Ch-7 reflection

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Chapter 7

Physical and Cognitive Development In Middle and Late Childhood

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Chapter Outline

• Physical changes and health

• Children with disabilities

• Cognitive changes

• Language development

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Physical Changes and Health

• Body growth and change

• The brain

• Motor development

• Exercise

• Health, illness, and disease

©Chris Windsor/Digital Vision/Getty Images

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Body Growth and Change

• Growth averages 2 to 3 inches/ year

• Weight gain averages 5 to 7 pounds/ year.

• Head circumference and waist circumference decrease in relation to body height in middle and late childhood.

• Bones continue to ossify during middle and late childhood but yield to pressure and pull more than mature bones.

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The Brain Brain volume stabilizes.

Significant changes in structures and regions occur, especially in the prefrontal cortex.

Cortical thickness increases.

Activation of some brain areas increase while others decrease.

• Brain pathways and circuitry involving the prefrontal cortex, the highest level in the brain, continue to increase.

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Motor Development

• Motor skills become smoother and more coordinated.

• Girls outperform boys in their use of fine motor skills.

• Improvement of fine motor skills during middle and late childhood results from increased myelination of central nervous system

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Exercise 1

Higher level of physical activity is linked to lower level of metabolic disease risk based on following measures

• Cholesterol, waist circumference, insulin levels

Aerobic exercise benefits

• Lower incidence of obesity

• Children’s attention and memory, cognitive inhibitory control

• Effortful and goal-directed thinking and behavior

• Creativity

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Exercise 2

Ways to get children to exercise

• Offer physical activity programs at school facilities.

• Improve physical fitness activities in schools.

• Have children plan community and school activities.

• Encourage families to focus more on physical activity.

©Randy Pench/Zuma Press/Newscom

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Health, Illness, and Disease 1

Middle and late childhood is a time of excellent health.

Accidents and injuries

• Motor vehicle accidents are most common cause of severe injury.

Overweight children

• Causes: heredity and environmental contexts

• Irregular mealtimes, too much family screen time

• Consequences: diabetes, hypertension, elevated blood cholesterol levels, low self-esteem

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Health, Illness, and Disease 2

Intervention programs

• Emphasize getting parents to engage in healthier lifestyles themselves.

• Feed children healthier food and get them to exercise more.

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Children with Disabilities

• The scope of disabilities

• Educational issues

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The Scope of Disabilities 1

• 12.9% of 3- to 21-year-olds in the U.S. receive special education-related services in 2012 to 2013, an increase of 3% since 1980 to 1981.

• The U.S. Department of Education includes students with a learning disability and students with ADHD in the category of “Learning Disability”

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The Scope of Disabilities 2

Learning disability: difficulty in learning involving understanding or using spoken or written language. The difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, or spelling.

• Dyslexia: severe impairment in the ability to read and spell

• Dysgraphia: difficulty in handwriting

• Dyscalculia: developmental arithmetic disorder

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The Scope of Disabilities 3

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity

Boys are twice as likely to receive ADHD diagnosis

• Possible causes

• Genetics

• Brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development

• Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development

• High maternal stress during prenatal development

• Low birth weight

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The Scope of Disabilities 4

Challenges for children with ADHD

• Adjustment and optimal development

• Increased risk of lower academic achievement

• Problematic peer relations

• School dropout

• Becoming parents as adolescents

• Substance use problems, mental health issues

• Antisocial behavior

Additional challenges for girls with ADHD

• Friendship

• Peer interaction

• Social skills

• Peer victimization

• Pregnancy

Long-term challenges

• Underachievement in math and reading, criminal activity, and unemployment

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The Scope of Disabilities 5

Emotional and behavioral disorders: serious, persistent problems that involve

• Relationships, aggression, depression, and fears associated with personal or school matters

• Inappropriate socioemotional characteristics

• Boys 3x as likely as girls to have these disorders

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The Scope of Disabilities 6

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD): range from autistic disorder to Asperger syndrome and may have genetic basis

• Autistic disorder: onset in the first three years of life

• Deficiencies in social relationships, abnormalities in communication, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior

• Have deficits in cognitive processing of information

• Is identified five times more often in boys than girls

• Asperger syndrome: good verbal language skills

• Milder nonverbal language problems

• Restricted range of interests and relationships

• Engage in obsessive, repetitive routines and preoccupations with a particular subject

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U.S. Children with a Disability Receiving Special Education Services: 2012 to 2013 School Year

Disability Percentage of All Children in Public Schools

Learning disabilities 4.6

Speech or hearing impairments 2.7

Autism 1.0

Intellectual Disabilities 0.9

Emotional disturbance 0.7

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Regions of the Brain in which Children with ADHD Had a Delayed Peak in the Thickness of

the Cerebral Cortex

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Educational Issues

• Individualized education plan (IEP): written statement specifically tailored for the disabled student

• Least restrictive environment (LRE): setting as similar as possible to the one in which non-disabled children are educated

• Inclusion: educating a child with special education needs full- time in the regular classroom

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Cognitive Changes

• Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory

• Information processing

• Intelligence

• Extremes of intelligence

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Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory 1

Concrete operational stage

• Ages 7 to 11

• Children can perform concrete operations and reason logically, and are able to classify things into different sets.

