Psychology SOC Assignment 8

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Chapter 8 Outline - Mooney-2 LECTURE OUTLINE I. THE GLOBAL CONTEXT: CROSS-CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN EDUCATION A. Many societies have no formal education system. 1. U.S. has 142,000 schools, 5.2 million primary and secondary teachers and college faculty, 5.6 million administrators and support staff, and 76.3 million students. 1. 1 in 5 adults cannot read or write, mostly women. B. Education statistics on 35 countries show: 1. In general, educational levels are rising. 2. There is a clear line between education and income, and education and employment. a. The more education one has, the higher their income and greater likelihood of employment. 3. Spending varies widely by country. a. The average is $7,637 per student each year. b. Mexico, Argentina and Brazil spend less than $4,000 per student each year. c. The U.S. spends over $10,000 per student each year. 4. Average student-teacher ratio is 22:1 but increases as grade level increases. a. Teacher salaries have increased over the last decade in almost all countries. b. U.S. teachers earn average salaries ($56,069 in 2011) but work more hours than any of the other countries. 5. Educational attainment is increasing. 6. Students in 65 countries took a test to measure proficiency in various subjects.

II. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF EDUCATION A. Structural-Functionalist Perspective 1. Education serves important tasks for society such as instruction, socialization, sorting individuals into various statuses and custodial care. 2. Many social problems (e.g., unemployment, crime, poverty) may be linked to the failure of

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the educational system to fulfill its basic functions. 3. Structural functionalists also examine how educational affects and is affected by other institutions (e.g., family, politics, economy). 4. Instruction a. A major function of education is to teach students knowledge and skills necessary for future occupational roles, self-development, and social functioning. 5. Socialization a. Education teaches students to respect authority and socializes youth into the dominant culture (e.g., holidays, Standard English). b. As racial and ethnic minority groups have increased, schools have to decide whether to teach one common culture or emphasize cultural diversity. c. Multicultural education: education that includes all racial and ethnic groups in the school curriculum. 6. Sorting individuals into statuses a. Schools sort individuals into statuses by providing credentials based on achievement, and professional status by awarding degrees in medicine, engineering and law. 7. Custodial care a. Education provides custodial care by providing supervision and care for children and adolescents until they are 18. B. Conflict Perspective 1. Argues education solidifies class position and allows elites to control the masses. 2. Quality education and educational opportunities are not equally distributed in society. 3. Education is a mechanism for cultural imperialism, or indoctrination into the dominant culture. 4. Education perpetuates racial disparities. a. Schools in poorer districts with more minorities receive less funding and have inadequate facilities, books, materials, equipment and personnel. C. Symbolic-Interactionist Perspective 1. Concerned with the individual and small-group issues in education, such as teacher-student interactions and the self-fulfilling prophecy.

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2. Teacher-student interactions a. Middle and upper class students may elicit greater teacher approval due to their verbal and social skills, whereas disadvantaged children bring fewer social and verbal skills to middle-class teachers that are likely to elicit less approval and can result in lower selfesteem. 3. The self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when people act in a manner consistent with the expectations of others. a. A teacher who defines a student as “slow” may call on the student less, encourage them to pursue easier subjects, and assign them to lower ability groups or tracks, which can result in the student performing at a lower level.

III. WHO SUCCEEDS? THE INEQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT A. Social Class and Family Background 1. Socioeconomic status is one of the best predictors of educational success and attainment. a. Children whose families are in middle-and upper-socioeconomic brackets are more likely to perform better in schools and complete more years of education than children from lower socioeconomic class families. b. Students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to enroll in advanced mathematics courses, graduate from high school, and graduate with a bachelor’s degree in five years. 2. Low-income families have less money for books, computers, tutors or educational extracurricular activities and are less likely to be involved in school-related activities 3. In 1965, Project Head Start began to help preschool children from low-income families. a. Head Start provides an integrated program of health care, parental involvement, education, and social services. 4. Decentralized funding in the U.S. local schools depend on local taxes, usually property taxes, which make up 43% of school funding, and varies by the socioeconomic status of the district. a. States provide additional funding to supplement local taxes, but it is not enough to lift schools in poorer districts to a level that even approximates the funding available in wealthy districts. B. Race and Ethnicity

