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Eight Development and Implementation of Training

CASE JACK GOES TO TRAINING

Jack, a 43-year-old machinist, had worked for Scanton Industries for 23 years. It seemed that the need to learn something new was constant, and Jack was getting nervous about his job. The nervousness grew last week when he saw a new batch of equipment arrive. It looked something like the machinery he uses now, but it was hooked up to computers. Bill, his foreman, said, “It looks like you’ll be going back to school for a couple of days, Jack. You’re going to have to learn how to program your work into the computer.” Jack smiled but felt sick to his stomach. He always had been good with his hands, but he had never done well in school.

All Jack thought about that weekend was the training he would be going to. He fell asleep Sunday night thinking about it. The phone awakened him at 7:00 the next morning. It was Bill telling him that training had been switched from the local training center downtown to the local school because of a sudden strike at the training center. The school was the only place available on short notice.

As Jack walked up the steps of the school, he felt sick to his stomach again. He entered the hall and then the classroom. Everything was similar to what he remembered about school, except that now there was a computer on each desk. Even the smell was the same, and it brought back memories. Some were good (the guys getting together between classes), but most were bad (being yelled at, taking tests, and doing poorly). As he sat in the wooden chair in the back where he used to sit, he looked out of the window and began to daydream, just as he had done in high school.

The other 20 trainees were sitting quietly at their desks. All of them seemed as nervous as Jack. Suddenly someone burst through the door. “Hi, my name is Jason Reston. I’m your instructor for this course. You’re here to learn some basic computer skills and how to program the machines that you will be using at work. I realize that you come from different companies and will operate different machines, but the process for all of them is similar. First, I am going to show you how to get signed on and into the program you will be running. …” Jack was back from his daydream. Well, here we go, he thought.

At lunch, Jack and his classmate Murray went to a local deli. “Are you keeping up?” Jack asked.

“Are you kidding? Are we going to be tested on this stuff?” asked Murray.

“I have no idea. If we are, I’m dead,” said Jack.

The afternoon went slowly. The trainer simply gave an instruction, and the trainees entered the information into the computer. Then he gave another and they entered that as well. “How are we supposed to remember all this?” Murray whispered. The second day was worse. On a few occasions, Jack was jolted out of his daydream while staring out of the window. “Jack,” yelled Jason, “are you with us?” At 3:00 P.M. on the second afternoon, Jason announced that they would be tested to see what they had learned. Jack looked at the test questions. Was he that stupid? He did not even understand many of the questions. Would he lose his job if he failed this test? He could almost hear his boss yelling at him, “You are fired! Get out, get out!”

This case is an example of how not to conduct training. The training room and the training itself exacerbated the anxiety that Jack felt about going to training. As we go through the chapter, think about what you would do to make the training more conducive to adult learning.

DEVELOPMENT OF TRAINING

The first step in the development phase of training consists of formulating an instructional strategy. The focus of the instructional strategy is on achieving the training objectives that were created in the design phase. The chosen alternative instructional methods and the factors related to learning facilitation and transfer (inputs from the design phase) are used to shape the strategy so that it will achieve the objectives. The instructional strategy is a listing of all the elements of the training program, including the individual modules, their organization, timing, methods, and materials to be used. The outputs of the development phase are all of the things needed to deliver the training program to the participants.

These include the specific content of the training, materials to be used, any slides, videos and such that are needed, presentation equipment, manuals, and so forth. All these outputs will serve as inputs to the implementation phase. The relationships of these inputs, processes, and outputs are shown in the model of the development phase at the beginning of the chapter.

Choosing Instructional Methods

In Chapters 6 and 7 , we discussed a variety of training methods. Our discussion included the strengths and weaknesses of each method. Many of them, such as role-play, behavior modeling, and case study, are not meant to be stand-alone methods, but rather, they facilitate learning by providing alternative mechanisms for providing practice. A summary of these methods and their effectiveness in developing knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) is presented in Table 8-1 .

Although the method’s effectiveness in meeting the learning objective should be the major criterion for selection, other considerations are costs, time needed to develop the material, and time allotted for the training session. For example, if cost prevents you from using the best method, then choose a different method that meets the budget but still provides the necessary KSAs. The workforce’s literacy is another issue to consider. Methods such as programmed instruction and computer-based instruction rely on trainees’ ability to read and understand. If they are not skilled in these areas, alternative approaches are necessary, particularly if reading is not an important skill for the job.

What about those individual differences identified in Chapter 5 ? How can we possibly design training to meet the needs of different learning styles? As it turns out, if we pay close attention to the design of our training, using multiple methods and multiple AV equipment, the training will meet the needs of many of the different learning styles. By using multiple visual aids (diagrams, flow charts, videos), as well as small group discussions (having trainees explain to each other the material learned and how it fits in the workplace) the training will address Visual and Verbal learning styles respectively. As well, use of small group discussions (for verbal) and having the groups map out their conclusions (visual) will tap into each of these learning styles.

Role-plays of real workplace examples, or cases based on actual work examples will provide Sensors with the right type of presentation. The use of theory to tie the training concepts together will meet the needs of Intuitives. Good design also provides rewards for involvement in the training process, and creating competition between groups can also increase motivation levels, especially in Intuitives who might be getting a bit bored.

Using small groups in training also supports different learning styles. For example, after a lecturette, trainees are put in small groups and told to first think about the issue just discussed and how the trainee might use the information in the workplace (symbolic rehearsal). Then to meet in the small groups and share their thoughts on how to use the information and come to a consensus of how useful the information would be in the workplace. Note how the former (symbolic coding) fits with the Reflective learning style, and the latter, the Active learning style.

We tend to present training material in a linear method. A leads to B that leads to C. This fits well into the Sequential learning style. To accommodate the Global style we need to begin this sequential training with an overview of how this particular set of sequences (A leading to B that leads to C) fits into the overall training. Also get trainees to consider how this training fits with what they already know.

TABLE 8-1 Training Method Effectiveness at Meeting KSA Objectives1

a This rating is for lectures delivered orally; printed lectures would be one point higher in each knowledge category.

b If the business game is designed for interpersonal skills, this rating would be a 4.

c If multiple in-baskets were used, this rating would be 3.

d This rating applies specifically to role reversal.

By considering all these factors, you will likely meet, for the most part, the learning style of all trainees. Not only that, but by mixing up the methods and visual aids, you make the training less monotonous and therefore, more interesting.

The knowledge gained from Chapter 5 provides an awareness of the factors that facilitate learning and transfer of KSAs back to the job so that you can meet your training objectives. Of course, you will also need to operate within the organizational constraints that you have identified. Keeping all of this in mind, we now turn to the instructional strategy.

Instructional Strategy

The instructional strategy is a written document, often called a training plan . We will use these terms interchangeably. This plan details all aspects of the training, including the methods, materials, equipment, facilities, and trainers. The following sections indicate what should be included in the documentation, rather than the form that it should take. An instructional strategy should first identify the target population, the overall training objective (purpose), the location of the training, and the initial configuration of the training space. It should then provide a listing of the learning objectives for the training. These objectives should be organized into modules that encompass related topics. For each learning objective, a list of key learning points should be developed. The training methods to be used to achieve these objectives, the materials and equipment needed, and the trainer who will deliver this module should also be identified. Sometimes the configuration of the training space needs to be changed to accommodate a different training method. For example, with a large number of trainees, the appropriate configuration for a lecture will be different from that for a small-group exercise. Your plan should identify any points in the training where the seating configuration needs to change. After all the components of the training are identified, a brief statement as to what actions will be taken to assist transfer of training to the job should be listed. Mechanisms used to assist transfer must be documented so it is clear what will occur once training is completed. It is generally expected that transfer of training will occur, but often little is done to ensure that it does. When no one person is responsible, the feeling of responsibility is diffused, and transfer is soon forgotten.

Finally, a short description of how the training will be evaluated should be included. It is important to include the evaluation process and time frames as these items need to be included in the time allocation for training if evaluation occurs at the end of training. This also helps ensure that each component of the training is focused on achieving the desired outcomes.

Table 8-2 can serve as a guide for developing your instructional strategy. To get a better feel for the pipefitting job you may want to review Table 6-8 ( p. 228 ) which shows the job breakdown sheet. The instructional strategy will help you systematically examine what is required and what ordering of the material makes the most sense. Each component of the instructional strategy is discussed in more detail in the following sections.

