HRMN 406: Project Deliverable 1

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Chapter7MotivatingTrainees.pdf

Chapter 7

Motivating Trainees

What did the tortoise say to the hare? I am focused because I am motivated to win.

Chapter Seven Learning Objectives

Readers will achieve the following learning objectives after reading Chapter Seven.

1 Define and describe five theories on motivating individuals. 2 Define and explain the meaning and relevance of intrinsic motivation. 3 Define and explain the meaning and relevance of extrinsic motivation. 4 Describe and explain the relevance of andragogy or theory of adult

learning in designing training programs that motivate trainees. 5 Define and describe the Three-Stage Motivation Model in under-

standing how to use the model to motivate trainees. 6 Examine and critique the first stage of the Three-Stage Motivation Model. 7 Examine and critique the second stage of the Three-Stage Motivation

Model. 8 Examine and critique the third stage of the Three-Stage Motivation Model. 9 Demonstrate an understanding of the importance of learning about

the trainee using personal attributes while conducting a needs assess- ment relevant to designing a training program that motivates trainees.

10 Explain the importance of training program design and trainee motivation. 11 Define, discuss, and compare the use of instructional methods used

to motivate trainees.

Learning Objective #1: Define and Describe Five Theories on Motivating Individuals

Motivation refers to the process of taking the initiative to achieve a goal or accomplish some purpose. Individuals can self-motivate or be motivated through the efforts of others. There are a wide range of motivational theories that offer insights on the various factors that can contribute to motivating

C o p y r i g h t 2 0 1 9 . R o u t l e d g e .

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Book: Stanley C. Ross. (2019). Training and Development in Organizations: An Essential Guide For Trainers. Routledge

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individuals. There is no universal motivation theory that provides a compre- hensive explanation describing motivation. There are several long-held theo- ries covered below to aid the reader in understanding the different approaches to describing motivation.

Maslow’s Needs-Based theory is a long-held view on the underlying causes of motivation of individuals. The theory remains a popular theory describing motivation. Needs-based theory is a universal view in which an individual’s needs motivate the individual to act. However, to accommodate the constraints of a universal definition of motivation, Maslow suggested that people have a variety of needs and that an individual’s needs evolve through a developmental process with each stage of the process being defined by a particular need (see Williams, 2016: chapter 13). Satisfying the need sufficiently to move to the next need represents the motivating or driving force; after satisfying a need sufficiently, the individual moves forward to a higher-level need that becomes the primary need or driving force that motivates the individual to satisfy this next need. For example, physiological needs are the most basic kind of needs. Satisfying physiological needs means creating the circumstances to provide food and shelter. Once sufficiently satisfied, the individual moves to the next need, the need for feeling safe. Safety can involve living somewhere different, work- ing in a more secure profession, or working for an organization that has policies in place to protect employees from external and internal threats such as bul- lying. Maslow organized the needs in a hierarchy to demonstrate what needs individuals can aspire to achieve (e.g., after safety needs there are social needs, followed by esteem, and then self-actualization needs). Individuals can choose to remain at a certain level or to pursue the next need level. The hierarchy explains why individuals can remain constantly motivated. Furthermore, sat- isfying one’s needs is subjective; only the individual can determine when one need is sufficiently satisfied to move on to the next need.

Expectancy theory is another well-known motivation theory. Expectancy theory characterizes motivation as a cognitive process with the individual assessing whether taking the effort to achieve a goal or task is likely to succeed. The individual thinks in terms of probabilities: the cognitive process in play is to assess if the probability of succeeding is worth the effort. The more the indi- vidual considers that the probabilities of succeeding are high, the more likely is the individual to demonstrate behaviors we describe as motivational behavior. A conditional factor is the individual’s feelings about self-worth. The greater the feelings of self-worth, the more likely that the individual’s confidence in being successful will increase, and the more likely the individual will assess the probabilities of success as high. Individuals who are low on self-confidence often judge the probabilities of success as low and do not act.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory provides an alternative perspective on human motivation. There is a stage prior to the motivation stage that Herzberg refers to as “hygiene factors.” Individuals are either satisfied or in a state of “not satisfied.” For example, an individual might be satisfied with their salary but the salary is not motivating; or, an individual might not be satisfied with

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their salary but not be de-motivated. The stage that Herzberg refers to as the motivation stage describes motivators. If an organization offers a bonus that an individual values then that bonus represents a motivator and the individual is motived. An insufficient bonus leads to a de-motivated individual.

