PSYC

Learning

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers C. Nathan DeWall Twelfth Edition

Chapter 7

Chapter Overview

 Basic Learning Concepts and Classical Conditioning

 Operant Conditioning  Biology, Cognition, and Learning

Learning is the acquisition of knowledge through experience and education.

EfficiencyLife Skills Adaptation

Learning helps us adapt to life in different environments. What Inuit people do to survive in the cold climate us quite different from the habits the Bedouin living in the hot desert have.

From the moment a human opens their eyes for the first time, learning begins. If it did not, we’d be extinct species.

Learning helps us become efficient at a task, become better at something. Taking your first online class will be challenging but taking your second one will be better!

How Do We Learn?

 Through associative learning: Certain events occur together (classical conditioning); stimuli that are not controlled are associated and the response becomes automatic (respondent behavior)

 Through consequences: Association between a response and a consequence is learned (operant behavior)

 Through acquisition of mental information that guides behavior: Cognitive learning

Some Types of Learning

 Cognitive learning: Acquisition of mental information by observing events, watching others, or through language

 Classical conditioning: One learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events  Produces respondent behavior

 Operant conditioning: One learns to associate an action and its consequence.  Produces operant behavior

Classical Conditioning: An Example

Operant Conditioning: An Example

Classical Conditioning

 Pavlov  Studied digestive system; won Russia’s first Nobel

Prize (1904)  Demonstrated associative learning via salivary

conditioning

Classical Conditioning

 Watson  Influenced by Pavlov  Believed the theoretical goal of the science of

psychology is prediction and control of behavior

 Behaviorism  Psychology (1) should be an objective science that

(2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

 Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Classical Conditioning (learning)

The Basics

 Classical conditioning: Type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

 Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically— triggers an unconditioned response (UR).

 Conditioned response (CR): A learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned stimulus (CS).

The Basics

 Conditioned stimulus (CS): An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

 Unconditioned response (UR): An unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

 Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically— triggers an unconditioned response (UR).

Classical Conditioning

 Acquisition  Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an

unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

 In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

 Can the dog stop it?

 Did mama dog teach it?

 Is it automatic?

Breaking Down Classical Conditioning

Before conditioning (learning) takes place, a powerful reflex is already at play. Salivation is a natural reflex that occurs when food is placed in the mouth of this dog (or YOU for that matter). Nobody had to teach the dog to do this. It is not the dog’s choice either. Its body is salivating AUTOMATICALLY when food is in its mouth.

 Salivation to the bell?

 Has learning occurred?

 Is the bell neutral then?

Breaking Down Classical Conditioning

Before conditioning (learning) takes place, a dog would NOT salivate if they hear a bell ringing. They might look in the direction of the bell, but they will not be salivating. The bell does not produce a response. It is called a neutral stimulus.

 Dog salivating to the bell?

 Dog salivating to the food?

 Bell first, then food?

Breaking Down Classical Conditioning

We are now trying to teach the dog to salivate when they hear the bell. This is the conditioning phase and it will take a number of trials. The dog will HEAR the bell, then get FOOD. The bell will mean nothing to the dog for the first few trials but if it is reliably paired with food, the dog will begin to associate them.

 Salivation to the bell?

 Do we give food?

 Is the bell neutral?

Breaking Down Classical Conditioning

After multiple pairings of BELL and FOOD, we observe that the dog will salivate even of we do not give them any food! They have become so good at predicting food AFTER they hear a bell ring, that their body begins to salivate in advance.

Classical Conditioning

 Neutral stimulus (NS): Evokes no response before conditioning

 Unconditioned stimulus (US): Unconditionally, naturally and automatically, triggers a response

 Unconditioned response (UR): Unlearned and naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (US)

Before Conditioning Classical Conditioning: Terms

 Conditioned stimulus (CS): Irrelevant stimulus that triggers a conditioned response (CR) after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US)

Conditioned response (CR): Learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus

After Conditioning Classical Conditioning: Terms

Flu Shot Example Try to Imagine the Story and Come up with the

Name of each Response/Stimulus

Hospital Nurse

Flu Shot Pain Crying

Hospital Nurse Crying

No reaction

Flu Shot Example

Hospital Nurse

Flu Shot Pain Crying

Hospital Nurse Crying

No reaction NS

US

UR

CS

CR

Reflex Not learned

Learned

No Learning

TU R

N S IN

TO

TU R

N S IN

TO

Flu Shot Pain

Classical Conditioning

 Higher-order conditioning  A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one

conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

 An animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.

 Also called second-order conditioning

Classical Conditioning

 Extinction  Diminishing of a conditioned response  Occurs in classical conditioning when an

unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)

 Spontaneous recovery  Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished

conditioned response

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Classical Conditioning (part 6)

 Generalization  Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for

stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

 Discrimination  Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned

stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuli

Generalization

 Pavlov demonstrated generalization by attaching miniature vibrators to various parts of a dog’s body.

 After conditioning salivation based on stimulation of the dog’s thigh, he stimulated other areas.

 The closer a stimulated spot was to the dog’s thigh, the stronger the conditioned response. (From Pavlov, 1927.)