OBJECTIVES AND LEARNING POINTS

As stated, the instructional strategy should contain all of the learning objectives, organized into the modules in which these objectives will be addressed. Each learning objective should have the list of key learning points required to achieve the objective. A learning point is an important piece of information that a trainee must acquire to accomplish a learning objective. Each learning objective provides specific information as to what needs to be learned, and that helps identify the key learning points. Consider this learning objective: “Solder twenty feet of half-inch copper pipe, using elbows and unions, in 20 minutes or less with no leaks.” To ensure that there are no leaks, the trainee must pay specific attention to the cleaning of the copper pipe, the proper heating of the pipe, and the correct application of the solder. These factors would be key learning points, which the trainer would need to be sure that the trainee had mastered in order to achieve the objective.

TABLE 8-2 Components of Instructional Strategy

After agreement is reached on a carefully constructed instructional strategy, the next step is to obtain or develop the instructional material, instructional media and equipment, and so on, that you have identified as needed. This is your program development plan and consists of the checklist (derived from your instructional strategy) of all the components of the training that need to be developed or acquired. The output from the development phase (as shown in the development phase of our training model at the start of the chapter) is development or acquisition of all the items on your program development plan. Methodically completing the program development plan should make it possible to identify and develop everything required for training. The discussion that follows will cover each of the development plan components in more detail.

Materials and Equipment

Once your training plan is completed, document all the necessary material you will need such as printed material, slides, and the like, and the time frames for their completion. Allow sufficient time to prepare materials properly. Order equipment and anything else provided by others at off-site locations well in advance. Important charts, posters, and easel sheets can be professionally printed depending on cost and time constraints.

Trainee’s Manual

The trainee’s manual is an important learning tool for training. The instructional strategy provides you with an outline of what needs to be included in the manual. To keep the trainees’ interest and their complete involvement in discussions, provide notes on all the key information that will be presented. The trainees will then be able to pay more attention to what is being said and done, rather than being concerned about taking notes. The manual often includes all lecture materials, learning points, and supplemental readings. It may also include exercises and some blank sheets for jotting down notes and lists in small-group meetings.

A good choice for holding the manual’s material is a three-ring binder, because the trainee can add information as the training continues. If you will be using handouts, have them printed on paper with the holes already punched so they can easily be inserted into the manual. It is sometimes better to hold back certain information—for example, exercises—from the trainees until it is time to use it. Trainees should not be distracted from the current topic by trying to figure out various problems ahead of time.

Trainer’s Manual

The trainer’s manual provides all the information in the trainee’s manual and information on what the trainer needs to do and how. It is a visual aid for the trainer. One format is to have the lecture notes on the right-hand side of the page and the instructions for the trainer on the left-hand side. These instructions range from indicating when to generate lists on newsprint to what some of the expected information on the list might be and how the trainer might want to respond. A well-prepared trainer’s manual will provide everything a trainer needs to know to conduct the training.

Facilities

If training is taking place in the company’s facility, be sure that the room is available by reserving it. If training will be off-site, be selective as to the design of the room. Be sure that the site can accommodate breakout rooms if they are needed and that the seating can be appropriately configured. If movable dividers separate the room from others, inquire about the events scheduled next door. Attending a training session when a motivational speaker or sales rally is next door can be distracting. If nothing is scheduled, get assurance that the booking office will be sensitive to your concerns if they book the rooms next door. Check the soundproofing of the panels that separate the rooms. Avoid booking rooms that lead directly to the kitchen unless it is certain that the walls are soundproofed.

SOME ADVANTAGES TO OFF-SITE TRAINING FACILITIES

Although a certain pride can come from having your own training facilities, they can be expensive. Off-site training offers several advantages.

First, being off-site provides more assurance that trainees will not be interrupted. It is simply too easy to contact the trainee if he is on the same floor or even in the next building.

Another advantage is the change of pace off-site training offers. Going to a hotel or conference center is not the same as going to work. Many trainees will associate staying in a hotel with a vacation (unless they are traveling salespersons). This change of pace is even more important if a great deal of stress is associated with the job. Recall the discussion of classical conditioning. Regular pairing of work with stress will result in a feeling of stress upon arrival at the workplace. Off-site training in this situation might be more suited to the learning process. However, choose the off-site facility with care. Remember Jack and his training at the old school?

Going off-site also allows the trainer to choose a facility compatible with the needs of the particular training event. If breakout rooms, a classroom, U-shaped setup, or all three are required, you can choose the location that best fits the requirements.

THE TRAINING ROOM

Whether you are designing a training facility or going off-site to train, many factors contribute to making the training room a learner-friendly environment. The following describes the type of training room that is ideal for most types of training.

A windowless room is best. Windows can distract the trainees, as was evident in the case at the start of the chapter. Jack was easily distracted from the training for many reasons, but the window gave him a way to avoid the training. If the room does contain windows, be sure that they are fitted with shades or curtains that you can close. Unblocked windows, even on upper floors of a building, can be distracting when the weather turns bad. Also, light coming through the windows can create glare. The walls should be blank—neither decorated with pictures nor brightly painted—and a neutral color, such as beige. The point of this is to eliminate things that will distract trainees from the training. Material that is related to the training can and should be posted on walls and easels. Lighting should be adjustable so it can be dimmed for slide shows or video presentations and can be made brighter for the lecture, discussions, and exercises. Ideally, the room should be close to square in shape. Rectangular rooms limit the type of seating arrangements possible. A rule of thumb is to avoid a training room whose length exceeds its width by more than 50 percent. 2 The room should be carpeted and should have a sound-absorbing ceiling. As noted earlier, a soundproof facility, whether on premises or off-site, is very important.

The room should be equipped with its own temperature control and quiet heating/cooling fans. This point might sound trivial—after all, who would build a training room with noisy fans? The problem is that contractors are good at constructing buildings but do not specialize in any particular type. When the University of Windsor Business School was being built, a team of faculty members provided input into the design of the classrooms. This input helped tremendously in the development of user-friendly classrooms, but the team did not think about fan noise. The result: One of the few complaints about the building is fan noise. When the fans are on, it becomes difficult to hear the questions being asked.

Under the heading “nice to have,” consider the following for a multipurpose training room:

· • Have tracks built onto the walls with a slot into which newsprint can be pushed, allowing for the hanging of charts and posters anywhere in the room.

· • Have whiteboards built into the walls at strategic locations to allow easy access to large writing surfaces.

· • Have built-in consoles that control lighting, audiovisuals (AVs), and computers, to provide easy access to the operation of these training aids.

· • Have a working remote control so trainers can operate the lights and AVs from anywhere in the room.

· • Have an interactive whiteboard (e.g., SMART board) for developing models or listing points generated in discussions, and be able to provide copies to trainees easily.

If AVs are built into the facility, make sure that they are situated so that all trainees can view and hear them. Also make sure that AVs are not built into places where the equipment itself blocks sight lines.

Furniture

Use tables and chairs rather than classroom-type desk chairs. Tables should be movable so they can be set up in any configuration. An ideal table size is 5 feet long and 2½ feet wide, as this allows two people to sit comfortably on one side. Many configurations are possible by arranging the tables. Putting two of these tables together makes a 5-foot square where eight people can hold a group discussion.

If possible, use padded swivel chairs that are cloth covered (not vinyl) and have casters and armrests. Trainees will be required to sit for extended periods of time, and comfort is important. In addition to providing overall comfort, the swivel and casters allow for ease of movement when trainees must form small groups or turn to work with another trainee. Being able to lean back and rest your arms creates a relaxing environment conducive to learning.

Furniture Setup

Seating arrangements depend on the type of training being conducted. The typical configurations are classroom, U-shape, conference, and circle. The arrangement determines the degree of formality, focus of attention, and level of two-way communication. 3 To appreciate this point, consider the two extremes, circle and classroom ( Figure 8-1 styles A and B). The classroom style (B) places the focus on the trainer and limits two-way communication between trainees because the trainees are all facing one direction. If no tables are used, more trainees can be accommodated. This arrangement is called theater style. When a trainee sees such a setup, her role is clearly defined in her mind: She is there to listen. In the circle setup (A), the focus is evenly distributed; no single person is being looked at. A trainee sees this style and her role is also defined: She will be a part of the discussion. Furthermore, this lack of focus makes it easier for trainees to debate and discuss issues among themselves.

To provide employees with information on the company’s position regarding sexual harassment, for example, the classroom configuration is appropriate. Here the goal is to provide information, and the focus should be on the trainer. Most two-way communication involves question-and-answer exchanges between the trainer and the trainee. Suppose the goal is to train managers to deal with sexual harassment. A circle is chosen because the goal is to generate discussion about managers’ experiences and ways of handling them. In the circle, trainees face one another and the trainer is just one of the members of the circle; the focus on all members of the group is equal. Another obvious difference between these two configurations is that a larger number of trainees can be accommodated in the classroom setup.

Various modifications of these two extremes can also be used. The semicircle ( Figure 8-1 C) encourages trainee discussion and allows trainees to be face-to-face when the trainer is not talking. In this situation, the trainer stands when presenting information and sits with the trainees when encouraging discussion.