Equity theory represents another perspective in describing the concept of motivation (Williams, 2016). The basic premise of equity theory is that indi- viduals are motivated by their perception about how the organization treats them in comparison with how the organization treats others. Individuals observe and compare how an organization treats others to learn if the organi- zation treats the individual the same way or better. Equal or better treatment leads to a motivated individual. The perception of unequal treatment results in a de-motivated individual.

Reinforcement theory represents one of the more popular theories describ- ing motivation. Adherents of reinforcement theory postulate that individuals that behave or act in a particular way and in accordance with an organization’s guidelines benefit with a reward (reinforcer) will continue this behavior so as to avoid receiving a negative reward (e.g., being laid off, etc.). The reward is positive reinforcement which is intended to strengthen the individual’s behavior. Organizations that want to eliminate certain behaviors use negative reinforcement (e.g., some form of punishment, etc.) to gradually eliminate the behavior. The primary focus in applying reinforcement theory is to encourage or discourage individuals to perform or not perform certain behaviors. For behavioral change to occur the individual needs to value the positive reward or fear the consequences of receiving a particular negative reinforcer.

The learning theory of andragogy provides an additional view to describe the relationship between learning and the motivation to learn. Andragogy focuses on the adult learner. According to andragogy, the adult learner is motivated to learn when the training or an educational program’s design and primary content of training use the learning methods most preferred by adults during the learning process, and when the content of that training offers career benefits. Adult learners develop a learning process that leverages certain personal abilities. A training program designed to take advantage of an adult’s learning process (along with relevant content) will motivate the adult learner to learn. The content of a training program must meet the needs of the adult learner post-training because the adult learner’s motivation is high when the training emphasizes the WIIFM model (What’s in it for me?). The law of self-interest represents an important personal value for designers to understand what motivates individuals to learn.

Learning Objective #2: Define and Explain the Meaning and Relevance of Intrinsic Motivation

The simplest way to define intrinsic motivation is to start by describing how individuals change their behavior based on self-rewards. Self-rewards rep- resent the individual’s valued reinforcers associated with certain actions that

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make the individual satisfied. The individual learns that certain behaviors which he or she performs result in them feeling good. Because of the asso- ciation between the behavior and the individual’s self-reward linked to the behavior, the motivation to continue to behave to receive the self-reward is strong. For example, if a person enjoys the idea of playing music, the person might take lessons to learn an instrument. The lessons and playing music rep- resent the ability to self-reward, making the individual feel good about the ability to learn how to play the instrument and make music.

Intrinsic motivation, in comparison with extrinsic motivation, is the more powerful form of motivation (discussed under Learning Objective #3).

There are two reasons that explain why intrinsic motivation is more impact- ful on the individual than extrinsic motivation. First, individuals are driven by the power associated with becoming self-efficacious. Self-efficacy represents the process where the individual gains greater self-autonomy through self- management strategies. “In control of your own destiny” is a popular phrase that is useful in describing the process of achieving self-efficacy. The indi- vidual’s pursuit of self-efficacy is an important lifelong goal and motivator. The individual uses self-management strategies to achieve the goal, which is a life-long pursuit as self-efficacy has multiple levels of self-control. Successful application of self-management strategies is also motivating because the indi- vidual feels good that their pursuit of the goal is working. The reason self-effi- cacy is a powerful force for the individual is because self-efficacy is associated with feeling happy about life, which includes the individual’s career. People strive to be happy, and what makes an individual happy is defined by the indi- vidual. Playing piano, traveling, learning a skill or improving skills, climbing mountains, and pursuing a degree all represent examples of actions that lead to happiness and boost feelings of self-worth. Individuals act to apply intrinsic motivation because self-rewards increase feelings of self-worth.

The importance of the social role of individuals is another reason for the superiority of intrinsic motivation. People value socializing, whether at work or outside of work. Even the shy introvert seeks to be social, though other factors limit this person’s ability to socialize in a way the person prefers. Socializing is one of the important ways an individual can build feelings of self-worth as a consequence of the validating actions of the people the indi- vidual associates with.

Organizational leaders that understand the power of intrinsic motivation are in an advantageous position to tap into this form of motivation to the advantage of the organization and the individual. An individual’s place of employment is an important source for intrinsic motivation to occur because people need to work, and for individuals work offers another opportunity to gain greater self-efficacy in performing their work responsibilities as well as boosting feelings of self-worth by satisfying their social needs.

