i need help PT2 Proj

Chapter 7

Schedules and Theories of Reinforcement

Now that we have learned about Operant Conditioning theory and its use of reinforcers and punishers, this week we will turn our attention towards how to actually set up a learning paradigm, or conditioning scenario. There are two main schedules -- continuous and intermittent/partial. Within the intermittent/partial schedule there are 2 schedule types – ratio and interval, and within those 2 further schedule types – fixed and variable.

Let’s break down each of these schedules. First, when you are going to introduce a new behavior into one’s repertoire you will want to use a continuous schedule of reinforcement (CRF). This means that every time the target behavior occurs (e.g., pushing the lever in the Skinner Box [see above image] or completing a homework assignment) it is followed directly by the reinforcer (e.g., a treat or a gold star on a child’s sticker chart). We use this schedule during the initial learning period because it invokes motivation for the new behavior AND it clearly teaches the animal/individual what the desired behavior is.

Once the behavior has been clearly established you will want to switch to a partial/intermittent schedule (those terms are synonymous with each other by the way) in which case you are only reinforcing the animal/individual some of the time when the target behavior is performed rather than every time the target behavior occurs. Why would I want to switch schedules? Largely for practical reasons (e.g., the rat starts getting too full from receiving a treat from each and every bar press or loses interest in the treat; the child’s chart is overflowing with stickers and she starts to lose interest in receiving them). If you think about training a dog to sit on command he will be all too happy to sit for a treat each time, but over time I may find that my dog is starting to get chubby from too many treats, or I may run out of money to buy treats, or he may grow bored with the same treat [ highly unlikely in my household on the last point!]. So, if I switch the schedule to only some of the time, my dog will continue to sit on command because he knows the pay-off will come at some point, he’s just not sure when. Plus, he doesn’t get bored of eating treats or overly full! Thus, a partial/intermittent schedule will be implemented which serves to sustain and maintain behavior over time .

Alright, now that we have that established let’s delve deeper into the partial/intermittent schedule. So, you now have the option of using a ratio or interval schedule approach. Ratio refers to the number of times the target behavior is performed; whereas, interval refers to the length of time the target behavior occurs (measured in seconds, minutes, hours). For example, I might want my rat to push a lever (target behavior) 5 times before he can receive a treat. I would be using a ratio schedule. Or, I might want my rat to push a lever for the duration of 5 seconds in which case I’m using an interval schedule. Within both of those scenarios I have a further option of having the ratio or interval scale be fixed or variable. Using a ratio schedule, a fixed approach means after every X number of times the target behavior occurs the animal is reinforced. Variable means that on the average of X number of times the target behavior occurs the animal is reinforced. Similarly with the interval scale, a fixed approach means after every X number of seconds/minutes/hours the target behavior occurs the animal is reinforced. Variable means that on the average of X number of seconds/minutes/hours the target behavior occurs the animal is reinforced.

I have made a chart of how this looks below.

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

RATIO INTERVAL

FIXED	Every 5th response	Every 5 seconds
VARIABLE	Average of 5 responses	Average of 5 seconds

There are different times when one schedule of reinforcement is more appropriate than another based on the task at hand. We see evidence of such schedules of reinforcement play out in daily life all the time, often without even realizing we are doing it! ( See your text for many additional practical examples.) For example, as parents (and teachers for that matter) we are often instructed to be consistent in our use of discipline and reinforcement. If the rule is “ no cookies before dinner” then stick to it.

So picture if you will the parent and 1-yar-old child engaged in the challenging new behavior of transitioning to sleeping in one’s crib in one’s own room. This is a considerably stressful new learned behavior for all involved and being consistent will be our best course of action. So, Monday night is the first day of trial where Baby will sleep alone. As Caregiver goes to leave the room Baby starts wailing in protest. Strategy is to be consistent and walk away for the rest of the night. Baby hollers for 60 minutes until completely exhausted. Tuesday the behavior is repeated, and similarly for Wednesday and Thursday. And it should be noted that Baby is crying less and less each night because she’s learning that it’s not being reinforced by the Caregiver reappearing. Friday rolls around and Caregiver feels proud of Baby’s efforts and sorry for the stress they have both endured learning this new behavior. After 10 minutes of listening to Baby crying Caregiver pops back in for one more hug. Uh oh!

Is Baby likely to cry even longer on Saturday in the hopes that it will work and Caregiver will return again? ... You bet! Baby’s crying has now been reinforced on an partial/intermittent variable ratio schedule.

And yes, I might be the parent that example is in reference to …

But, suppose the Caregiver wanted to extinguish the crying at bedtime behavior altogether, she would have likely been successful IF she had never returned on Friday night, or any night thereafter. This may not seem like a big deal on the surface, but failing to learn this new behavior for you and your little one can have long-lasting consequences … like, 3 years later! Yikes!!