Perhaps the configuration used most often is the U-shape ( Figure 8-1 D). It is similar to the semicircle but allows for a larger group of trainees. The U-shape places the main focus on the trainer, allows a fair amount of face-to-face discussion among the group members, and accommodates a reasonably large group (30 to 35 trainees). However, the U itself can become too large. The trainer must be careful not to move too deeply into the U and cut off those at the end. Also, if flip charts are used, two sets may be needed to make reading them easy for all participants, particularly if the number exceeds 30. Placing the charts slightly inside the open end of the U (see Figure 8-1 D) ensures that they are not blocked and all participants can see the material easily.

FIGURE 8-1 Different Seating Arrangements for Training

Another alternative is to have trainees sit at round tables in a semicircle ( Figure 8-1 E). This arrangement facilitates easy switching from lecturette to small-group exercises or discussions. Figure 8-1 F is similar but with rectangular tables. The other advantage of these configurations is that they set up small groups where members can interact, making the training less threatening at the beginning.

Refreshments

Although this may seem logical and not worth mentioning, various refreshments are necessary during a training session. Failure to plan for this will undoubtedly lead to unrest and irritation among trainees. Plan to have fresh coffee, juices and some type of food (muffins, donuts) available prior to the start of training as well as though out the morning training sessions. In the afternoon you should also have coffee, pop, and a snack of some type. In the workplace workers have coffee breaks and opportunities to have a snack so by providing these amenities you are fulfilling the refreshment needs of the trainees. In ERG terminology, you are meeting the existence needs by providing sustenance. Failure to do so will have attention focused on why there are no refreshments as the participants are used to having, instead of focusing on training.

The Trainer

How is the trainer chosen? One of the reasons most commonly cited for ineffective training is its lack of relevance to the trainee’s situation. Comments such as “The training is great but it will not work in our plant,” “You do not understand the problems we have,” and “My boss is the one who should be here, because the boss makes the decisions” indicate the concern trainees perceive as to the transferability of the training to their jobs.

One way to ensure the relevance of the training is to use managers as trainers. 4 Their involvement alleviates most of the preceding concerns, but some other problems may arise. If the manager also supervises some of the trainees, his presence could dampen the trainees’ enthusiasm for training. Additionally, the manager may not have the skills needed to be an effective trainer.

Larger organizations can overcome the supervision issue by not having managers train their immediate subordinates. Smaller organizations would need to assure such trainees that they will be treated the same as others (although this assurance doesn’t always work). As long as trainees do not perceive any different treatment, the word would get out that this system was okay. Another concern is the potential that the middle manager may spend too much time dealing with organizational issues rather than the training topics. Solid training objectives would help prevent this conflict.

Another way to develop a successful training program is to use a seasoned trainer (e.g., outside or internal consultant) and a manager to team-teach the training program. The two could work from each other’s strengths. An advantage of this approach is that the manager receives good on-the-job training on how to be an effective trainer. The disadvantage is cost, and for this reason it is not often chosen. The larger issue of the trainer’s competence is addressed later.

TRAINER KSAS

The KSAs of an effective trainer are presented in Table 8-3 . Note that many of the requirements are similar to those suggested for an effective lecturer. This is important because almost all training includes a lecture component.

Just how much knowledge of the subject matter does the trainer need? The level of knowledge required depends on the complexity of the subject matter. Highly technical subject matter requires a high level of such knowledge. Is the high level of knowledge more important than being a skilled trainer? Perhaps that question is not the correct focus, because both subject-matter knowledge and trainer skills are important. We know that trainer skills are critical to trainee learning, so the better question is, “Which is more advisable, to train the trainer in the technical skills or to train the expert in training skills?” The answer, especially if the subject matter is highly technical or complex, is the latter. In the short term, it may be necessary to pair a technical expert with a training specialist until the technical expert acquires sufficient training skill.

The trainer should possess a reasonable knowledge of the organization and trainees. Such knowledge increases the credibility of the trainer and helps her answer questions that come up regarding integrating the training back into the workplace.

Although most of the knowledge and many of the skills required of a trainer are trainable, it would be best to be able to begin with individuals who already possess the attitudes identified in Table 8-3 , because attitudes are more difficult to change.

TABLE 8-3 Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes Required of an Effective Trainer

EXPERIENCE AND CREDIBILITY

How important is it to have experience related to the training topic? The more experience a trainer has in the topic area, the more credibility for the trainer. Consider, for example, one successful trainer’s early run-in with trainees because of a perceived lack of experience. The trainer was part of a corporate training staff. The course he was asked to teach was called “Nonmonetary Motivation Techniques.” The trainees were first-line supervisors with an average of six years’ experience in their positions and more than 10 years with the company. Ten minutes into the first training component (the lecture), one of the older trainees raised his hand and said, “Sonny, have you ever supervised a group of unskilled laborers?” The answer, of course, was “no,” but he qualified it with the fact that he had supervised white-collar employees. Several knowing smirks around the room made it clear that the trainer’s credibility had been destroyed. Throughout the rest of the program, trainees were inattentive, lethargic, and occasionally rude. This trainer learned early on that trainer credibility is a key factor in the effectiveness of classroom training.

How could the trainer handle such a situation more effectively? One approach would be to set the context of the training at the beginning. He might say something like the following: I will be presenting a number of nonmonetary techniques that you might be able to use to motivate your employees. These techniques worked for other supervisors in a variety of situations. First, I will explain the technique, and then we will discuss how it might work for you or how it might be adapted to work for you. You know your work units better than anyone else, so I’m counting on everyone to help identify ways that these techniques can be applied.

A trainer does not need to have the same work experience as the trainees to be credible. However, a trainer needs to be seen as having something worthwhile to offer. Here the trainer is offering some new ideas and expertise in facilitating the discussion of these ideas, but—and this point is important—the trainer does not dismiss or diminish the expertise of the audience. In effect, the trainer says, “Let’s merge our separate areas of expertise to arrive at something we both want—more motivated employees.”

Acknowledging the differences in experience at the beginning of training is also important. It allows the trainees to see that the trainer is aware of the differences and is taking them into account. For example, in the previous situation the trainer might say, “My experience has been supervising white-collar employees. How do you think the motivations of these employees differ from those you supervise?” After some differences are noted, the trainer might then ask, “At one time, most of you were unskilled workers. What were the things that motivated you when you were an unskilled worker?” This question would allow the supervisors to see that while individuals may differ in the things that motivate them, general categories of motivators apply for all individuals. The questioning process allows the trainees to test their assumptions and learn through self-discovery, provided the trainer has the skill to translate the participant responses into learning opportunities. We will discuss other issues that affect trainer credibility in the chapter section “Implementation Ideas for Trainers.”

ON-THE-JOB TRAINERS

On-the-job (OJT) trainers are different from the traditional trainer. OJT trainers are usually classified as jobholders or supervisors for the jobs for which they are providing training. As a result, there are some unique issues to consider. For OJT programs to be effective, the trainers need to 5

· • know the job to be trained,

· • be knowledgeable in the interpersonal skills necessary to interact effectively with those they train,

· • be skilled as trainers, and

· • be motivated to be trainers.

OJT in general uses co-workers and supervisors as trainers. None of these people started out to be a trainer, and likely none has formal training in how to be an effective trainer. The OJT trainer does need to know the job to be trained, but the best trainer is not necessarily the person who can best do the job. The OJT trainer should have a solid understanding of how the job is performed and an ability to interact effectively with others. But given that they did not sign on as trainers, it should not be expected that they would understand specifics related to teaching others how to do the job. To be effective, therefore, such training is necessary and should include 6

· • the company’s formal OJT process (e.g., JIT) and the policies and support provided by the organization,

· • interpersonal skills and feedback techniques, and

· • principles of adult learning.

Motivating the OJT trainer is also a key factor in making the OJT method effective. Trainers need to observe the trainee closely to ensure adequate skill development and to prevent the trainee from causing damage to equipment and property or injury to self or others. For this to happen, OJT trainers must be rewarded for conducting the training while doing their jobs. This can be done in many ways, but there are several things to remember. Someone who is training another employee and performing his own job should not be expected to perform at the same level of productivity as someone who is not training others. Rewards must be provided for giving effective training. Think back to the proper process of OJT. It requires the trainer to go through the steps of particular tasks methodically and then observe as the trainee does the same. This process requires time, which will take away from the productivity that would be possible if the trainer were doing nothing but his own job.