Linking organizational goals with personal goals is one approach an organ- ization can pursue to tap an individual’s intrinsic motivation. Utilizing a

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team approach to solve business problems in achieving organizational goals addresses the need to socialize as well as building self-efficacy skills.

Training and development programs represent the type of organizational action organizations can use to leverage an individual’s intrinsic motivation and so meet the needs of both the organization and the individual. A well- conducted needs assessment along with an understanding of andragogy and motivation theories enables training program designers to develop training programs that appeal to an individual’s intrinsic motivation. The choice of instructional methods is a crucial step because instructional methods can impact the individual’s motivation to learn, and learning must involve the individual’s learning process. Instructional methods that aid in pursuing future career opportunities, strengthen job performance, appeal to feelings of improved job satisfaction, and building feelings of self-worth all represent objectives to focus on in designing training programs that can appeal to an individual’s intrinsic motivation to achieve greater levels of self-efficacy.

Learning Objective #3: Define and Explain the Meaning and Relevance of Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic motivation is best defined as the actions of an individual who acts based on the value associated with offers of external rewards. Though intrin- sic motivation is more influential than extrinsic rewards because of the power of self-rewards, many individuals consider external rewards more influential. Every individual’s behavior is influenced to some extent by the prospect of receiving external rewards such as bonuses, pay raises, promotions, etc.

One responsibility in conducting a needs assessment involves learning the type of external rewards that the individuals who will participate in a training program have an interest in receiving. With the knowledge of the important external rewards, training program designers can design a training program that offers the preferred types of external rewards during and after training. External rewards offered after training are intended to encourage trainees to transfer what was learned during the training into their job, leading to improved work performance.

Self-efficacy and socialization continue to function as important per- sonal goals of a trainee. However, the designers need to consider instruc- tional methods linked to external rewards that result in learning and aid the trainee’s efforts in achieving these personal goals through the achievement of the learning objectives. During training, the designers can utilize team learning as one type of instructional method for the socialization goal and learning objectives. Teams can compete and earn prizes for team perfor- mance. Certificates of achievement provide another form of external reward to recognize individual accomplishments during training. Team or group work provides the social dimension to learning and involves methods that offer trainees the opportunity to demonstrate competence, which represents

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working on the self-efficacy dimension. Training that boosts the self-worth of trainees is important because self-worth and self-efficacy are closely linked. The organization benefits from a more motivated, committed employee whose feelings of self-worth increase when successful. Rewarding success supports the trainee’s efforts to achieve greater levels of self-efficacy through achieving the learning objectives.

Transfer of learning into the job is the primary purpose of training. Studies show that only between 10% and 50% of what is learned during training trans- fers into the job. The objective in using external rewards is to motivate the trainee to apply what was learned during training to the job. External rewards are useful in supporting the organization’s efforts at ensuring that transfer of learning occurs. The application of learning to the job has a greater chance of occurring if the employee’s job description changes to include more authority within work responsibilities; better performance reviews are received; promo- tions are more likely; job security is strengthened; and superiors encourage and actively support the application of what was learned during training to the job.

Learning Objective #4: Describe and Explain the Relevance of Andragogy or the Theory of Adult Learning in Designing a Training Program that Motivates Trainees

The field of andragogy offers important insights on adult learning and the adult learning process, as well as the relationship between learning and the factors that contribute to an adult being motivated to learn. A prior chapter covered the subject of andragogy in detail. Here we want to understand the association between the adult’s learning process and the motivation to learn. Training program designers that understand the linkage between an adult’s learning process and motivation are able to design effective training programs for the adult learner who becomes motivated to apply what was learned in training to their job.

Research shows that understanding a trainee’s personal characteristics in a training program designed to capitalize on these personal characteristics provides the foundation for a successful training program. One important critical personal characteristic is the trainee’s cognitive abilities (i.e., capacity to learn). Capacity to learn refers to the trainee’s intellectual constraints and requires that the demands for learning during training must not exceed the trainee’s abilities if the trainee is to be motivated to learn. Self-efficacy, or the ability to self-regulate behavior in performing a task, is another impor- tant personal characteristic of the adult learner. The adult learner’s learning process involves learning self-management strategies. The adult learner uses these strategies to achieve greater mastery in learning the subject of training without dealing with unmanageable stress that can impede learning.