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 What conditioning principle is affecting the snail’s affections?

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Legacy

 Most psychologists agree that classical conditioning is basic learning form.  Many other responses to many other stimuli can be

classically conditioned in many other organisms.  Pavlov demonstrated how a learning process can be

studied objectively.  Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that

applies to all species.

Examples: what are the US, UR, CS and CR

 Geraldine had an automobile accident at the corner of 32nd Street and Cherry Avenue. Whenever she approaches the intersection now, she begins to feel uncomfortable; she feels very nervous and gets butterflies in her stomach, and her palms become sweaty.

 Calvin was chased & assaulted by an aggressive rooster when he was just barely three years old. As an adult he still gets little blips in his stomach when he hears the word "rooster" and he claims that birds make him nervous.  Why do all birds make Calvin nervous?  Why does the word "rooster" cause him to have belly

blips?

Examples: what are the US, UR, CS and CR  Art goes to a meeting in New Orleans and tries some

oysters at the oyster bar. He likes the taste & eats quite a few. Soon he becomes very ill with an upset stomach. Now, even the thought of oysters makes him nauseous.

 When Jake first adopted his pet cat, Tiger, he was able to use his electric can opener without any interference. However, after using the can opener many times just before giving Tiger his canned food, Jake finds that when he tries to use the appliance Tiger starts to salivate.

 At his first big college party, Toby overindulged in screwdrivers and became very ill. A few months later at another party, Toby took a sip of a screwdriver and had to go throw up.

Operant Conditioning

 Edward L. Thorndike  Law of effect: Principle that behaviors followed by

favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

 B. F. Skinner  Operant chamber (Skinner box): A chamber

containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing.

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Skinner’s Experiments

 Built on Thorndike’s law of effect  Law of effect:

Rewarded behavior is likely to be repeated.

 Developed to reveal principles of behavior control

Bird brains spot tumors

Operant Conditioning

 Behavior operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli.

 Organisms associate their own actions with consequences.

 Actions followed by reinforcement increase; actions followed by punishments often decrease.

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Cat in a Puzzle Box

 Thorndike used a fish reward to entice cats to find their way out of a puzzle box through a series of maneuvers.

 The cats’ performance tended to improve with successive trials, illustrating Thorndike’s law of effect (data from Thorndike, 1898).

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Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning

• Learning associations between events are not controlled by the learner.

• Involves respondent behavior

Operant conditioning

• The learner associates his/her own actions with consequences.

• Involves operant behavior

Skinner’s Experiments

 Skinner  Expanded on

Thorndike’s law of effect  Developed behavioral

technology and principles of behavior control

 Designed and used the Skinner box for experiments and recorded responses

Shaping Behavior  Shaping: A procedure in which reinforcers guide

actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior  Helps understand what nonverbal organisms perceive

 Researchers and animal trainers gradually shape complex behaviors by rewarding desired behaviors and ignoring all other responses.

Skinner’s Experiments  Reinforcement: Any event

that strengthens a preceding response

 Shaping: Gradually guiding toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

 Spelling reward example

A Skinner box Inside the box, the rat presses a bar for a food reward. Outside, a measuring device (not shown above) records the animal’s accumulated responses.

Operant Conditioning

 Reinforcement - administers a desirable consequence or withdraws something undesirable in an attempt to increase the frequency of a behavior.

 Positive reinforcement  Presenting a positive consequence after an desired

behavior is exhibited, making the behavior more likely to happen in the future

 Negative reinforcement  Removing an undesired stimulus after particular desired

behavior is exhibited, resulting in increasing behavior in future

Operant Conditioning: Types of Reinforcers

 Primary: Unlearned, innately reinforcing stimuli  Conditioned (secondary): Gains power

through association with primary reinforcer  Immediate: Occurs immediately after a behavior  Delayed: Involves time delay between desired

response and delivery of reward

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Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement Schedules

 Reinforcement schedule  Includes pattern that defines how often a desired response

will be reinforced

 Continuous reinforcement schedule  Involves reinforcing the desired response every time it

occurs

 Partial (intermittent) reinforcement  Includes schedule reinforcing a response only part of the

time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

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Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement Schedules

Continuous Schedule

You want to encourage certain behavior. When should you reward it? Every time it happens? Sometimes? Never?

Partial Schedule

Give my dog a treat EVERY TIME

they go pee outside

Ratio

The reward is given SOMETIMES

Interval

Fixed Ratio

Variable Ratio

Fixed Interval

Variable Interval

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Partial Schedule: Ratio Ratio means number of responses.

After how many responses will you get a reward?

44Every 10th coffee is FREE

Receive a reward after a variable number of responses; Sometimes

you get reward after 4 times, sometimes 7 and sometimes just 2

– you never know! Results in high and steady rate of

responses.

FIXED RATIO

Receive a reward after SPECIFIC number of responses.

Results in high response rate with a slow down after the reinforcement is

received. Then picks up again.

VARIABLE RATIO

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Partial Schedule: Interval Interval means after an interval of time.

After how long will you get a reward?