One way to motivate the OJT trainer would be to institute a different (higher) classification for someone who was capable of training other employees. This designation would provide prestige (and perhaps more money) for the position. At the same time, the measure of performance for the trainer could be how well the trainee performs at the end of the formal OJT. Here the motivation would be to turn out good trainees. If this is not done, and trainers are expected to perform their regular jobs at a similar level as nontrainers, then the result might well be similar to what happened in the following example. A food service and vending company used experienced vending machine service route drivers to train new route drivers. The company attributed a history of high turnover among trainee drivers to the nature of the job, the low starting wage, and the hours required. The arrival of a new human resources manager led to a reexamination of this problem. Discussions with current trainees and trainees who had voluntarily terminated their employment in the recent past revealed that many of the trainers would do all the easy work (restocking the machines) and make the trainees do the “dirty” work (performing maintenance on the machines). Others would not let the trainees do any of the work because it “slowed them down.” As the drivers were paid on the basis of the number of machines they serviced, rather than on an hourly rate, they were essentially doing the training for free.

Alternatives to Development

For several reasons, an organization may choose not to develop its own training. A small business might not have the resources; a large company might not have many individuals to train or simply might have too many other projects in the works. In such situations, alternatives are available. The company could hire a consultant and use one of their prepackaged programs or look to outside training seminars. The option to hire a consultant to do all the work is an expensive alternative but would result in a program tailored to the company’s needs, much as if the organization did it all itself.

THE CONSULTANT

If the training required is not specific to the organization but more generic (e.g., conflict management, interviewing skills, or computer skills), find a consultant with a training package that can be adapted to fit the company’s needs. Using the consultant’s prepackaged program without any alterations would reduce the overall cost.

The advantage of prepackaged programs is that they are ready to go. The disadvantage is that they are not specific to a company. This trade-off may be more acceptable for a session on conflict resolution than for a session on team development. In fact, many prepackaged programs can be used to supplement a company’s own program. They can be less costly than hiring a consultant, but some are still expensive. Some consulting firms offer prepackaged programs and also provide training for the trainers. This option adds to the cost, but the training is usually quite good. If a great deal of training will be taking place in the organization, this option may be worth the extra expense if it is amortized over multiple sessions.

In deciding whether to use a consultant, consider questions such as the following:

· • How many employees are to be trained, and will they need constant retraining?

· • Can advantages be realized from involving a neutral third party (e.g., union–management cooperative ventures)?

· • Is there a rush to get the training done?

· • Is there in-house expertise?

If the decision is to use a consultant, consider the following:

· • Ask for references, ask who they have trained, and be sure to follow up on this information (consultants vary in their expertise).

· • Determine how much the consultant knows about the industry.

· • Review some of the training objectives in the consultant’s training packages.

· • Find out how the consultant evaluates success in training.

· • Make sure you know who will be doing the work. Often you meet the salesperson, not the trainer.

OUTSIDE SEMINARS

The outside seminar is training offered from time to time at local hotels, conference centers, and universities. These seminars are the least expensive and best alternative if only a few employees need training. For a sufficient number of attendees, these seminars may be brought to your site. On-site seminars can be tailored to the organization for a moderate extra cost. They can also include an evaluation component.

When choosing a seminar, consider the following questions:

· • What are the training objectives? Skills require practice, and seminars often are too large to include practice sessions.

· • Is any form of evaluation used? (Evaluation is rarely done.)

· • How well does the content focus on the training objectives?

· • Can someone be sent to preview the seminar and report back on its potential value?

If the decision is to purchase training, assess how it fits into the overall training strategy. Many companies have implemented team training in the past because it was “the thing to do.” Spending money on team training simply because others were doing it wasted money. Training should be seen as a mechanism to support the organization’s mission and goals. Other mechanisms must also be in place to support the training if it is to transfer effectively.

Focus on Small Business

In Britain, organizations with fewer than 100 employees reported a 25 percent increase in training with about 60 percent reporting financial benefits from the training. 7 Another study in Britain noted that the payoff of more training seems to be a higher level of innovation from employees. 8 So formal training is a valuable commodity for the small business. In North America, a study of small businesses (fewer than 100 employees) indicated that most (83 percent) had some form of formal training. 9 The cost of this training is unknown, but knowing how important costs are for the small business, it is useful to consider options that could reduce these training costs. To achieve the benefits of formalized training, the small business might find it advantageous to hire a consultant or purchase prepackaged training. If so, it is important that they follow the same suggestions mentioned previously when choosing a consultant or packaged training.

Small businesses should also examine the feasibility of developing a consortium of small businesses that could all use the same training. LearnShare (see Training in Action 7-6 ) discovered that 74 percent of their training is not specific to a particular organization’s process or products. 10 The same is likely true for small companies. Why not take advantage of this commonality and work together to identify training needs and share in the cost of developing or purchasing relevant training? This is what LearnShare does. LearnShare developed an online training program called the Leader Survival Kit. 11 The total cost of the program was $285,000, but sharing the cost among companies made it only about $22,000 each. If this shared development expense can be done for e-learning, it can also be done for any type of training development; thus, it can be affordable for smaller businesses. Also, given the increasing number of small businesses, the expense could be shared among more, making the cost of development even less.

E-learning is now an option for the small business. Numerous businesses are providing a template for developing online learning. This way, the small business gets affordable training that can be tailored to its needs. Several e-learning opportunities are now available. Quelsys is a company that allows trainers from other companies to use its authoring tools to build training programs. No cost is charged until employees begin to take the course, and then the cost is on a per-employee basis. 12 The Small Business Administration’s training network provides several training courses via the Web for free. 13 Some companies are even more adventuresome and develop an online learning university (see Training in Action 8-1 ).

Small businesses often belong to industry-specific associations that can provide a venue for discussing this idea to determine the level of interest. The associations themselves could develop a consortium for their constituents. If a consortium is too complex a project to consider, why not simply purchase a few prepackaged training programs? If a small business located three other companies with similar training interests, it would save 75 percent of the cost.

Western Learning Systems of California is a variation on the consortium idea. It develops courses for larger companies but retains the copyright. It then markets these courses to small companies at a more affordable rate. They offer a one-year membership for $5,000 that entitles a company to 75 classes at the rate of $195 per class. 14

Another inexpensive way to train in some areas is to require trainees to read a particular book and then participate in a discussion group on the topic. The person most knowledgeable about the subject leads the group. A company preparing for ISO certification asked a group of employees to read a book written by one of the quality gurus, Philip Crosby. After they read each chapter, they met to discuss it. The manager prepared questions in advance to keep the discussion going. 16 Earlier we indicated how important trainee involvement is for adult learning. These discussion groups are the epitome of involvement. The informal training in this company became more formal after this initial orientation.

Although this method does not follow all the criteria that we suggest for an effective training program, it might more than compensate for this by motivating participants. No single best way to train has been established, especially when the variations in cost-benefit for different training alternatives are considered. Training in Action 8-2 provides examples of various methods being used by small businesses.

At this point, you are ready to implement your instructional strategy. This phase of the training model is depicted above. Note that the outputs from the development phase are brought together and become the inputs for the implementation stage. Next, the “process” phase contains two steps that are important to take before your training is ready for general use. 18 They are, first, a dry run, and then a pilot program. The former is a “first test” of new material; here, the training package may not be presented in its entirety. The latter is the first full-blown presentation of the training using finished materials.

Before discussing the dry run and pilot program, let us examine some ideas for implementing training, first in terms of the structure of training, and then in terms of what the trainer should do both before and during the training.

Implementation Ideas for Training Structure

There are several things you can do to ensure that trainees become, and remain, interested in training.

ICEBREAKER

Have an icebreaker to start the training. An icebreaker is a game or exercise that prompts trainees to get comfortable interacting with other trainees and the trainer. It is designed to be fun but at the same time generate energy that will transfer to the rest of the training. Would an icebreaker have been a useful way for Jason Reston to start his training? We believe so. The major reason given for not using an icebreaker is that it takes up too much time, but this assumption is a mistake. 19 Without the icebreaker, training starts off fast, but because of the lack of “getting to know others” and making discussion a legitimate part of training, it soon slows down and loses the race. 20 The choice of icebreaker depends on the size of the group. Suppose the focus of training was on listening and communication skills. One approach, if the class is not too large and trainees do not know one another, is to group trainees into triads. If possible, set up these groups ahead of time so that group members do not know each other. Each trainee interviews one member of the triad, with the third as an observer. The questions should be simple but should help in getting to know the person. For example, ask for the following information:

• The person’s name (for obvious reasons)

• The organization the person is from and title (learn about the type of work he or she does)

• The amount of time in the person’s present job (learn about the person’s experience)

• The best aspects of the job (learn about “work person”)

• What the person hopes to get out of the training

Once the interviews are complete, each trainee in turn introduces the interviewed person to the total group. This activity gets everyone talking to the entire group, provides information on trainees, and releases a great deal of tension, while at the same time relating to the focus of the training. We often list responses from the last item on an easel sheet and return to it at the end of training to see if we have met all the trainees’ expectations.