Another important personal attribute is the individual’s social role in the organization. The adult learner’s learning process actively incorporates

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learning through and along with other adult learners as an integral compo- nent to the adult’s learning process. Socialization is endemic to adult behavior and adults value the ability to involve other adults within their self-learning process. Team-based learning where team members are involved in learning together is a popular instructional method often used during training to moti- vate participants. Where the use of teams in training is impractical, designers often incorporate group work as an alternative instructional method.

Another adult personal attribute is self-motivation, or the ability of the adult learner to proactively act to learn. The law of self-interest, or “WIIFM,” is an important influence for the adult learner seeking to succeed at work. Adults set personal career goals such as gaining promotions, earning bonuses, gaining pay increases, receiving positive performance reviews, maintaining employment longevity, and exercising increased control over their work responsibilities. Training programs that offer the adult learner the oppor- tunity to achieve career goals will lead to motivated adult learners, eager to profit from the benefits of learning the content of the training program.

To contribute to the creation of a successful training program, designers need to ensure relevant content, utilize instructional methods that comple- ment the adult’s learner’s learning process, and involve the trainees in the design of the training program to ensure a commitment to a program that the trainees helped to develop. Performing these actions will motivate trainees because the trainee perceives the benefits of learning the content.

Learning Objective #5: Define, Describe, and Compare the Three-Stage Motivation Model in Understanding How to Use the Model to Motivate Trainees

Kilpatrick’s Three-Stage Motivation Model (see Figure 7.1) describes a process for explaining how to motivate learners before, during and after training. The first stage of the model represents the pre-training stage. During pre-training, the organization prepares the trainee for training. By emphasizing prior training experiences, offering supervisor support, and communicating the content and relevance of training to the job and the organization’s success, the organization

Training

Post-trainingPre-training

Figure 7.1 The Three-Stage Motivation Model

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hopes to motivate the trainee to approach training with the intention of suc- cessfully learning the subject.

Stage two of the model involves motivating the trainee during training. There are two significant and related issues that contribute to whether the trainee wants to learn during this stage. One issue involves the design of the training program and includes deciding the type of instructional methods to use. Designers of training programs need to be knowledgeable about the basic concepts of the adult learning process described earlier when determining which instructional methods to use. The adult learning process operates best with certain types of instructional methods. If the designers give strong con- sideration to the adult learning process described by andragogy in designing a training program, the end result is a motivated trainee eager to learn. However, a qualifier of this is that trainees need to know that the knowledge and skills learned, and the abilities developed, will benefit them on the job. This last issue represents stage three of the model, the transferability of any knowledge, skills, and personal abilities developed during the training into the job.

To understand the usefulness of the model and how the model links to trainee motivation, several issues need illustrating with explanations. First, the self-perception of the learner is paramount. If the learner perceives the benefits to training, then the trainee is more likely to be motivated before, during and after training. The organization can attempt to influence trainee perceptions but ultimately the trainee needs to conclude that training offers sufficient value to be motivated to learn. Another issue is the metacognitive abilities of the trainee and how these abilities influence the perceived value of training. When the learner thinks that training will strengthen their ability to achieve personal job-related goals and enhance their self-efficacy abilities, the trainee becomes motivated. Enhanced self-efficacy abilities refer to the ability of a trainee to assert greater control over their job security along with greater recognition from the organization, supervisors and peers; hence the motiva- tion to learn strengthens. This process is important for ensuring that transfer of learning into the job occurs.

Transferability of knowledge, skills, and personal abilities developed dur- ing training is another important issue. Transfer occurs only if the trainee expects benefits to accrue from applying what was learned during training, and actually begins to experience tangible benefits during the initial attempts at applying what was learned. For the trainee, the successful application of learning is intrinsically motivating. Receiving recognition from the organiza- tion, supervisors, and peers strengthens the trainee’s willingness to continue applying what was learned. Any diminishment in the reinforcers for apply- ing learning will likely impact the trainee’s motivation unless the trainee can incorporate the learning into re-designed work-related routines. The use of extrinsic types of rewards such as pay raises, positive performance reviews, promotions, etc. to complement intrinsic motivators will support the contin- ued motivation to apply learning to the job.

