated into the event. The net result can be a more seamless presentation that concentrates on the key points in the message.

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Christopher Robbins

Virtual groups allow communication and collaboration over great distances.

A single speaker typically begins a presentation by acknowledging the other members of the group. The presenter often also thanks other members both for their contributions and for attending the presentation. Then the actual content can be delivered. Following the presentation, the other group members may be called on to respond to questions and objectives.

A potential disadvantage is that a single speaker may give a more mundane presentation, should the individual not be as talented as the group had hoped. Audience members may wonder why only one person is talking. If there is a cohesive team that worked to create the presentation, allowing several presenters can create a greater awareness of this and could allow for a better impact overall.

Multiple Presenters

When more than one speaker will be presenting, several potential advantages emerge. The switch from one person to the next can enliven the audience, and differing styles of speaking may prove interesting. The address can be framed in such a way that a person with expertise speaks about his or her part of the operation or analysis, adding credibility. Multiple speakers may also re�lect valuable professionalism, even gravitas, suggesting the topic is indeed important.

Ordinarily, one individual serves as moderator or coordinator when multiple presenters appear. This individual will have the most polished speaking skills. It will be his or her role to open the session with a welcoming statement, introduce the speakers or panel members, and possibly outline what will be said. As the presentation unfolds, the coordinator directs the audience to the next speaker while providing a transition.

Multiple-presenter arrangements can become distracting. Differences in presentation style may cause the audience to need to adjust, and some may be focused on the previous speaker rather than the new one. When transitions are abrupt and not well coordinated, the presentation does not appear as professional. Movements by and facial expressions of those not speaking can attract the attention of the audience, moving it away from the person talking.

Effective multiple-presenter events are practiced and well coordinated. The moderator moves the �low of information as smoothly as is possible. Those not speaking remain focused on the message provided by the one in front. Transitions between speakers happen quickly. The individuals with the most direct experience or expertise handle questions. The moderator then provides closure as the presentation ends. The key goal of a presentation will be to provide the appearance of competent professionalism.

Virtual Groups

Today's technologies allow for the use of virtual groups or sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the nonvirtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities. Virtual teams and groups are formed for short- and long-term projects, including group writing assignments, as well as deliberations on long-range, ongoing issues (Ante, 2003). Virtual groups allow individuals and companies to reduce travel costs and permit people from remote locations to participate. A meeting can be arranged as quickly as if members are simply down the hall, not across the country or ocean (Naughton, 2003).

The leader's role in a virtual group is to schedule meetings, keep the conversation and dialog �lowing, and to summarize at the end. A leader should follow up virtual meetings to ensure that agreement occurred, that individuals know their tasks and assignments, and that members are aware of upcoming deadlines and meetings.

Virtual groups do have limitations. If group meetings have no visual aspects, such as those in a videoconference, then paraverbal and nonverbal cues, such as voice tone, in�lection, eye contact, distance, gestures, and facial expression, cannot as easily be transmitted. This limits the richness of communications between members. Socialization can become less likely, or paradoxically, more likely in virtual groups. The typical boundaries between colleagues working and living in the same place do not exist between colleagues of virtual groups. There is both more (for example, connecting with a colleague via Facebook or over email outside of work hours) and less freedom to communicate (for example, the lack of spontaneous of�ice socialization that occurs with colleagues in a centralized work environment) about topics outside work. The boundaries of what is and what is not appropriate still apply, but the routines of virtual groups typically take on a life of their own and relate back to the business culture and leader of the company or industry, and the speci�ic task at hand.

Scheduling virtual meetings can also prove a challenge or be quite easy, depending on the colleagues' locations.

In spite of the obstacles, the use of virtual groups can be expected to increase. The ability to see the other party through various new technologies increases the usefulness of virtual groups, which can have great value for national and international companies.

For Review

Describe a virtual group. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

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Virtual groups are sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the non-virtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities.