After all trainees have reported the information from their interview you could ask “What were some of the communication challenges you had in your interviews?” Later on, the trainer can come back to the icebreaker for examples of issues related to effective listening and communicating.

PROVIDE VARIETY

Provide variety during training to maintain interest. Recall from Chapter 6 that trainees’ attention begins to decline after 15 to 20 minutes of lecture, 21 so be sure to provide breaks, activities, and the like to keep trainees interested in what you are saying. Keep a watchful eye on the trainees to signal time for a break. Even a five-minute stretch can help.

EXERCISES OR GAMES

Exercises or games (not to be confused with business games) are also valuable for gaining and maintaining interest, assuming that the games are relevant. They are especially useful if they provide an entrée to, or an example of, the training objective. These tools should be used with a clear and definite purpose. We emphasize this point because of the experience of a colleague at a training workshop a few years ago (see Training in Action 8-3 ).

Several models incorporate exercises into the learning process. 22 One such model is exhibited in Figure 8-2 . This modification of an earlier model from Pfeiffer and Jones 23 allows trainees to experience first-hand a process related to the current training, then hear some information about the topic for comparison with what they did. Then they process the new information, generalize it to their situation, and attempt to apply it in a more relevant situation. Let’s examine this process more closely.

Step 1: The Experience

The learning experience begins with some sort of activity that ties into the training topic. This way, all trainees begin by sharing a common experience. This first experience should not be related too closely to the actual work setting.

For example, when managers are being trained to be better interviewers, one of the objectives is to teach them how to develop appropriate interview questions. The first thing to realize is that most managers already believe that they are good interviewers. So how does the trainer convince them that training is necessary? To emphasize the importance of sound question development, the exercise (experience) is for them to help a committee select the new leader of a scout troop. Trainees take 10 minutes to develop their own interview questions. Then they meet in small groups and develop an overall list of questions and the rationale for each. This list is posted on newsprint and discussed.

Step 2: The Lecturette

After the experience, the trainer provides information (e.g., concepts and principles) related to the topic at hand. This can be a lecture, a video, or some other form. In our example, a lecture would describe how to develop interview questions related to job requirements. Here the trainer shows how important it is to examine the job to determine what is needed, rather than simply making up questions that sound good.

Step 3: Processing the Information and Experience

After the experience and lecturette, trainees work in small groups to discuss their experience based on the information they just received. In our example, the trainer might ask the groups to analyze the questions they developed and answer the question “What criteria did we use to develop these questions?” Another question might be, “How are these questions related to the job of scout leader?” Then each of the small groups could report to the entire group what they discovered about how they developed interview questions.

Step 4: Generalizability

At this point, it is important for the trainees to see how the learning is relevant to situations outside the training. According to Pfeiffer and Jones, the key question here is “So what?” 24 The goal is to have trainees consider how this new information fits with the things they do back on the job. From the analysis and learning that took place, trainees should infer that scout leader interview questions can be developed in a better way and be able to generalize this to other similar situations. In our example, the trainees should decide that the use of job-related information for developing interview questions is appropriate for all jobs. This point would be an opportunity to provide another lecturette on how to examine a job to determine the relevant questions to ask.

Step 5: Practice

The trainees receive another task similar in nature to the first so that they can practice the newly found skill. Note that in this step, the task should be more closely related to the actual job. In our example, the trainees could be asked to develop interview questions for selecting someone for a job in the area they manage.

Table 8-4 shows how this model ties into the Gagné–Briggs nine events of instruction.

TABLE 8-4 Relationship Between the Experiential Learning Model and Gagné–Briggs Nine Events of Instruction

Implementation Ideas for Trainers

Trainers need to consider several issues for training to be effective. They must ensure that everything is ready on time, that they provide an initial positive impression, and that they gain and maintain trainee interest. Following are some things to consider in that regard.

PREPARATION

As a trainer, you need to make sure everything is ready for training, so there will be no unexpected problems. This includes making sure the trainees have the information they need and that you arrive at the training site early enough to make any needed adjustments if everything is not the way you need it be. Following are some key issues in this regard:

Pretraining Communication

Make sure trainees have the information they need to begin training. Well before the training day trainees should have been:

· • Provided with basic objectives of the training and why it is important

· • Provided with an agenda so they understand how the day will proceed

· • Informed of the appropriate attire and the availability of refreshments (and plans for lunch/dinner if appropriate)

· • Reminded of the training day, start time and location of the training and any materials they are expected to bring.

By providing the participants with this information ahead of time, you help reduce their anxiety and increase their comfort levels.

Refreshments

Check that refreshments have arrived. Refreshments are important and sometimes things do not work out the way you want. A number of years ago one of the authors arrived to discover there was fresh coffee but no food. After a number of phone calls that produced no results he ran out to a Tim Hortons to buy donuts and muffins.

Materials

All material is ready to be distributed (manuals, handouts, nametags, and so on). You should, if possible, have all the materials (manuals, handouts) completed well before the training day and rather than rely on someone else bring these things to the training session bring them yourself. If the training site is quite a distance away you have several options. You could bring them yourself, however this might be quite cumbersome depending on mode of travel, the number of trainees and the amount of material. Or, you could send a copy of the materials to the client and have them create enough copies for the trainees. One problem with this approach is that you can’t be sure they will be assembled as you intended. A better approach is to have the materials created and “proofed” far enough in advance that you can have them shipped to the training site far enough in advance that you will know they have arrived before you leave.

Room Setup

Make sure trainee tables/seating is set up properly as well as other aspects of the room such as tables for the trainer’s materials/equipment, and podium. You should call the day before to remind those in charge of the training room of your room arrangement requirements. When you show up early on the training day check to be sure room has been set up to your satisfaction. If you are using posters or other static visuals, it is probably best if you hang these yourself to get the best location for your purposes.

Equipment Functionality

Is the equipment you need set up and you are familiar with how it works? Do not assume that you can turn the equipment on when you need it. Try it and find out. Check the projector to see that a spare bulb is stored inside. If not, find a spare (if you don’t, you are tempting the fates). Make sure your slides, videos, and other electronic training material is loaded into the computer to be used during the training. The best approach is to bring your own laptop with the material already loaded and a flash drive with the material backed up. This allows you to use a computer you are already familiar with and a backup if something goes wrong with your laptop. If a video will be used, try it out in the training room environment. If it needs to be downloaded from a URL make sure it is ready to go when needed and there will be no long pauses in the training while the trainer tries to get the video to play. Ensure that there are enough newsprint and markers available if these are being used.

As the trainer, you need to be sure that everything is ready to go before the trainees arrive; otherwise, you can lose your credibility before you get started. In addition to preparation of the room and equipment, the trainer needs to make sure that she is prepared. This means that she has completed a dry run, is comfortable with the materials and their use, and is at ease facilitating exercises and activities. She has rehearsed her presentation of the material to the point where she appears to be engaged in normal conversation rather than regurgitating memorized material. If there are multiple trainers make sure the transitions from one to the next are smooth and seamless.

FIRST IMPRESSION

Earlier we discussed the impact on trainer credibility of factors such as topic knowledge and experience as well as trainer competencies. Those effects occur after the trainer has had an opportunity to interact with the participants for a while. Some things a trainer does can impact the participant’s perception of the trainer’s credibility right at the start of training (or even before). Typically, the favorable (or unfavorable) impression that a job candidate makes in a selection interview is made in the first few minutes. The same is true of the impression that the trainer makes on trainees. Since this issue is so critical to effective training, the first few minutes need to be managed well. In the case at the beginning of the chapter, what kind of first impression do you think Jason Reston made? Did he establish any credibility with the trainees? Did he demonstrate a concern for their needs? Did he seem approachable?

What should a trainer wear? The answer is: know the audience. If unsure, ask. In many situations, a business suit is a safe bet. Training accountants, who all come to work in conservative business attire, suggests that a business suit is a good idea. This same attire, however, could create distance from some other groups. Training line workers from a manufacturing plant, for example, might require more casual dress—not wearing the uniform of management. Remember, the trainees should perceive the trainer as someone able to help them in their job. To gain this credibility, the trainer needs to dress accordingly. The right dress for training line workers might be casual dress—tasteful casual, but casual nevertheless.