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Learning Objective #6: Examine and Critique the First Stage of the Three-Stage Motivation Model

The pre-training stage is an important stage because this stage involves efforts by the organization to influence the trainee’s perceptions of the upcoming training program. There are several factors that can influence the trainee’s perceptions. Prior training experience is an important influencer. Whether at a prior organization or the current organization, prior training experience leads to established trainee views about the benefits of training. Trainees can have negative impressions or positive impressions of training, or more dis- criminating impressions on the advantages and disadvantages of training based on the purpose of the training. A needs assessment can elicit information about a trainee’s perceptions with the goal of reinforcing positive impressions or learning how to overcome negative impressions.

A training program perceived as being too advanced and beyond the capa- bilities of the trainee is threatening, leading to either active resistance (e.g., the trainee avoids attending, etc.) or passive resistance (e.g., the trainee attends but focuses on something else during training, etc.). Trainees need to perceive that the subject as well as the training process will be useful post-training. The WIIFM principle applies here. Actively involving trainees in the design of the training program and creating the expectations of a successful experience can influence the trainee expectations. Input on the selection of instructional methods, the training process, and the pace of training reassures the trainee that training won’t exceed their capacity to succeed in learning the subject. If the organization followed this process in the past, trainees feel confident that the organization will continue to follow the application of the process. Through this reassurance, the organization reinforces the trainee’s perception that the upcoming training is going to be beneficial to the trainee.

The trainer’s training experience is an important influencer on the train- ee’s perceptions about training. Trainees need to know that a trainer is com- petent in conducting a training program and in teaching the subject of the training; this ensures the trainee’s active participation during training. Trainer competence represents value to the trainee. The trainee has something to gain from the trainer’s expertise and is reassured that they will benefit from the trainer’s efforts.

Organizational support, supervisor support, and peer support before train- ing are important influencers on the trainee’s perceptions of training during the pre-training stage. Trainees look for specific actions that demonstrate a real commitment to and support of training. Actions are more important than words because actions demonstrate behavior that reinforces the words. Organizational actions include: decision-makers being involved in some capacity; rewards being forthcoming; work processes changing, and input from the trainee being used. Likewise, if supervisors show a commitment in similar ways as the organization, trainees are reassured that their immediate

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supervisors value training. If peers listen to a trainee’s views and act on the trainee’s views, this demonstrates peer support for the benefits of trainees participating in future training programs.

Learning Objective #7: Examine and Critique the Second Stage of the Three-Stage Motivation Model

Whether trainees enter the training stage thinking positively about training or view training as an imposition, training provides the opportunity to reinforce a positive viewpoint and to dispel the negative impressions of training. By making training a positive experience, the organization provides the founda- tion for motiving the trainee for future training programs.

Designers of training programs need to consider several factors to motivate a trainee during training. The overall design of the training program, cover- ing the training process and the use of instructional methods, needs to vary to routinize the non-routine. A non-routine process keeps the trainee alert. Varying the use of the different types of instructional methods forces the trainee to focus on the new learning methods to ensure that learning occurs.

The training process is important because of the need to emphasize repeti- tion during the learning process. Though the application of different instruc- tional methods can vary, repetitive learning is important because repetitive learning promotes long-term learning. Varied instructional methods can cover the same subject but from a different perspective. Repetitive learning is emphasized to ensure understanding of the subject. Assessment methods – both formal and informal types – motivate the learner to learn the subject. Assessment provides feedback to learners and trainers regarding the extent to which learning is occurring. Trainees value feedback because feedback shows the trainee’s grasp of the subject. Useful feedback will encourage the trainee to remain actively involved in learning throughout the training process.

Training that emulates the work environment can contribute to a moti- vated trainee. Training does not necessarily need to clone the actual phys- ical work environment to be impactful. Training does need to adhere as closely as possible to the types of actions trainees perform in executing their work responsibilities. This can include making decisions, problem identifica- tion, problem solving, leading meetings, writing emails and reports, follow- ing different work routines, and interpersonal relations, to name several of a host of actions the trainee is likely to perform during the implementation of work responsibilities.

The adult learner values training that emphasizes learning self-management strategies which provide the knowledge and skills to use to strengthen job per- formance. Self-management strategies can aid the trainee in exerting greater self- efficacy or control over job performance. The long-term benefit of improved job performance is improvement of the trainee’s prospective career plans. Examples of applying self-management strategies include learning how to conduct effective

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team meetings; developing a writing style that leads to writing clear, concise, and informative memos and emails; learning how to use soft skills to improve interpersonal relations; and learning how to prepare action plans and develop problem-solving skills. These examples represent typical tasks performed during the course of an individual’s work day.