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1. It is projected by 2021 the percentage of racial or ethnic minorities in public schools will be 52%. 2. In comparison to whites, Hispanics and blacks are less likely to succeed in school at almost every level. 3. Socioeconomic status interacts with race and ethnicity; race/ethnicity may have an independent effect on achievement, but the relationship is largely a result of socioeconomic status. 4. Academic difficulty may result from some minorities being English language learners. a. Some educators advocate bilingual education—teaching children in both English and their non-English native language. b. Advocates claim bilingual education improves academic achievement in minority students, enriches all students by exposing them to other languages and cultures and enhances the self-esteem of minority students. c. Critics argue bilingual education limits minority students and places them at a disadvantage when competing outside the classroom, reduces the English skills of minorities, costs money, and leads to hostilities between minorities competing for scarce resources. 5. Many tests used to assess academic achievement and ability are biased against minorities. a. standardized test questions require knowledge specific to white-middle class culture. 6. Minority students in white schools systems are disadvantaged by overt racism and discrimination. a. Discrimination occurs in unequal funding, racial profiling and school segregation. b. Black students may be victims of “learning while black,” which refers to disproportionately being disciplined at school 7. Racial desegregation a. Many schools today are racially segregated, despite the 1954 Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education that segregated education was unconstitutional and inherently unequal. b. Coleman Report: A 1966 study found almost 80% of schools attended by whites contained 10% or fewer blacks and that whites outperformed minorities (excluding Asian

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Americans) on academic tests. c. The Coleman Report advocated the integration hypothesis—a theory that the only way to achieve quality education for all racial and ethnic groups is to desegregate the schools. d. Public schools remain largely segregated: most black and Hispanic U.S. students attend schools that are predominantly minority in enrollment. e. Attending a black segregated school continues to have a negative influence on achievement; attending a desegregated school, while having no negative achievement effect on white students, has positive effects on black and Hispanic students in terms of learning and graduation rates. 8. Socioeconomic integration a. In 2007, the U.S. Supreme Court held that public school systems “cannot seek to achieve or maintain integration through measures that take explicit account of a student’s race.” i. The court’s decision reflects a general trend toward using socio-economic or incomebased integration rather than race-based integration variables. ii. Advocates of this approach argue: (1) socioeconomic integration more directly and effectively achieves the first aim of racial integration, which is raising student achievement; (2) socioeconomic integration achieves racial integration; (3) school assignments based on socioeconomic status are perfectly legal whereas assignment based on race may be subject to government scrutiny; (4) problem of low income students regardless of race, is growing as poverty spreads; and (5) SES integration is evidenced as having a more cost-effective means of raising student achievement. C. Gender 1. Worldwide, women receive less education than men. a. Women comprise 2/3 of the world’s illiterate. b. 70 percent of the 125 million children worldwide who are not in school are girls. c. Of the 167 countries with data available, 68% have not achieved gender parity in primary schools. 2. Historically, U.S. schools have discriminated against women; before 1830s, U.S. colleges accepted only male students. 3. Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 states that no person can be discriminated

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against based on sex in any education program that receives federal funding. 4. The push toward equality in the U.S. has had some effect. a. The gender gap in math and reading scores has decreased over the last few decades; where differences exist, boys outscore girls in math and girls outscore boys in reading. 5. Problems of boys in school a. Boys are more likely to lag behind girls in the classroom, be diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, have learning disabilities, feel alienated from the learning process, and drop out or be expelled from school. b. Black and Latino males, compared to white males, score lower on the NAEP, are less likely to be in advanced placement classes, less likely to be in gifted programs, and less likely to graduate from high school or college.