It is equally important that the clothes are clean, pressed, and fit well; that shoes are shined; and that accessories match the outfit. Hair style and coloring should be appropriate. This first impression will help establish your credibility. In one instance, one of the authors was using a graduate student to assist in a project at a major automobile manufacturer. They were to arrive on site the day before to meet with representatives of the company to go over the activities that would begin the following day. The author picked up the student for the four-hour drive to the company only to discover that the student had purple and orange hair cut in a “monk” style. What type of credibility do you think the author would have had if he had shown up with his “assistant”? Needless to say, a trip to the hair salon occurred prior to arrival at the client’s offices.

If the dress code is a suit, and you are not as comfortable conducting your training in this attire, you can always take off the jacket and roll up your sleeves after the training gets underway. Trainees also need to feel comfortable, and the trainer can signal a more relaxed atmosphere by removing his jacket and loosening his tie. The trainer might say, “I think I need to loosen up a bit; please feel free to do the same.” For training spread over several days, at some point on the first day, the trainer should ask the trainees to decide on a suitable dress code.

THE START OF TRAINING

Greet Participants and Make Them Comfortable

First impressions begin when trainees walk through the door of the training room. Before trainees arrive, make sure you have created the type of environment that will foster effective learning. Make sure your projector has a welcoming slide showing or some other attractive visual relevant to the training topic. Sometimes soft music playing in the background is a pleasant way for trainees to wait for the session to begin. When trainees begin to arrive, greet them individually. Small talk with individual trainees before the session helps make them comfortable and, in turn, will facilitate discussion once the training begins. If there is assigned seating, show the participant where they will be sitting. Make sure to explain any materials that are at their seats and what to do with them. Point out the location of refreshments and invite the participant to partake.

Start Up, Objectives, Expectations, and Ground Rules

Starting on time is important, but most trainers we know allow for some tardiness the first day, when trainees might not know exactly where the training room is, or simply did not give themselves enough time to get to the location. Whether you start on time or not, one reason for starting with an icebreaker is that it allows those who may arrive a little late to fit right in with little disruption and not miss any of the content of the program.

After the icebreaker, begin training by warmly greeting the participants (if you haven’t done so prior to the icebreaker). Follow this with a description of the purpose of the training and a review of the learning objectives. This will help provide focus for the training, and, if the needs analysis was successful, it will mean that all trainees will understand the need to learn the KSAs. When going through the learning objectives, you will want to make sure that they are stated in easily understood language. If you have an extensive number of learning objectives, you will probably want to list major objectives only (ones that incorporate a number of lesser objectives).

Trainees might come with differing expectations about what the training will be about, and they also may have a variety of personal goals related to the training. After reviewing the objectives, it is useful to ask trainees if they have any additional expectations for training. You might ask each person to develop lists to present to the larger group or ask them to do this in small groups. Typically, this will not take long as your discussion of the learning objectives will have addressed most of the participant expectations. As participants report out their expectations, write these on a flip chart or whiteboard for future reference. Indicate to the trainees which of the points mentioned will be a part of the training and which will not. For any points that are not part of the training design, you might offer to try to fit them in if they coincide with your objectives. If not, explain why they are not appropriate for this training session and offer to meet with them during break time to discuss where they might go to address that need. This process clarifies for the participants what the training will and will not cover. Make sure to refer back to the list periodically as you move through the training to be sure that all the things you promised were in fact covered. At the conclusion of training, it is useful to review the list with the participants to ensure that you have not forgotten to address any of their expectations.

Following the discussion of expectations, go through the agenda to indicate what will be happening over the duration of the training. As you go through the agenda, indicate where the items on the list of expectations will be covered. Explain how breaks will be distributed and how messages for the trainees will be handled.

Following the agenda, initiate a discussion of the ground rules for training. This should cover things like starting and ending on time, breaks, leaving the training room while training is being conducted, use of cell phones, how messages from the office will be handled, and so on. You might start off the discussion by focusing on the issue of starting on time and why this is important. Recall reinforcement theory as discussed in Chapter 3 . If those who arrive late discover that training has not begun, it reinforces the belief that showing up on time is not necessary. A late start also punishes those who do arrive on time. For the rule of starting on time to be effective, however, it is necessary to obtain commitment from the trainees. Thus, you provide the rationale and then ask for any discussion. Following the discussion, you can ask for a consensus vote of all in favor of starting and ending on time. You can use the same procedure for the other ground rules. The trainees are more likely to abide by these rules because they helped develop them. To expedite the process, prepare a set of suggested ground rules and explain why they are useful. Then ask the trainees for any suggestions to modify, add, or delete from the list.

THE PODIUM

One of the authors was hired to assist a consultant in training automobile workers in a new plant. The consultant hired a number of local people because of the size of the project. Concurrent training sessions allowed opportunities for the trainers to observe one another. One trainer was in the habit of sitting behind a table while talking to the trainees, another stood behind a podium, and the rest stood and moved around, going back to their notes only occasionally. Which procedure is best? Again, it depends. Standing behind the podium or sitting at a desk is acceptable for one-way communication, but it is not the most effective style for training adults, for whom two-way communication is important. In these cases, any barriers (desk, podium) present nonverbal impediments to the communication process. Additionally, seeing someone who is teaching them sitting behind a desk might remind some trainees of unpleasant school experiences. Being out in front of a desk or podium and moving around helps make the trainer look more accessible and open to input. In any event, two-way communication is much more important in the lecture/discussion method, whereas for the straight lecture, a podium is perfectly acceptable. A skilled trainer will use the podium to signal to trainees when interruptions and comments are acceptable and when they are not.

COMMUNICATION TIPS

Communicating with trainees occurs continuously in face-to-face training programs. We provided several trainer tips earlier in our discussion of the lecture/discussion method. We need to elaborate a bit here on how trainers should respond to trainees when they make comments. Trainers may think that they are encouraging trainees to talk, but, in reality, trainer responses often do not facilitate learning or encourage the trainee. For example, comments following a trainee’s response such as “yes,” “OK,” “thank you,” and so on, do little other than acknowledge that the trainee has spoken. Examine the following exchange between a trainer and a participant:

· PARTICIPANT: “At the company where I used to work, we made product changes based on customer feedback.”

· TRAINER: “That’s very interesting. Does anyone else have a comment?”

The trainer’s response, while acknowledging the comment doesn’t indicate why the response is of interest or how it fits into the topic. A better response would have been to say

· TRAINER: “That’s very interesting since it relates to our discussion of how to meet or exceed customer expectations. Can you tell us how you were able to get the customer feedback and the process that was used for integrating that into your workflow?”

Trainee comments and dialogue need to be encouraged by the trainer, but the trainer needs to do more. The trainer must use those comments and dialogue to foster learning. That can only be done if the trainer understands the content of the training well enough to incorporate the comments into learning opportunities.

Following are some other things to consider as you respond to participants in your training.

Listening and Questioning

Good listening and questioning skills separate good trainers from average or poor trainers. This statement is not to demean presentation skills but rather to stress the importance of listening and questioning. The techniques discussed earlier cannot be emphasized too strongly. If you are using the lecture/discussion method, use the experience and information provided by the trainees. Control the urge to tell them continually about your experiences. Remember that trainees relate to one another and their experiences more often than to yours. In the beginning, it might be helpful to share your relevant experiences to establish credibility and to show that sharing of experiences is desirable and useful. As training moves on, you will want to encourage trainees to begin sharing their experiences that are related to the training.

This requires being a good listener. Good listening is difficult for several reasons, including the ones listed next:

· • We can process information much faster than someone speaks, which gives us opportunities to do or think of other things.

· • We often believe that we know what the person is going to say, so we interrupt to respond.

· • We believe that speaking, not listening, is where the power and control are.

Therefore, listening requires practice. Active listening, originally developed for clinical counseling, involves three steps:

· 1. Listen carefully to what is said.

· 2. Summarize in your mind what was said.

· 3. Feed the summary back to the individual.

Following this process helps keep us focused, but more important, it confirms to the speaker (and all other trainees) what has been said, and leaves little room for misunderstandings. Training in Action 8-4 provides an example of active listening.

Providing Instructions

It is important to provide clear instructions with each exercise used. Many role-play exercises are wasted because trainees do not understand exactly what is expected. Oral instructions certainly need to be provided, but a handout containing the same information is also a useful resource for trainees. Even then, it is helpful to provide an example of what is expected. Once the exercise has begun, it is too late. It is discouraging both to the trainer and to the trainees if the trainees are confused and embarrassed because they misunderstood what they were supposed to be doing.

Moving Around While Talking

This technique does not imply methodically pacing back and forth, but rather moving out from behind the podium. If a podium must be used, step away from it at times. If possible, stay away from it altogether. Moving around while lecturing shows knowledge of, and comfort with, the material. Approaching trainees from time to time and talking specifically to them sets up a friendly atmosphere. The movement also requires trainees to follow the trainer with their eyes, preventing the “glazed stare” that can occur if the trainer is stationary.