Useful instructional methods that offer the trainee lessons in self- management strategies include behavior modeling where the trainee can compare and contrast effective and non-effective actions; active learning where trainees simulate work situations such as decision-making and reflect- ing on the experience and what was effective; preparing action plans to deal with actual work problems; mentoring and coaching – both receiving and performing – to gain the benefits of both roles; case studies that provide examples of comparable work situations for the trainees to analyze and rec- ommend solutions; and group exercises that replicate a team model for deal- ing with relevant team-related work issues. These examples of instructional methods represent the type of methods to use to motivate trainees to actively participate during training.

Learning Objective #8: Examine and Critique the Third Stage of the Three-Stage Motivation Model

Training represents an opportunity for learning to occur that can aid the trainee in applying the learning. But this will happen only if the trainee perceives the training experience as being useful in bolstering work per- formance and expanding on career opportunities. If the trainee does not consider the training experience meaningful, then the trainee enters the transfer stage with less enthusiasm because the perceived career benefits are negligible. As a consequence, the trainee is less likely to apply what was learned in training.

However, if transfer of any of the knowledge, skills, and abilities developed is to be applied post-training, certain conditions are necessary to motivate the trainee to apply any of what was learned. First, trainees with a positive attitude will always look for what is applicable from training. People with positive attitudes can always find some benefits from training. Encouraging positive views during training is useful for all trainees, but in particular for those trainees with doubtful attitudes.

The learner’s personal goal is to gain greater self-efficacy over their job and career, to move their career in certain directions. Self-efficacy is an important goal and the trainee looks to apply anything learned that leads to achieving this goal. The importance of self-efficacy means that the ability of the training experience to leverage this goal will increase the trainee’s motivation to apply learning that is relevant in achieving the goal.

Setting goals and creating a feedback loop is another motivating factor for the trainee to apply learning. Work and career goals offer the trainee direction,

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something to focus on. Goals are end states not presently achievable. A trainer would need to apply what was learned to accomplish the goals. Feedback post-training through applying what was learned provides the learner with information on whether what was learned is useful to achieving work goals. If useful, the trainee continues to apply what was learned. Otherwise, the trainee discontinues applying what was learned. The usefulness of the con- tent of the training determines the sustainability of applying what the trainee learned over the long term. Anything learned that is useful becomes incorpo- rated into the learner’s work routines.

Work always introduces the trainee to new situations. Where training includes teaching trainees self-management strategies and developing self- management strategies, trainees learn to apply these self-management strate- gies to new situations as well as routine situations. The successful application of self-management strategies reinforces the commitment of the trainee to apply what was taught in training.

Organizational support, supervisor support, and peer support in applying learning on the job are important motivators under the right conditions. In general, the trainee starts out encouraged and motivated to apply learning as a result of actions that demonstrate active support for applying learning. Examples of the organization’s commitment include such action as senior leaders advocating relevant structural changes, expanding job descriptions, awarding promotions, and changing work processes. Supervisors who allow the trainee greater control over the performance of their job, offer posi- tive feedback to the trainee on applying what the trainee learned, and make changes in work processes based on feedback from the trainee, motivate the trainee. Finally, peer support occurs in the form of listening to a trainee’s suggestions and applying these suggestions, as well as demonstrating greater respect for the trainee by giving the trainee’s role greater support among peers. In short, the trainee becomes an important sage among peers. This role motivates trainees.

Learning Objective #9: Demonstrate an Understanding of the Importance of Learning about the Trainee Using Personal Attributes While Conducting a Needs Assessment Relevant to Designing a Training Program that Motivates Trainees

Knowing and understanding the personal attributes of trainees is fundamental in the design and success of a training program. There are trainees who are pre-disposed to the benefits of learning and are open-minded as to the value of training in general. There are other types of trainees with negative views on learning who are likely enter training with a cynical view of the benefits associated with training. We can think of these two types of trainees as oppo- site ends of a continuum. All trainees fall within the parameters of these two extremes of the continuum.