IV. PROBLEMS IN THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM A. American schools are just average, according to public opinion and annual assessments conducted by the Educational Research Center. 1. The Center assigned an overall score to the nation’s schools 53%, a C. B. Lack of Financial Support C. Low Levels of Academic Achievement 1. The Educational Research Center uses 3 indicators to measure achievement: current levels of performance, improvement over time, and achievement gap between poor and non-poor. 2. Results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), a nationwide testing effort, show some improvement over time. a. Though varying by socio-economic status, race and ethnicity, math and reading scores of 9-13 year olds between 1971 and 2012, but remained stagnant for 17 years olds. b. Even statistically significant increases may mask poor performances. i. In 2012, 73% of 11th graders performed below grade level in reading, a trend that has increased over time c. Blacks and Hispanics remain significantly behind their white counterparts in reading and math 3. American students are outperformed by many foreign counterparts. a. America ranks 14th among OECD participating countries.

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D. School Dropouts 1. The status dropout rate is the percentage of 16-24 year olds that is not in school and has not earned a high school degree or its equivalent. a. The 2011 status dropout rate for 16-24 year olds was 7%, down 12% from 1990. b. Dropout rates vary by race and ethnicity, nativity, socioeconomic status, and gender. 2. Dropout rates are associated with increased costs of public assistance, crime, health care, and reduced tax revenues. 3. Second chance initiatives, such as GED, allow students to complete their high school requirements. 4. Second chance initiatives such as the GED and community colleges exist as a fallback option. E. Crime, Violence, and School Discipline 1. Despite the horror recent school shootings, the chance of a student being killed at school is less than 2%. a. In 2008, 93% of students said they felt very or somewhat safe at school. 2. Prevalence and trends a. In 2011, 4% of students between 12 and 18 reported being a victim of nonviolent crime. b. The most common offense was that of theft. c. Discipline problems such as verbal abuse of teachers, disorder in classrooms, and disrespect for teachers, fighting, insubordination, and use of drugs or alcohol are also of concern. d. Increasingly those in education denounce suspensions and expulsions as harmful to students academically and socially. 3. Bullying—characterized by an imbalance of power that exists over a long period of time in which the more powerful intimidate or belittle others—is also a problem. a. In 2012, 23% of public schools reported bullying occurred either daily or weekly. b. Bullies often perform poorly academically F. Inadequate School Facilities 1. National spending on school construction is about half of what it was before the recession. a. It is estimated that state governments need over $270 billion for school infrastructure repairs, renovations, etc.

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b. Because of development patterns, many of the most disadvantaged schools are in large urban areas. c. Research documents a relationship between school environment and academic achievement; particularly lighting, air quality, humidity and temperature, overcrowding and acoustics are linked to school performance and the health of students and teachers. G. Recruitment and Retention of Quality Teachers 1. School districts with inadequate funding and facilities, low salaries, lack of community support, and minimal professional development often have difficulty attracting and retaining qualified school personnel. a. The number of schoolteachers leaving the field is increasing. b. High teacher turnover is problematic because newer teachers are less experienced and often less effective, teacher turnover contributes to lack of continuity in programs, and replacing teachers requires recruiting and training expenses, time and effort. 2. Poorer districts are also faced with the demand for talented teachers who can meet the needs of children from diverse backgrounds and of varying abilities. a. The number of minority teachers who can serve as role models, have similar life experiences, and have similar language and cultural backgrounds is far too few for the number of minority students. b. Recruiting and retaining quality teachers in poverty level schools is critical to the success of its students: researchers report that if a child from a poor family has a good teacher for five consecutive years it would close the achievement gap between that child and a child from a higher income family. c. High minority districts are likely to employ beginning teachers and to assign these teachers to areas outside their specialty. d. Minority students are twice as likely as white students to be taught by substitute teachers. 3. Those who remain in the teaching profession are not necessarily competent or effective. a. Those who go into teaching have lower college entrance scores than the average college student. 4. Many states have mandatory competency testing in effort to place quality teachers in the classroom and meet federal mandates of “highly qualified” teachers.