• Seriation: ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension

• Transitivity: ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions

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Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory 2

Evaluating Piaget’s concrete operational stage

• Concrete operational abilities do not appear in synchrony.

• Education and culture exert strong influences on children’s development.

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Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory 3

Neo-Piagetians: argue Piaget was partially correct but his theory needs considerable revision

• Elaborated on Piaget’s theory, increasing emphasis to

• Information processing, strategies, and precise cognitive steps

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Information Processing 1

• During during middle and late childhood, most children dramatically improve ability to sustain and control attention

• Pay more attention to task-relevant stimuli

• Changes in memory, thinking, metacognition, executive function

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Information Processing 2 Long-term memory: increases with age during middle and late childhood

• Knowledge and expertise

• Experts have acquired extensive knowledge about a particular content area.

• For example, 10- and 11-year- olds expert chess players remember more about location of chess pieces on a board than either college students who were not chess players or novices

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Information Processing 3

Working memory is a passive storehouse to keep information until moved to long-term memory.

• Considered to be a mental workbench

• Key component is the central executive.

• Children’s verbal working memory linked to morphology, syntax, and grammar.

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Information Processing 4

• Fuzzy trace theory: memory is best understood by considering verbatim memory trace and gist

Thinking

• Executive functioning: dimensions of executive function are the most important for cognitive development and school success

• Self-control/inhibition

• Working memory

• Flexibility

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Information Processing 5

• Critical thinking: thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating evidence

• Mindfulness: Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible

• Mindfulness training improves children’s attention self-regulation.

Creative thinking: ability to think in novel and unusual ways

• Come up with unique solutions to problems

• Convergent thinking: produces one correct answer and is characteristic of kind of thinking tested by standardized intelligence tests

• Divergent thinking: produces many answers to the same question and is characteristic of creativity

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Information Processing 6

Metacognition: cognition about cognition

• Metamemory: knowledge about memory

Brainstorming: individuals come up with creative ideas in a group and play off each other’s ideas

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Working Memory

Access the text alternative for slide images.

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Intelligence 1

Ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences

• Individual differences: stable, consistent ways in which people differ from each other

• Binet tests

• Mental age (MA): individual’s level of mental development relative to others, obtains general composite score

• Stanford-Binet 5 test

• Revisions to original test to analyze five content areas

• Fluid reasoning

• Knowledge

• Quantitative reasoning,

• Visual-spatial reasoning

• Working memory

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Intelligence 2

William Stern Intelligence Quotient (IQ): person’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100

• Normal distribution: symmetrical distribution

• Most scores fall in middle of possible range of scores

• Few scores appear toward the extremes of the range

Wechsler Scales (WISC-V) for ages 6 to 16 provide an overall IQ score and yields five composite scores

• Verbal Comprehension Index

• Working Memory Index

• Processing Speed Index

• Fluid Reasoning

• Visual Spatial

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Intelligence 3

Types of intelligence

• Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of intelligence: intelligence comes in following forms:

• Analytical intelligence: evaluate, compare, and contrast

• Creative intelligence: invent, originate, and imagine

• Practical intelligence: ability to implement, and put ideas into practice

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Intelligence 4

Gardner’s eight frames of mind

• Verbal

• Mathematical

• Spatial

• Bodily-Kinesthetic

• Musical

• Interpersonal

• Intrapersonal

• Naturalist

Everyone has all of these intelligences to varying degrees.

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Intelligence 5

• Evaluating multiple-intelligence approaches

• Has broadened concepts of intelligence, teaching, and how children learn

• Some feel multiple-intelligence views have taken concept too far

Interpreting differences in IQ scores

• Influences of genetics: comparing identical and fraternal twin IQs

• Environmental influences: communicative, middle-SES parents

• Group differences: children deprived of formal education

• Culture-fair tests: designed to be free of cultural bias

The Flynn Effect: rapid increase in IQ scores worldwide

• May be due to

• Higher levels of education attained by larger percent of world’s population

• Explosion of information now available

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Intelligence 6

Using intelligence tests

• Avoid stereotyping and expectations

• Know IQ is not the sole indicator of competence

• Use caution when interpreting an overall IQ score

Culture and Culture-Fair Tests

What is viewed as intelligence varies from culture to culture.