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More often than not, most if not all employees need to participate in certain forms of training. There are no exceptions unless someone purpose- fully avoids attending. Because of the mix of different types of trainees, designers of training programs need to consider the non-homogeneity factor when designing a training program. One approach is to design training with homogeneous sub-groups within a training program. This is doable without any stigma attached to being in “the wrong” group. For example, designers can suggest grouping based on prior experiences, prior training, etc. and let trainees self-select. Naturally formed homogeneous sub-groups can then have instructional methods best suited for each of these groups of trainees.

In conducting the needs assessment, designers need to start with a list of characteristics that represent the ideal type of learner. The designers need to know the characteristics that define an ideal learner in order to screen care- fully with the goal of creating sub-groups of learners based on characteristics held in common within each group of learners.

Table 7.1 presents examples of major characteristics of an ideal learner type with brief explanations. There are a variety of methods to select from to identify the ideal learner type. Supervisor recommendations, peer recom- mendations, performance reviews, and self-surveys represent common meth- ods available to designers. Experienced designers know that training program design, including the choice of instructional methods, needs to synchronize the use of specific types of instructional methods with the personal attributes of the trainees to increase the potential for a successful training experience.

Table 7.1 Examples of Personal Characteristics of the Ideal Trainee

Personal Characteristics Explanation

• Achievement oriented • The value symbolizes the need to succeed in accomplishing goals

• Increase self-efficacy • Learn self-management strategies to keep focused on accomplishing goals

• Excellent job reviews • Work is important to the individual • Post-training goals • Link between personal goals and learning as the

learner knows that learning directly or indirectly can impact achieving the goals

• Strong intrinsic motivation • The ability to self-reward for job success is more important than extrinsic rewards

• Strong cognitive abilities • Intellectual capabilities to absorb advanced subjects • Commitment to the

organization is strong • Personal success and organizational success linked

• Values learning • Perceives benefits from learning • Positive attitude • Demonstrates positive feelings of self-worth • Outgoing • Values association with others and working with

others • Values new experience • Individual associates new experiences with

opportunities

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100 Motivating Trainees

Learning Objective #10: Explain the Importance of Training Program Design and Trainee Motivation

As stated earlier, the design of a training program is one of the most important factors contributing to the motivation of trainees. Examining the associa- tion between training program design and the motivation of trainees ena- bles designers of training programs to be attentive to design features that can encourage and promote the motivation to learn.

There are five major issues designers need to consider when conceptual- izing the overall design of a training program and the details involved. First, designers need to understand the importance of identifying the critical issues to consider before undertaking the actual design of a training program and producing a planned sequence of activities that presents a training process – a sequence of stages – starting with the introduction stage through to the fin- ishing conclusion stage. The important issues include preparing the learning objectives, selecting instructional methods, identifying assessment methods, the choice of rewards (extrinsic and intrinsic), along with the subjects of each stage and topics to cover within each subject.

Writing learning objectives is an important first step because the learn- ing objectives link directly to the goals of a training program. Achieve the learning objectives results in the achievement of the training goals. Designers need to be thoughtful about the number of learning objectives. Too many learning objectives imposes time constraints on the trainee learning process; too few objectives can result in partial achievement of the training goals. The designers need to use their judgment in identifying the optimal number of objectives along with the scope of each objective to achieve the goals of the training program. Knowing what to accomplish and assessing the learner’s progress is important. Trainees need to know if there are conditions that limit learning and if the trainees are on track to achieve the objectives.

The choice of instructional methods is an important factor that can con- tribute to the success or failure of a training program. There are a number of issues to consider when selecting instructional methods. First, designers need to select instructional methods that support the trainees’ learning require- ments. Adult trainees have developed a learning process suitable for meeting self-needs. Instructional methods need to complement this established learn- ing process. Second, the sequencing of instructional methods needs to vary, as well as the time allocated for each method. For example, time allocated for lecturing, time allocated for role playing, time allocated for video work, etc. Sequence and timing are important issues to consider to ensure that train- ees remain attentive to instruction, focused, and enthusiastic about learning. Another important issue to consider is to select instructional methods that involve learning within a social context. Adults prefer learning with others. Furthermore, the adult learning process functions best when the adult learner is an active participant in the learning process, and learning is enhanced when

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Motivating Trainees 101

the adult learner learns in a social setting. One goal of the adult learner is the benefits derived from training that can be applied post-training. Commonly referred to as transfer of learning, the adult learner seeks out self-management strategies more than just factual knowledge to enable the adult learner to gain greater mastery over their job and career.