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5. In an effort to meet the demands for teachers while facing teacher shortages, states are now allowing skilled professionals who do not have teaching degrees to teach. a. Called lateral entry by some states, the program allows the person to obtain a lateral entry teaching license while teaching in the classroom. b. More than half of the states adopted alternative certification programs, where college graduates with degrees in fields other than education can become certified if they have life experience in industry, the military, or relevant jobs. H. The Challenges of Higher Education 1. Higher education usually refers to 2 or 4 year, public or private, degree granting institutions. a. In 2012-2013, college student enrollment fell 2%. 2. The cost of getting a college degree is increasing. a. Annual expenses for tuition room and board are estimated at $8,655 for in-state students. b. Student debt now exceeds 1 trillion dollars 3. Access to and completion of higher education, particularly among minority and/or lowincome students is also problematic. 4. Community colleges: a. Enrollment continues to increase

V. STRATEGIES FOR ACTION: TRENDS AND INNOVATIONS IN AMERICAN EDUCATION A. Introduction 1. Americans consistently rank improving education as one of their top priorities. 2. Recent attempts to improve schools include raising graduation requirements, barring failing students from participating in extracurricular activities, lengthening the school year, and prohibiting dropouts from obtaining driver’s licenses. 3. Education reformers are calling for changes that go beyond get-tough policies that maintain the status quo. B. Educational Policy across the States 1. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), signed into law in January 2002. 2. Common Core Standards (CCSS) is an initiative where states adopt a common set of academic standards.

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3. Most Americans believe that CCSS will improve the quality of education a. There are many criticisms of high stakes test and their use 4. Fiscal Stabilization: Federal money is earmarked to meet state education needs. a. Four assurances must be met for states to receive federal stimulus aid: state commitment Chapter 8 Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 7 to improving teacher quality, raising academic standards, intervening in failing schools, and developing assessment databases in return for stimulus dollars. C. Advocacy and Grassroots Movements a. Parent Trigger Laws – State legislation that allows parents to intervene in their children’s education and schooling. D. Character Education 1. Research indicates that cheating is a fairly common event among students in the U.S. 2. To many, this signifies need for character education—education that emphasizes the moral and ethical aspects of an individual. E. Distance Education 1. Computers in the classroom enable students to access large amounts of information and learn at their own pace. 2. E-learning separates the student and the teacher by time and/or place but links them by some communication technology (e.g. videoconferencing, e-mail, chat room, etc.). a. Number of students enrolled in online classes continues to rise. b. Online education often serves a segment of the population that would not otherwise be able to attend school—older, married, full-time employees and persons from remote areas. F. The Debate over School Choice 1. Traditionally children have gone to school in the district where they live; school vouchers, charter schools, home schooling, and private schools provide parents with alternative school choices for their children. 2. School vouchers: tax credits used for public or private school parents select. a. Proponents argue vouchers reduce segregation and increase school quality as schools

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compete for students. b. Opponents argue that vouchers drain funds and the best students away from public schools; increase segregation as white parents use them to send their children to private schools with few minorities; and use of vouchers for religious schools violates separation of church and state. 3. Charter schools: originate in contracts, or charters, which state a plan of instruction that must be approved by local or state authorities. a. Vouchers can also be used for charter schools. b. Charter schools may be funded by foundations, universities, private benefactors, or entrepreneurs, or tax dollars. c. Critics argue vouchers increase segregation, reduce public school resources, and “steal away” top students. d. Proponents argue charter schools encourage innovation and reform, and increase student learning outcomes. e. Charter school enrollment was 2.3 million in the 2012-2013 school year. 4. Privatization of schools a. 4.7 million of K-12 students are enrolled in private schools. b. Parents’ reasons for private schooling include religious instruction and belief that private schools are superior in terms of academic achievement. c. Some evidence suggests public school students fair as well or better than private school students

VI. UNDERSTANDING PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION A. All can agree that significant reform is needed to meet the needs of a global economy in the 21st century and more importantly to equalize social differences among members of a nation. 1. To combat the problems that remain we must do the following: a. invest in teacher education and empirically documented techniques b. savage inequalities based on race, ethnicity and SES must be addressed c. the general public needs to become involved d. be wary of market principles in schools e. early childhood development must be emphasized

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