PSY HELP FINAL PAPER
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Are Memories Really Forgotten?
Forgotten memories may still be stored in our brain.
PENFIEL (1959)
Electrical stimulation of the cortex
Stimulation of the temporal lobes with neurosurgical procedure
Led to reports of memories that patients were unable to report in normal recall
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Are Memories Really Forgotten?
Experimental evidence that forgotten memories still exist
NELSON (1971)
Even when people appear to have forgotten memories, sensitive tests can find evidence of some of them.
Sometimes we can recognize things that we cannot recall.
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Are Memories Really Forgotten?
Experimental evidence that forgotten memories still exist
JOHNSON AND COLLEAGUES (2009)
In brain-imaging study, demonstrated existence of experience records in brain that are no longer remembered
Indicated that, even though we may have no conscious memory of seeing something, aspects of how we experienced it will be retained in our brains
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The Retention Function
Memory performance systematically deteriorates with delay.
POWER LAW OF FORGETTING
Memory performance deteriorates as a power function of practice.
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Theories of Forgetting
Decay theory
Memory traces simply decay in strength with time.
Interference theory
Memory traces are replaced with interfering material.
How Interference Affects Memory
Learning additional associations to a stimulus can cause old ones to be forgotten.
The more facts associated with a concept, the slower is retrieval of any one of the facts.
Retention is strongly influenced by interfering material.
Learning additional associations to an item can cause old ones to be forgotten.
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How Interference Affects Memory: Interference with Preexisting Memories
Material learned in the laboratory can interfere with material learned outside of the laboratory.
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How Interference Affects Memory: The Controversy over Interference and Decay
SLEEP RESEARCH
Maybe less is forgotten during the period of sleep (Ekstrand 1972).
Less opportunity for experiences to interfere!
Participants better remembered material learned at night (Hockey, Davies, and Gray, 1972).
Even if they were kept up during the night and slept during the day
Early evening is the period of highest arousal.
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See J.R. Ander
How Interference Affects Memory: The Controversy over Interference and Decay
Forgetting results from both decay in trace strength and from interference from other memories.
Both models are important and both contribute to forgetting!
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Retrieval and Inference
Interference can bias a participant’s memory for a text.
SULIN AND DOOLING (1974)
In trying to remember material, people will use what they can remember to infer what else they might have studied.
They remember certain things which help them infer/conclude what might have been related
Ex: remember one concept on a psychology test might help trigger what an associated idea was if you remember the chapter the first concept was in
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Retrieval and Inference: The Interaction of Elaboration and Inferential Reconstruction
When participants elaborate on material while studying it, they tend to recall more of what they studied and also to recall inferences that they did not study.
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Retrieval and Inference: Eyewitness Testimony
SEPARATING INFERENCE FROM ACTUAL EXPERIENCE
Eyewitnesses are often inaccurate in the testimony they give.
Even though jurors accord it high weight/strongly believe eyewitnesses Subsequent information can change a person’s memory of an observed event.
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Retrieval and Inference: Eyewitness Testimony
FALSE-MEMORY SYNDROME
Individuals claim to recover memories of traumatic events that they had suppressed for years.
It is possible to create false memories by use of suggestive interview techniques (Loftus and Pickerall, 1995).
Controversy over credibility of recovered memories of childhood abuse
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Retrieval and Inference: False Memories
Serious errors of memory can occur because people fail to separate what they actually experienced from what they inferred, imagined, or were told.
The connections blend together
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Retrieval and Inference: False Memories and the Brain
THE HIPPOCAMPUS
Responds to false memories with high activation
Does not respond with higher activation to true memories that have discriminating sensory information
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Associative Structure and Retrieval: The Effects of Encoding Context
MOOD CONGRUENCE
The fact that it is easier to remember happy memories when one is in a happy state and sad memories when one is in a sad state
Teasdale and Russell (1983)
Participants recalled more of the words that matched their mood at test.
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Associative Structure and Retrieval: The Effects of Encoding Context
STATE-DEPENDENT LEARNING
People find it easier to recall information if they can return to the same emotional and physical state they were in when they learned the information.
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The Hippocampal Formation and Amnesia
AMNESIA (MEMORY LOSS)
H.M.: One of the most studied amnesic patients
Large portions of his temporal lobes were surgically removed.
He was unable to remember new events.
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The Hippocampal Formation and Amnesia
DAMAGE TO THE TEMPORAL LOBE
Korsakoff syndrome
Result of chronic alcoholism
Retrograde amnesia
Loss of memories for events that occurred before an injury
Anterograde amnesia
An inability to learn new things
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The Hippocampal Formation and Amnesia
DAMAGE TO THE TEMPORAL LOBE
Patients with damage to the hippocampal formation show both retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia.
In other words, loss of old memory and inability to form new memories
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Long-Term Memory
“Archive” of information about past events and knowledge learned
Works closely with working memory
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Long-Term Memory
Storage stretches from a few moments ago to as far back as one can remember
More recent memories are more detailed
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Implicit Versus Explicit Memory
EXPLICIT MEMORY
Knowledge that we can consciously recall
Ex: what you did for your birthday last year
IMPLICIT MEMORY
Knowledge that we cannot consciously recall but that nonetheless manifests itself in our improved performance on some task
Ex: learning how to ride a bike (we may know we know how, but not exactly when we learned) or how to swim
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Implicit Versus Explicit Memory
AMNESIC PATIENTS
Often cannot consciously recall a particular event, but will show implicit memory for the event
Ex: they might say they feel scared of a Dr. they do not remember seeing or meeting, if that Dr. gave them a painful test previously (they unconsciously remember the pain and feel scared but consciously do not know why).
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Implicit Versus Explicit Memory: Procedural Memory
PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge of how to perform various tasks that is often implicit
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The Many Varieties of Memory in the Brain
DECLARATIVE MEMORY
Explicit memory system that includes episodic and semantic memory
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The Many Varieties of Memory in the Brain
NONDECLARATIVE MEMORY
Implicit memory system that includes procedural skills, priming, conditioning, habituation, and sensitization
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Repetition Priming
Presentation of one stimulus affects performance on that stimulus when it is presented again
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Repetition Priming
Tulving (1982)
Presented words and then fragments to be completed
Participants completed many more primed words than new words
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Consolidation
Transforms new memories from fragile state to more permanent state
Synaptic consolidation occurs at synapses, happens rapidly
Systems consolidation involves gradual reorganization of circuits in brain
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The Varieties of Memory Proposed by Squire (1987)
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