Assessment is another important component in the design of a training program. Assessment provides feedback to the trainers and trainees. Both require feedback. For the trainee, feedback provides information on how well he or she is learning the subject. Likewise, the trainer learns if the trainee is learning and is on track to achieve the learning objectives. Trainers need to routinely assess the situation to determine if corrective actions are necessary to ensure that the trainees achieve each of the learning objectives. There are formal and informal assessment methods. Formal assessment methods repre- sent planned approaches used on a scheduled basis during training and after training to learn if the trainees are moving forward to achieve the learning objectives. In post-training assessment trainers want to know about the infor- mation retention rate of the trainees. Informal assessment methods repre- sent spontaneous methods which trainers can use to gain immediate feedback about trainee learning and their attitude to training at that point in time.

Finally, designers and trainers need to consider the issue of rewards. Some trainees prefer extrinsic types of rewards. Other, more experienced, trainees benefit from a greater emphasis on intrinsic rewards because the experienced trainees’ self-reward system has evolved further, developed as a result of life experiences. There are many forms of extrinsic rewards trainers can offer, such as gift certificates, coupons, money, etc. Intrinsic types of rewards can include praise, winning a contest, feedback from assessments, praise from peers, etc. All adults enjoy the benefits of rewards of all types, but emphasizing intrinsic rewards offers trainers the best way to encourage and support learning.

Learning Objective #11: Define, Discuss, and Compare the Use of Instructional Methods to Motivate Trainees

With numerous types of instructional methods to select from, designers of training programs need to create a methodology to select instructional meth- ods that motivate trainees to want to learn. According to researchers, there is a strong association between motivated trainees and learning. The more motivated the trainee, the more learning occurs.

There are five criteria to guide designers through the instructional meth- ods selection process. Relevance is important to the trainee. An instructional method is relevant if the method directly involves the trainee’s learning pro- cess and supports the trainee’s transfer of learning into the job post-training.

Social interaction is another criterion helpful in selecting instructional methods. An adult’s learning process incorporates learning with and from others as an important characteristic of the learning process. Furthermore,

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102 Motivating Trainees

this social need to interact with others and the ability to socialize is a pow- erful motivational force for the adult trainee (see Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory).

The use of instructional methods that support the active participation of trainees in the learning process is another important criterion. Active partici- pation in the learning process engages one of the important characteristics of an adult’s learning process: learning by doing. The adult learner’s preference for participating represents their attempt to simulate what needs to be done so as to accelerate learning.

Stimulating an adult learner’s cognitive abilities represents another important criterion to engage when evaluating instructional methods. Cognitive development is frequently the primary focus of most forms of training. The adult learning process involves enhancing cognitive abilities to improve the adult’s work performance and support ambitious career plans. Instructional methods that stimulate the cognitive abilities of the adult learner and enable the adult learner to participate during training indirectly focus on the trainee’s cognitive development. Fun and entertain- ing instructional methods engage the adult learner and an engaged adult learner is motivated to learn.

Instructional methods that offer trainees the opportunity to self-reflect are important in motivating the adult learner because reflection aids the adult learner during the self-learning process. Self-learning activities represent one of the important approaches adults use to learn. Adult learners’ self-learning preference is to assume as much control over the learning process as possible. Adult learners considers themselves experts in knowing what are the best ways to learn, and self-reflection represents an important function in support of learning.

Table 7.2 provides the reader with examples of instructional methods that match each of the criteria described in this chapter. The rule of thumb in

Table 7.2 Criteria for Selecting Instructional Methods and Examples of Relevant Instructional Methods

Criteria Instructional Methods

• Relevance • Create action plans • e-Learning

• Social interaction • Group work • Observation

• Engaging • Role play • Apprentice

• Cognitive development • Brainstorming • Coaching

• Reflective • Mentor • Behavior modeling

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Motivating Trainees 103

selecting instructional methods is to vary types of methods to keep trainees engaged and focused.

Questions

1 Explain the importance of motivation and the training process. 2 Briefly describe intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. How are these differ-

ent? Provide an example of each. 3 Andragogy is a learning theory that has relevance to motivating the

adult learner. Describe the link between andragogy and motivation dur- ing training.

4 Identify and briefly describe the three-stage motivation model. 5 Knowing the important personal attributes of trainees is important in

creating a successful training program. Explain. 6 Identify three types of motivating instructional methods and explain why

these are examples of motivating instructional methods.

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