Using Nonverbal Communication

Everyone is always sending out nonverbal cues , so it is important that these cues are the correct ones. Keep eye contact on a trainee who is asking a question; do not turn and walk away while the trainee is talking. Give a head nod when a trainee answers a question, and hold eye contact. Also, maintain eye contact with the trainee group as a whole while talking to them. Avoid talking to the image on the screen, or the lecture notes. Avoid folding your arms, as it can suggest displeasure or that the discussion is over. If writing on the board or flip chart, turn your head to the trainees while talking.

The key to nonverbal behavior is to convey enthusiasm about the information being discussed. If the enthusiasm is real rather than feigned, it will show in nonverbal expressions. Think of someone passionately arguing a point of view. Are her arms out in front and her palms up? Perhaps she is moving her hands up and down in short gestures. In any case, it is unlikely that her arms are folded across her chest.

What if the trainer is not enthusiastic about the material that must be presented? This lack of energy can develop after presenting the same material a number of times. What to do? First, realize how important enthusiasm is to effective training. Recall training sessions in which you were the trainee. It is easy to distinguish a good trainer from a not-so-good trainer. The good one was enthusiastic. So the trainer needs to psych himself up to generate enthusiasm. The trainer needs to give himself reasons to be enthusiastic about the material. Remember, the trainees are not as familiar with the material as the trainers. Starting off enthusiastically will be infectious, for both the trainees and the trainer.

Getting Rid of Dysfluencies

Dysfluencies are those “and uh,” “like,” “um” space fillers injected into speech. Everyone uses them occasionally, but some use them far too often. This tendency is usually more prominent when a trainer is nervous or unsure. It becomes immediately noticeable, and trainees tend to focus on these utterances rather than on the material. Videorecording lectures, or simply asking others to inform you when you use dysfluencies, can help you get rid of them.

TIPS ON DEALING WITH DIFFERENT PARTICIPANT PERSONALITIES

A successful trainer needs to understand how to deal with the various types of trainees that might be encountered. Some will need to be encouraged to become more involved in discussion, while others are far too involved.

Quiet Trainee

In Chapter 6 , we discussed methods for encouraging quiet trainees to become more involved (small group discussions, writing their answers first), and these approaches are usually successful. What if they do not work? If there are several small groups for discussion sessions, one way to encourage the quiet trainee is to ask each group to rotate the person who is responsible for reporting back to the larger group. The quiet trainee will then take a turn reporting to the larger group, thus increasing his participation. However, too much pressure to become involved is not a good idea. If a quiet person is speaking up during the small group sessions, he is providing input. Do not attempt to get these trainees to participate at a level equal to others if they are not so inclined. Doing so can create too much tension in the environment. If all these methods are tried with little change in the quiet trainee’s behavior, do not push any further. Further attempts will only create barriers to the trainee’s learning.

Talkative Trainee

The talkative trainee is usually far more of a problem than the quiet one. No matter what question is asked, this trainee wants to answer. Usually the answer involves a long story, and soon other trainees are rolling their eyes and tuning out. The trainer loses the trainees’ attention, and valuable training time is wasted on irrelevant stories. It is important to tone down that trainee’s input but not embarrass anyone. One approach is to ask others for their opinion. Say something like “We have been making Lex do all the work here so far—how about someone else responding?” Or use the direct questioning technique to get the focus away from the talkative trainee. It may be helpful to speak to the talkative trainee in private, suggesting that her comments are appreciated, but there is a concern that others are not participating as much as they should. In this context, asking the talkative trainee to hold back on participation usually works.

Angry Trainee

Some trainees who come to training simply do not want to be there. They set out to ruin the session for everyone. Such trainees must be dealt with early on before they disrupt the class. One of the authors was training line workers in team concepts, and although the union executive and most union members were supportive of the training, some were violently opposed. In the first session, one of these trainees said, “I really do not want to be here; this training is management propaganda designed to weaken the union.” The author’s response was “I have heard that said before; how do others feel about the training?” At that point, a number of others indicated support for the training, and although the angry trainee did not participate much in the rest of the training, he did not disrupt it either.

If in such a situation most trainees felt the same way, it would be wise to spend some time discussing the issue because such an attitude will certainly affect training. The important point is to focus on how training can benefit them. One way to accomplish this task is to ask trainees to identify ways they would be able to use the training.

The Comedian

These trainees are a gift and a curse. They are a gift because when their jokes work, and if they are not put forth too often, they will do wonders to set a positive tone. Laughter is good medicine, and a comedian is able to provide it. The potential curse is in the nature and frequency of the jokes. Some jokes are clearly out of place. In other cases, it is difficult to know what is offensive. However, it is not productive for even a small number of trainees to feel that a particular joke was offensive. Also, if the comedians do get a lot of laughs, they are likely to continue to joke around. This behavior can disrupt the timing of the sessions and put the trainer behind.

What to do? If the joking gets out of hand or some jokes are inappropriate, you can talk with the comedian at a break. Indicate a concern that some of the humor is offensive to some of the other trainees or is distracting from the focus of training. In taking this approach, you need to indicate appreciation of the comedian’s intention to contribute to the training, but reach an agreement about how often the jokes can be offered and what types of jokes are acceptable. This conversation should be enough to curb such behavior. Sometimes the comedian’s jokes are directed at the trainer. In these cases, the trainer must have a tough skin and be willing to laugh without taking it personally. This reaction will defuse any tension that may have been created, reduce the amount of distraction, and show that the trainer is not “too full of herself.” It is only when the jokes become distracting or offensive that action needs to be taken.

Dry Run

In the training model, the process component of the implementation phase contains two important steps that should be completed before training is ready for general use: 25 the dry run and the pilot program. The former is a rehearsal of the training program to test out new material, work out delivery issues, and firm up the timing of different segments. In some situations, the training package might not need to be presented in its entirety. The pilot program is the first full-blown presentation of the training using finished materials.

The dry run is not designed to actually train participants who assume the role of trainees. Instead, it is designed to determine the value and clarity of the various pieces of the training program, identify and correct any delivery problems, work through timing issues and otherwise make sure that the training is ready for delivery. The dry run provides a controlled setting in which these issues can be discussed and resolved. In general, the dry run will take much longer than the actual training, so enough time should be set aside to not only deliver the material but also make necessary adjustments. To this end, it is necessary to get as many key perspectives as possible to view the training. The trainer should be the person(s) who will actually deliver the training. For a really effective dry run, use some potential trainees but choose them carefully; consider their diverse backgrounds, their general supportiveness of the value of training, and their willingness to provide feedback. More seasoned employees will be able to help evaluate the transferability of the training back to the job. Include some content experts who can provide feedback on the validity of the material and its usage. Some members of the training design and development team should also participate in the dry run, assuming the role of trainees or observers. They can provide feedback as to how well the various pieces of the design fit together.

The dry run might not require that all the training modules in the program be tested. If a previously used specific exercise, case, or role-play has been used with a similar target population, the dry run for this exercise might simply involve the participants reading through the exercise and providing feedback as to its relevance. However, you should make sure that the exercise or activity has enough history to provide you with an accurate estimate of the time it will take during an actual training session. Newly developed or occasionally used exercises and activities require the dry run participants to go through the full process, providing feedback after it is completed.

It is important to ask participants and observers a list of questions after each exercise or module that is tested. For example, after participants complete a role-play, you ask the following:

· • Is the situation realistic for this organization? If it is not, future trainees might dismiss the training as being irrelevant.

· • Is the information and direction for the exercise clear enough for trainees to do the exercise?

· • Is the time allocation too long or too short?

After the dry run is completed, examine the feedback carefully, and revise the training where applicable. Then it is time for the pilot program.

Pilot Program

The pilot program is different from the dry run in that trainees are there to be trained. It will be a full-fledged training program. The dry run refines the training to eliminate any major glitches. In the pilot program, trainees are again chosen carefully, as you want people who are generally supportive of training and who are not likely to be disruptive. Trainees will spread the word about training to others in the organization quickly. That word should be as positive as possible so that when new trainees come into the program, they bring positive expectations. The pilot program will provide additional input to further refine the training (if necessary), and disruptions are not conducive to this process. To evaluate how the training comes across to different groups, it is desirable to have a good cross section of those who will be in the later training sessions.

The main goals of the pilot program are as follows:

· • To provide the trainees with the relevant training

· • To assess further the timing and relevance of modules and various training components

· • To determine the appropriateness, clarity, and flow of material

The pilot program provides valuable responses and viewpoints that are inserted in the trainer’s manual. These inputs will help guide new trainers in what to expect. Another use of the pilot program is to provide an opportunity for future trainers to attend the training and experience what takes place firsthand. Finally, the pilot program will provide valuable feedback to designers regarding the effectiveness of the training.