Let’s review! Please watch the video below.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eso8x2dhUj4

I have uploaded a file that provides useful research on schedules of reinforcement. Please be sure to read it.

Your text discusses other simple schedules of reinforcement which I will let you read on your own. Noncontingent schedules are also discussed in the text. These are interesting in that they aren’t tied to a particular response per se, but happen more so by chance (e.g., running into an old friend periodically). Or they can occur due to predictability based on time rather than behavior (e.g., a Christmas present is received whether behavior over the year was naughty or nice!). These types of schedules can explain superstitious thinking and behavior. My colleague believes in a parking fairy and when she calls on this fairy (which she only does periodically) to assist her in finding a parking spot in the lot close to our building she tends to get lucky and finds a spot. Thus, my friend is convinced that the fairy is real and assists her when she needs a spot close by. I of course, roll my eyes in disbelief but perhaps that’s because I don’t have my own parking fairy!

Noncontingent schedules have pros and cons to performance. Consider the tenured professor who knows that they will have guaranteed employment regardless of the number of university committees they join verses the non-tenured professor who actively pursues community service to help themselves achieve future tenure. Chances are the tenured professor will complete less and less committee work over time because their salary is no longer tied to community service within the university compared to the non-tenured professor.

There are also more complex schedules of reinforcement -- a conjunctive schedule which involves combining 2 or more simple schedules (e.g., to receive pay each week one must work 40 hours plus demonstrate high quality work productivity); adjusting schedules (e.g., think of shaping through successive approximations to receive the reinforcement … the dog had to run to the kitchen first to receive his reward, but now he needs to run to the kitchen and then over to the fridge before he receive his reinforcement, and so forth); and, a chained schedule which involves completing a simple schedule before embarking on a 2nd simple schedule in a particular order where the 2nd task results in a terminal behavior. This makes me think of the television show “The Amazing Race” where teams race around the world based on clues they receive and then complete a required task before completing that leg of the journey.

Memory Lane:

I used a potty chair with my oldest daughter Emma, that was based off of Skinner’s model of reinforcement. This ingenious invention would produce giggling sounds, followed by a waterfall sound, followed by a song (1 of 10 different songs presented randomly) sung by children (such as “The Wheels on the Bus”) each time the child successfully produced something which triggered the mechanism. What a fabulous idea, right? Well, I thought so and at first my daughter loved it and was very excited to use the potty chair as much as possible. That was until the chair started to malfunction. Rather than work on a continuous schedule of reinforcement when the target behavior occurred, it ended up going off randomly when someone would walk by, or the door to the bathroom would close, or the dog would bark. Needless to say, it was reinforcing something and nothing at the same time. Thus, the end of the potty seat experiment!

Theories of Reinforcement

1. Drive Reduction Theory (Hull, 1943)

· Organisms desire homeostasis otherwise feel physically uncomfortable

· E.g., If I’m thirsty I will be uncomfortable until I get a drink and quench my thirst

· If an event is perceived as re-establishing or maintaining homeostasis then it will be seen as reinforcing

· The organism is pushed by their biological drives

· With incentive motivation the idea is that the organism is pulled by something attractive in the environment that has come to be associated with something reinforcing

2. The Premack Principle (or Grandma’s Rule)

· You can use a behavior you enjoy (e.g., listening to music) to reinforce a behavior you enjoy less (e.g., yard work)

· If you eat all your dinner you can have dessert!

· High probability behavior A reinforces the occurrence of low probability behavior B

3. Response Deprivation Hypothesis

· Similar to the Premack Principle except with the added caveat of the threat of not being able to enjoy the level or frequency of behavior that is desired

· E.g., I have to do my household chores before I can enjoy reading in my hot tub … I don’t want to lose my daily hot tub time so I push myself to complete my household chores so that I don’t have to drop below my minimum one hour daily threshold in the hot tub

4. Behavioral Bliss Point Approach

· The optimal level of behavior the organism hopes to maintain assuming freedom of availability to the activity

· E.g., when on vacation in the Caribbean I like to distribute my time between the pool, the ocean, and sightseeing – I will arrange my daytime activities to maximize the time spent in each activity, respectively (30% sightseeing, 25% pool, 45% ocean)

This brings us to the end of this chapter. Take some time to examine your daily routines. Do you use reinforcers and punishers on a daily basis to help you manage your schedule? I reward myself after grading with time in my hot tub on a regular basis! Do you have some new behaviors you would like to learn? Now might be a good time to give it a try using a continuous and partial/intermittent schedule of reinforcement.

Be sure to complete the quizzes in the text and the chapter test, and when you feel ready, complete Quiz #7 online. I have put some practice questions online for you to complete to get ready for your quiz.

Have an awesome week!

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