Culture-fair tests are intended to be free of cultural bias.

• Two types of tests

• Include items familiar to children from all socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds.

• Test without verbal questions.

Culture-fair tests hard to create

• Tests reflect what the dominant culture values.

• There are no culture-fair tests, only culture-reduced tests.

• What is measured as important is too vastly varied around the world.

Ethnic Variations Standardized Intelligence Test Scores

• African American and Latino children score lower than white children, but gap is narrowing.

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales

• Recently found no differences in overall intellectual ability between non-Latino White and African American preschool children

Societal Impact on Ethnic Variations

• Fewer African Americans in science, technology, engineering, math because practitioners’ expect they have less innate talent.

• African Americans experience stereotype threat and fear of evaluation during standardized tests.

• Negative influence on performance, increase anxiety, produce worry that results may confirm a negative stereotype.

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The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores

Sample Subscales of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) 1

• Verbal Subscales

• Similarities

• Child must think logically and abstractly to answer questions about how objects might be similar. For example, "In what way are a lion and a tiger alike?“

• Comprehension

• Subscale designed to measure an individual's judgment and common sense. For example, "What is the advantage of keeping money in a bank?"

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC-V), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2014.

Sample Subscales of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) 2

• Nonverbal Subscales

• Block Design: child must assemble set of multicolored blocks to match designs shown by examiner. Visual- motor coordination, perceptual organization, and ability to visualize spatially assessed. For example, "Use the four blocks on the left to make the pattern on the right.”

Verbal Subscales

Similarities

A child must think logically and abstractly to answer a number of questions about how things might be similar.

Example: “In what way are a lion and a tiger alike?”

Comprehension

This subscale is designed to measure an individual’s judgment and common sense.

Example: “What is the advantage of keeping money in a bank?”

Nonverbal Subscales

Block Design

A child must assemble a set of multicolored blocks to match designs that the examiner shows. Visual-motor coordination, perceptual organization, and the ability to visualize spatially are assessed.

Example: “Use the four blocks on the left to make the pattern on the right.”

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC-V), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2014.

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Sample Subscales of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) 3

Reproduced by permission. All rights reserved. "Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children" and "WISC" are trademarks of Harcourt Assessment, Inc. registered in the United States of America and/or other jurisdictions.

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC-V), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2014.

Correlation Between Intelligence Test Scores and Twin Status

Increasing IQ Scores from 1932 to 1997

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Extremes of Intelligence 1

Intellectual disability: Limited mental ability in which individual has low IQ and difficulty adapting to everyday life

• Organic intellectual disability: caused by genetic disorder or brain damage

• Cultural-familial retardation: no evidence of organic brain damage

• IQ is generally between 50 and 70

Extremes of Intelligence 2

Gifted: above-average intelligence (IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent or aptitude

• Three criteria

• Precocity

• Marching to their own drummer

• A passion to master

• Nature-nurture

• Domain-specific giftedness and development: self-directed

• Education of children who are gifted: can be underchallenged, smarter than teachers, encouraged to take higher level classes

African American, Latino, and Native American children are underrepresented in gifted programs.

Language Development

• Vocabulary, grammar, and metalinguistic awareness

• Reading

• Writing

• Bilingualism and second-language learning

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Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness

Middle and late childhood

• Changes occur in the way children’s mental vocabulary is organized.

Similar advances in grammar skills

Metalinguistic awareness: knowledge about language

• Understanding what a preposition is

• Being able to discuss the sounds of a language

Reading

• Whole-language approach: reading instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning

• Phonics approach: reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds

Writing

Parents and teachers should encourage children’s early writing.

• Do not be concerned with letter formation or spelling

• Give children writing opportunities.

• Writing skills improve with as language and cognitive skills improve.

• Writing uses organization and logical reasoning.

• Being a competent writer is linked to being a competent reader.

• Children learn planning, drafting, revising, and editing as metacognitive awareness and writing competence improves.

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Second-Language Learning and Bilingual Education

Second-language learning

• Bilingualism has a positive effect on children’s cognitive development (for example, attention control, concept formation, analytical reasoning, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility, complexity, and monitoring)

• Subtractive bilingualism: when immigrant children speak their native language at home, become bilingual at school, then speak only English, their bilingualism has a negative effect.

Bilingual education

• Research supports bilingual education for academic achievement.