Concept Check

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9.5 Chapter Review Management communication plays a critical role in operating groups and teams effectively. A group consists of two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal (Schein, 1980). Teams become distinct from groups when synergies emerge from greater interdependence and shared effort. An organization's leaders establish a formal group to achieve company goals and objectives. Three common types of formal groups are work groups, committees, and project teams. An informal group, or a friendship group, emerges without the endorsement of organizational leaders and does not have a designated structure or work toward organizational goals other than socialization and friendship. Three items tend to bring informal groups together: activities, shared values and sentiments, and interactions. The distinction between formal and informal groups has been blurred by new of�ice designs and virtual communication technologies.

Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion leaders, members in good standing, and the gatekeeper. Individual members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behavior in groups—con�lict, conformity, or consensus. Formal groups require consensus to operate effectively.

Five stages of group development are forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. During forming, new members of a group are likely to distrust one another and experience feelings of uncertainty. Some members try out actions and activities to see if others in the group deem them as acceptable. There may be tentative actions of a leader, if one has been designated, or by those seeking to lead.

In the storming stage, the leader faces resistance as individuals seek to push boundaries and discover their place in the group's structure. Con�lict resolution skills and the ability to reduce potential new con�licts are vital. The norming stage will be complete when members share a common set of expectations about behaviors and contributions to the group. Norms or rules governing group behaviors begin to form. The performing stage occurs when the group reaches the point at which the primary activities revolve around solving task problems. Clear lines of communication connect members. In the adjourning stage, groups that successfully complete tasks often end with a ceremony or celebration. In this stage, a leader can summarize group accomplishments and express gratitude for good work. Leadership of groups requires attention to social loa�ing and levels of group cohesiveness, especially when groupthink emerges.

Leading meetings involves stating the motivation for the meeting, preparation, managing the actual event, and following up. Leaders obtain clearance for the meeting place, arrange equipment, send out notices, and then create and distribute the agenda, con�irming those who will attend. Group decision-making processes during meetings can include dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, or a devil's advocacy approach. Attendees should be responsible and professional, and the leader should work to prevent disrupters from interrupting or sidetracking the meeting.

Formal group business communications include writing projects and presentations by groups and teams. Group writing projects, such as letters, formal reports, formal proposals, and other documents can be prepared by a single writer, through co-authorship, or by multiple writers with a single editor. Group speaking projects may be handled by a single spokesperson or with a carefully rehearsed and choreographed multiple-presenter format. Virtual groups employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the non-virtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities.

Key Terms

consensus method (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

A group decision-making process in which the goal becomes to reach consensus rather than a genuine debate of the issue.

devil's advocacy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

A group decision-making process in which a person in the group (leader or otherwise) willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force individuals and subgroups to defend their positions.

dialectical inquiry (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

A group decision-making process that involves inspiring genuine debate that allows for all points of view to be presented, discussed, and debated until a resolution is reached.

dysfunctional group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

A group with low cohesion and goal disagreement in which members ignore any potential norms.

formal group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

A group established by an organization's leaders as part of the managerial process.

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formal group leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

What occurs when an individual has been selected or designated by the organization to ful�ill the leadership role.

functional group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

A group exhibiting desirable levels of cohesion and the highest levels of success.

group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

Two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal.

group cohesiveness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

The degree of goal commitment, conformity, cooperation, and group control over members.

groupthink (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

What occurs when group pressures for conformity become so intense that the group avoids unusual, minority, or unpopular views.

informal group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

Or a friendship group, a group that emerges for the purposes of socialization and friendship without the endorsement of organizational leaders and that does not have a designated structure.

informal leaders (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

Or emergent leaders, are individuals who evolve into the leadership role and are selected by the group.

minutes (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

A summary record of what transpired during a meeting as recorded by one of the group members.

norms (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

Rules governing behaviors in a group.

social loa�ing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

When group members give less effort to the group than they would working individually or alone.

teams (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

Sets of individuals with synergies that emerge from greater interdependence and share effort.

virtual groups (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section

Sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the nonvirtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities.

Analytical Exercises

1. Newer of�ice designs and technologies have blurred the distinction between formal and informal groups. Explain how the use of Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn might be used by group members for formal group functioning, informal interactions, and linking the group to persons outside the organization.

