psychology

PSY-101: Principles of Psychology

Chapter 6: Learning

WHAT IS LEARNING? Any relatively permanent change in an organism that results from experience

Three major types ● Classical Conditioning ● Operant Conditioning ● Observational Learning

THE BEHAVIORAL VIEWS OF LEARNING (i.e., Classical and Operant Conditioning)

Focus on observable behavior ● This way, learning is measurable and can be studied

objectively

Don’t care what’s happening in the mind ● The mind is a “black box” which can’t be studied objectively

Argue that EVERYTHING we do and know is a result of our environmental experiences

● In other words, ALL things are learned

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally brings about that response

● Results in an involuntary response ○ We automatically produce a physiological conditioned

response when presented with the conditioned stimulus ● Stimulus → Response associations

PAVLOV’S DOGS (a) Before conditioning ● Neutral Stimulus (NS) causes nothing ● Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) causes the

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

(b) During conditioning ● Associate (i.e., pair) the NS and UCS ● Causes the UCR because UCS is present

(c) After conditioning ● You can take away the UCS ● Conditioned Stimulus (CS - previously the NS)

now causes the Conditioned Response (CR)

APPLYING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

ACQUISITION, EXTINCTION, AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY OF CONDITIONED RESPONSES

THE CASE OF LITTLE ALBERT An example of Stimulus Generalization

● Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Can explain a lot of human behavior

● Phobias ● Food aversions ● Sexual fetishes ● PTSD (Posttraumatic Stress Disorder)

OPERANT CONDITIONING Type of learning in which a response (i.e., behavior) is strengthened or weakened depending on its consequences (i.e., stimuli)

● Results in a voluntary response ○ We CHOOSE to respond (or not respond) in order to get

(or avoid) a stimulus as a result of past consequences ● Response → Stimulus associations

TYPES OF CONSEQUENCES Reinforcement ● Process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding

behavior will be repeated ○ Reinforcers (e.g., money) increase the likelihood that a behavior will be

repeated

Punishment ● Process by which a stimulus decreases the probability that a preceding

behavior will be repeated ○ Punishers (e.g., pain) decrease the likelihood that a behavior will be

repeated

CHANGING BEHAVIOR to Increase Behavior to Decrease Behavior

Add a stimulus as a consequence

Positive Reinforcement

Positive Punishment

Remove a stimulus as a consequence

Negative Reinforcement

Negative Punishment

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT

Fixed Schedules ● Reinforcement or punishment is given after a

specific number of responses or period of time

Variable Schedules ● Reinforcement of punishment is given after a

varying number of responses or period of time

SHAPING

Reinforcing behaviors that don’t come naturally ● Process of teaching a

complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

THINGS TO REMEMBER Reinforcement works better than punishment

● Try to reinforce when you see people “doing good” instead of waiting for them to “do bad” so you can punish

Attempted punishments are sometimes reinforcement ● E.g., ATTENTION can act as reinforcement

○ Yelling mean things at someone (perceived positive punishment), is still showing the person attention, which can serve as positive reinforcement

Be aware of which schedules you use ● Use fixed (continuous) for punishment and variable for reinforcement

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING We can learn by observing others

● Conditioning PLUS social factors ○ Learning by observing the consequences of

others’ behavior

Modeling ● Process of observing and imitating the behavior of

others

MODELS ● Those we observe and imitate ● Two types

○ Live Model - someone directly observed in person ● Peers, parents, teachers

○ Symbolic Model - not directly observed, does not exist in the same environment

● Fictional characters from books, TV, and movies ● Can be real people if not observed in person

WHAT MAKES A GOOD MODEL? Relevance

● Model is similar to the observer (age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status) and is performing a behavior the observer finds interesting

Competence ● Model is viewed as being competent by the observer

Status ● Model has high social status according to the observer

Gender-Appropriateness ● Model is performing gender-appropriate behaviors according to the

observer

WHAT DOES THE OBSERVER NEED TO DO?

Attention ● Must attend (i.e., pay attention) to the behavior being observed

Retention ● Must retain (i.e., remember) the observed behavior

Reproduction ● Must be able to physically produce the observed behavior

Motivation ● Must be motivated to perform the behavior

THE BOBO DOLL STUDY ● Aggression and violence

can be modeled ○ Kids are constantly

observing adults

● Research suggests that youth violence is reduced when physical punishment is banned

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The material for these slides was adapted from:

Introduction to Psychology An open-access text written and edited

by multiple individuals and organizations

Greg Mullin, 2022 - Licensed CC BY - SA