After the pilot program, any revisions are documented in the training plan and trainer’s manual and implemented in future training sessions. If new material or activities are added, these should be perfected in a dry run. Thus it is possible that a training program might have a dry run, followed by a pilot program, followed by another dry run that would be followed by the actual training. One final note: Although a dry run and a pilot program will help improve the program, evaluation and appropriate revisions should not stop here. Training evaluation goes on continuously. The primary objective of training is the transfer of the training to the job to positively affect organizational results. Training should continue to be modified until desirable outcomes can be reliably achieved.

Going back to the model, the output of the implementation phase is the learned KSAs and evaluation (discussed in Chapter 9 ). When trainees are back on the job, it is expected that the new learning will be transferred to the job. This issue of transfer was discussed in Chapter 5 and will be further elaborated on here.

TRANSFER OF TRAINING

Transfer of training to the job can be simple and easy, or, at the other extreme, complex and next to impossible. Consider training on how to complete a new requisition form. Once training is complete and the form is available, transfer of the new behavior should be relatively easy. However, consider the supervisor training that teaches a supervisor to take time to use conflict resolution skills to deal with subordinates. Back on the job, the supervisor is measured by the units his subordinates produce. In the past, being angry and yelling at them resulted in high productivity. Here, transfer of the new behaviors is less likely. Figure 8-3 helps us understand the factors necessary to support this type of transfer to occur.

First, because the new behaviors are more difficult and not part of the trainee’s regular behavior, he will need to practice these new behaviors on the job. Examining Figure 8-3 , there are two inputs that specifically influence this: trainer support and relapse prevention/goal setting. Trainer support can come from a sit-in. The development phase is where you would obtain the trainers commitment to do a sit-in. Recall from Chapter 5 that in a sit-in the trainer follows the trainee around for a while noting how he is using the skills, and then provides feedback. Providing the trainee with the relapse prevention/goal setting process will help him when relapses do happen. These two inputs along with the other nonshaded inputs in the model are factors that the trainer can directly influence. The shaded factors can also influence transfer back on the job but are not directly controlled by the trainer. All these inputs will increase the likelihood that transfer will occur. Two of these not directly controlled by the trainer, are supervisor and peer support. Supervisor support 26 and feedback from the supervisor 27 have been shown to be important factors in the transfer of training. Other evidence suggests that the supervisor needs to have a good relationship with the subordinate for the feedback to be most effective. 28 Effective coaching usually results in a positive supervisor/subordinate relationship, which in turn assists the subordinate in transferring their new skills to the job though the supervisors support and feedback. So, having supervisors with good coaching skills will aid in the transfer of training. These coaching skills will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 11 .

Peer support and feedback also aid in the transfer of training to the job. 29 However, it can also have the opposite effect. Of all the forces that are important to ensure transfer, peer support can be the most problematic. Peer pressure from those who have been around for a long time and who are comfortable doing things the “old way” can do a great deal to inhibit a trainee’s ability to change, even if she wants to. In many cases, this peer pressure for the status quo is very difficult to change. Training in Action 8-5 provides an example where Ford was successful in dealing with potential peer pressure. However, this involved a new plant, new relationships, and training focused on changing attitudes. It is very different in an older plant where employees are set in their ways and there are strong relationships among the workers. In cases like this, change management skills are required to help employees see the advantages of new ways and obtain their support. A review of Training in Action 5-2 provides a reminder of just how much can and should be done to ensure that transfer of training takes place. After all, without it, the training was a waste of money.

Trainers hope for supportive climate and culture, as these will increase the likelihood that the new behaviors will be practiced and maintained during and after transfer. 30 Recall from Chapter 3 that successful completion of training should have a positive impact on the trainees’ posttraining self-efficacy. This, in turn, should encourage them to practice the learned KSAs on the job. Finally, alignment of the reward systems to encourage the new behaviors will add to the likelihood that the transfer will take place and be lasting, provided they have a high enough valence.

From the training needs analysis, any reward systems that were not aligned, or supervisor and peer attitudes toward the training that were dysfunctional, should have been identified. Plans to make needed changes in these areas should have been addressed in the design phase and implemented prior to training. The output of Figure 8-3 is the complete transfer of the KSAs to the job. The degree to which this is achieved depends on how many of the input factors are aligned to support the transfer.

Summary

First, we discussed the development of training. At this stage, creating a program development plan is crucial to ensure that everything that needs to be done is done. This plan outlines everything that must be done to prepare for training, from material and equipment to trainee and trainer manuals. Content learning points from each learning objective need to be highlighted to clearly identify what needs to be learned.

The type of training facility chosen is also important. Arrangement of the seating and closeness of the trainer to the trainees should be a function of the objectives of the training, not the design of the room. Also, noise levels from adjoining rooms or from outside the room need to be determined before choosing a training room. The proper training facility then allows the seating to be arranged in a manner that best reflects what type of training will be taking place.

We examined the factors to consider when choosing a trainer, and specifically an OJT trainer, because of the unique issues that revolve around OJT trainers.

Alternatives to development of the training were examined. After all, sometimes it is simply not viable to develop training. In cases like this, the use of consultants, prepackaged training, and outside seminars can provide a solution. This is especially true for the small business.

In the implementation of training, we first focused on some practical issues related to keeping trainees’ interest in training. Use of icebreakers, learning objectives, variety, and an example of a type of exercise to keep training interesting was discussed. Next we provided some tips for trainers in the execution of the training program. Preparation, importance of the first impression, what to consider at the start of training, and how to use the podium were all discussed. Finally, some tips on communication and how to deal with certain types of trainees were provided.

The dry run and the pilot program were discussed. Before implementation of a large training program, it is useful to have a dry run in which the material is tested to see how effective it is. This dry run is not an actual training session but a process of going through the material and determining whether it is doing what you expect it to. The next step is a pilot program in which the first trainees go through the training, but with selected supportive trainees, so they can spread the word about the training program in a positive manner. Also, constructive feedback from the trainees is solicited to put the finishing touches on the program before it is formally launched.

Key Terms

• Dry run

• Dysfluencies

• Icebreaker

• Instructional strategy

• Learning point

• Nonverbal cues

• Pilot program

• Program development plan

• Training plan

Questions for Review

1. You are asked to deliver a two-day workshop for managers on effective feedback skills. It is focused primarily on performance reviews. Approximately 100 managers need to be trained. Describe what the content of the training would entail, the methods you would use (e.g., lecture, case study, role-play), and the instructional media and equipment you would want, and explain why. Also, what type of room setup would you want, and why? Indicate how many sessions you would need for this number of managers, and explain why.

2. Describe how the experiential learning model relates to the social learning model.

3. What are some typical difficult trainees, and how would you deal with them?

4. How do the dry run and pilot training differ? Why?

Exercises

1. Check the room where your class meets. Does it meet the requirements of a good training room? What changes would make it more amenable to effective training?

2. Assume that you are in training on conflict resolution. Think of a situation in which you got into an argument with someone, and write up the role of the person with whom you were in conflict. Follow the instructions in the chapter. Do not forget that you need to write the role of the other person, not you, because you will play yourself. Show the role to a classmate and ask her to play it. As you play your part, try to behave differently from the way you did in the original confrontation. Although you do not have any training in the area of conflict resolution, simply try to remain calm and not turn the situation into a confrontation. Now debrief. How did it go? Was the role-play useful in helping you practice being calm? Ask the classmate whether the role you wrote could be better in terms of providing information as to how the classmate is to act.

3. In a small group, each person takes a turn giving a three-minute impromptu speech (on anything). Have someone designated as the bell ringer. Each time the speaker uses a dysfluency (uh, and uh, um, etc.), the bell ringer will hit a glass with a spoon (or make some other sound). Keep score for each person. Over the next few weeks, ask friends to tell you when you use these dysfluencies, and try to reduce them. Then get together with your group and redo the exercise. Do you note any improvement?

4. In small groups, choose someone who worked in a particular job. Interview the person to determine the job requirements and develop a procedure for providing OJT for the job.

Web Research

Conduct a search on the Internet to identify tips for trainers in dealing with difficult trainees. Compare the types you find with the types identified in the text. If different, compare those you found with those in the text, and offer an explanation as to why you think they were not included. If types are similar, compare how the text and Internet suggest handling these types, noting any differences and explaining which method you prefer.

Case Questions

1. What are the potential costs to this lack of training? Why do you think the company operated in this manner?

2. What type of training would you recommend: OJT, classroom, or a combination? Describe what the training might entail.

3. What type of training environment would you provide?

4. Who would you get to do the training, and why?

5. Would you consider purchasing a training program for backhoe operators? Provide your rationale.