2. A disruptor interrupts communication and disturbs group functioning by attempting to change the subject, making accusations against other members or the leader, dominating and interrupting, or by clowning and joking to interrupt the �low of discussion. Describe how a disruptor would in�luence the following:

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a. con�lict b. conformity c. consensus d. gate-keeping activities

3. Explain which speci�ic tools of formal and informal, and verbal and written communications, along with nonverbal communications, a group leader can use in the stages of forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

4. How would group norms regarding effort/productivity, work behaviors, and social behaviors be different or the same in the following circumstances? And, how could a leader communicate regarding the appropriateness or inappropriateness of each norm to group members, from the company's perspective?

a. a set of bank tellers who are friends b. a road construction crew that also plays slow-pitch softball together on weekends c. information technology employees who enjoy playing video games together d. friends working together at McDonald's

5. How would social loa�ing and groupthink affect the following? a. the task track b. the topic track c. the relation track

6. Explain the value of dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, and a devil's advocacy approach in the following group decisions: a. medical staff considering a highly risky but more-effective medical treatment for a patient b. sales team trying to agree on the best method to approach a new, lucrative client c. management team deciding whether or not to close a plant and outsource a product's manufacture

7. Choose a form of group writing (single authorship, co-authorship, multiple authors/single editor) for the following circumstances and select the type of written message to be used in the following circumstances.

a. human resources department conducting a fact-�inding mission to identify prevailing bene�it plans in a metropolitan area b. product development team describing how the item it created is superior to the competitor's product to the marketing department c. accounting department explaining how a new tax code will affect company operations

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9.6 Case Studies

Video Case Study: Success of Diverse Gender Teams

A research team in London examines the dynamics in the boardroom that explain the success of gender diverse teams.

Part 1

Part 2

1. Why are diverse teams more likely to be effective than homogenous teams?

2. How can this help managers create effective work groups?

Video Case Study: W.L Gore and Associates

Terri Kelly, CEO of W.L. Gore & Associates, operates from the principle that every associate contributes to the bottom line. She explains how she encourages teamwork in this clip.

Part 1

Success of Diverse Gender Teams From Title: A Woman's Place Is in the Boardroom: Profiting...

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=41341)

  0:00 / 1:05 1x © Infobase All Rights Reserved Length: 01:04

Gender Dynamics From Title: A Woman's Place Is in the Boardroom: Profiting...

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=41341)

  0:00 / 1:49 1x © Infobase All Rights Reserved Length: 01:50

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Part 2

Part 3

1. How do leaders at W.L. Gore create a collaborative environment that leads to innovation?

2. What barriers to communication take place at W.L. Gore?

W. L. Gore & Associates From Title: Human Resources: People and Partnerships

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=47306)

© Infobase All Rights Reserved Length: 02:30

Collaborate for Success From Title: Human Resources: People and Partnerships

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=47306)

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Leading in a Collaborative Culture From Title: Human Resources: People and Partnerships

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=47306)

© Infobase All Rights Reserved Length: 02:31

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Case Study 1: The Sale Before the Sale

Henry Fong faced the biggest challenge of his career. He had been with his company for �ive years, selling �leets of American-made cars to other businesses. Currently, Henry had been given the charge to oversee a new major sales project by his employer. He was to head a sales group assigned to market a �leet of midsized trucks to a local delivery service. A normal order would be 20 trucks, plus a maintenance agreement, which generated a sizable amount of revenue for his company.

Until this year, the task would have been given to a single member of the company's sales force, Blake Mercer. Blake had been with the company for 10 years and earned a substantial amount of money in commissions during that time. Recently, however, he had failed to capture three major accounts that had been continuous customers. Each time, a Japanese company had obtained the contract by emphasizing fuel ef�iciency and reliability of its trucks.

Company executives at Henry and Blake's U.S. �irm had decided to try a sales team approach, rather than relying on interpersonal relationships, as Blake had done in the past. Blake was assigned to the team, based on his knowledge of the product and the market. This was to be the �irst sales call under the new system.