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Receive a reward after variable time has passed. Sometimes you get reward

after 1 hour, sometimes after 30 minutes and sometimes it takes more

than 5 - you never know! Results in moderate and steady rate of

responses.

FIXED INTERVAL

Receive a reward after SPECIFIC interval of time passes.

Response rate increases as the time of reinforcement nears.

VARIABLE INTERVAL

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Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Variable

Ratio Every so many: reinforcement after every nth behavior, such as buy 10 coffees, get 1 free, or pay workers per product unit produced

After an unpredictable number: reinforcement after a random number of behaviors, as when playing slot machines or fly fishing

Interval Every so often: reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time, such as Tuesday discount prices

Unpredictably often: reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time, as when checking for a Facebook response

 Ratio based schedules are more effective in producing consistent response because they are easily predictable

 Variable schedules are very hard to extinguish (gambling)

Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules

 Skinner’s (1961) laboratory pigeons produced four reinforcement schedules. (Reinforcers are indicated by diagonal marks.)

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Operant Conditioning

 Punishment administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child’s disobedience).

 Positive punishment  Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired

behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future

 Negative punishment  Removing a desired stimulus after particular undesired

behavior is exhibited, resulting in reducing behavior in future

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Types of Punishment

Positive punishment Reduces behaviors by presenting something undesirable It weakens the response.

Negative punishment Reduces behaviors by stopping or reducing positive stimuli. It weakens the response.

Reprimand Scolding Get Sunburn Add something negative

Take toy Take phone Clip Down Take something nice away

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Attention to bad behavior as positive reinforcement

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If you think that by yelling at your screaming child to calm down in a middle of a tantrum will teach them to not have tantrums in the future – think twice!

If you think that by dragging your kid across the field to your car in embarrassment because they decided to throw an epic tantrum will teach them to not have tantrums in the future – think twice!

If you think that by shouting at your pet for making a mess will teach them to not do so in the future – think twice!

In the absence of Positive Attention even Negative attention becomes rewarding and encourages the same behavior in the future. You are rewarding what you are hoping to put a stop to. UGH!

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Problems with punishment

 Punishment (e.g., scolding or spanking)

 May decrease negative behavior but doesn't increase positive behavior

 May increase fear and deceit  Doesn't teach emotional self-control  Gives attention to bad behavior  Teaches children, when all else fails,

try violence  Parents feel more negative emotion

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Skinner’s Legacy: Applications of Operant Conditioning

 At school: Computer and adaptive learning software used in teaching and learning

 In sports: Behavioral methods implemented in shaping behavior in athletic performance

 At work: Rewards successfully used to increase productivity

 In parenting: Basic rules of shaping used in parenting

Reinforcing Desired Behavior and Extinguishing Undesired Ones

 State a realistic goal in measurable terms.  Decide how, when, and where you will work

toward your goal.  Monitor how often you engage in your desired

behavior.  Reinforce the desired behavior.  Reduce the rewards gradually.

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Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Basic idea Organism associates events. Organism associates behavior and resulting events.

Response Involuntary, automatic. Voluntary, operates on environment.

Acquisition Associating events; NS is paired with US and becomes CS.

Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher).

Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone.

Responding decreases when reinforcement stops.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR.

The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response.

Generalization The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.

Organism’s response to similar stimuli is also reinforced.

Discrimination The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US.

Organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced.

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Observational learning

 Higher animals and humans learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others  Especially important in childhood  Observational learning can  create new behaviors  increase existing behaviors  decrease existing behaviors  encourage previously forbidden

Learning by Observation

 Observational learning  Higher animals learn without direct experience by

watching and imitating others.

 Bandura  Pioneer researcher of observational learning  Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a

specific behavior  Bobo doll experiment focused on vicarious

reinforcement and vicarious punishment

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 First noticed observational learning  Children watching adults, later modeled their behavior

 Famous Bobo doll experiment

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Vicarious reward and punishment

 Vicarious Reward – seeing somebody else being rewarded for something increases the likelihood of the behavior emerging in the observer

 Vicarious Punishment - seeing somebody else being punished for something decreases the likelihood of the behavior emerging in the observer

Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain

 Mirror neurons  Include frontal lobe neurons, which some scientists

believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another person doing so

 Brain’s mirroring of another’s action  May enable imitation and empathy

Experienced and Imagined Pain in the Brain

 Brain activity related to actual pain (left) is mirrored in the brain of an observing loved one (right).

 Empathy in the brain shows up in emotional brain areas, but not in the somatosensory cortex, which receives the physical pain input.

Applications of Observational Learning

 Prosocial effects  Behavior modeling enhances learning of

communication, sales, and customer service skills in new employees.

 Modeling nonviolent behavior prompts similar behavior in others.

 In a study conducted across seven countries, viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior.

 Socially responsive toddlers tend to have a strong internalized conscience as preschoolers.

Applications of Observational Learning

 Antisocial effects  Abusive parents may have aggressive children.  Watching TV and videos may teach children some

unwanted lessons:  Bullying is an effective tool for controlling others.

 Free and easy sex has few later consequences.

 Men should be tough; women should be gentle.