Henry called a meeting of his �ive-person team. As the group met in a conference room, Henry opened. "Thank you all for coming. I think this is an exciting new project, and I'm certain we'll do a great job. Now �irst of all, I believe we need to �ind a way to counter this Japanese company's claims about better gas mileage and reliability. What do you all think?"

A member of the team replied, "Well, it seems to me our advantage is that our trucks are much easier to load and unload, which saves time and money during deliveries, plus I think we can challenge them on the idea of low maintenance."

"Great," Henry responded, "do you all agree?" Everyone in the room except Blake nodded "yes."

"I also think," Henry continued, "that we can point out all of the high tech we offer, the same as those guys—on-board computers and GPS. So, what I'm hoping is that we can break this down into a really professional sales pitch, with visuals and maybe a couple of different presenters."

At that point Blake interrupted sharply, "You know folks, this whole thing is designed to get rid of our commissions. They �igure that, if this team thing works, they can cut back on how much each of us gets paid."

Henry answered, "Well, I'm sure we'll end up dividing the commission, but I haven't heard anything about a straight salary system."

"You're a trusting little soul," Blake replied.

"Well, I really don't think this is the time for that discussion," Henry responded. He quickly moved on, "So, what I'm hoping is that Sally and Gene will think about maybe putting together some visuals. Don and Erin can work on the main message and coordinate with them. And I'm hoping Blake can give us all insights about the company and how we can tailor our pitch to them."

"I've got a lot on my plate right now," Blake sneered. "We'll see."

"How about the rest of you?" Henry asked, "Can we put something good together?"

The rest of the group, while tense, nodded in agreement

"Good. And think about how many presenters we want, and who they should be," Henry continued. "Well, listen, I don't really believe in long meetings, so maybe we can just get some email going back and forth about this. All right? Okay, good. Thanks for coming."

While the rest of the group lingered to visit, Blake quickly left the room. Two of his colleagues were waiting outside. As he moved out of sight, Henry was certain that he heard Blake continuing to complain about the new system. Henry felt his �ist clench. He resisted the urge to follow Blake and confront him directly. "Be calm; be professional," he thought. Henry knew he faced two issues; making the sale and dealing with Blake.

Review Questions

1. What type of sales presentation should Henry's team put together? 2. Were the company executives at Henry's �irm wise in putting Blake on the sales team? 3. How should Henry deal with Blake in the future?

Case Study 2: The Accident

Murphy Manufacturing suffered a terrible tragedy. For the �irst time in the company's history, a worker died while on the job. The employee, Luis Morales, apparently had ignored a warning whistle that signals when a forklift is moving in reverse. He was brie�ly pinned against a wall, causing internal injuries that led to his death.

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Luis had worked for Murphy Manufacturing for over three years. He had gone through safety training and had never received a warning for violating safety protocols. In fact, his supervisor had called him a "model employee" on his last performance evaluation, partly based on Luis' willingness to carefully follow directions.

Top management formed a task force to prepare a report and response. Speci�ically, four areas required investigation. First, the group was to investigate the cause of the accident to see if somehow it could have been prevented. Second, employee training was to be reviewed to make sure all employees had been made aware of safety protocols. Third, the �inancial response was to be formulated. The company wanted to make sure Luis' family received fair �inancial compensation from insurance and all other sources, including a company-sponsored fund-raiser. Fourth was the human response. Company executives wanted to make sure emotional support was being provided to the family of Luis but also to the employee who was operating the forklift at the time of the accident.

The task force included an executive in the area of �inance, two members of the human resource department, two entry-level production workers, and a quality-control employee. An attorney was retained to work with the task force regarding all legal issues.

Beyond the internal report to be prepared, the task force was also directed to respond to all media inquiries. The company's CEO made it clear that he wanted the investigation and response to be "transparent and humane." He asked for a direct, sincere apology to all concerned, if the company had failed in some way.

Review Questions

1. What written documents should the task force prepare? 2. Should the task force prepare written documents using a single author, co-authorship, or multiple authors with a single editor? 3. What presentations will be necessary in this case? Who should give them? 4. Should a single speaker or multiple presenters make the presentations?