HRMN 406: Project Deliverable 1

Chapter 6

Instructional Methods

How we prime the pump determines what flows out!

Chapter Six Learning Objectives

Readers will achieve the following learning objectives after reading Chapter Six.

1 Define instructional methods and explain the important role of these methods in the learning process.

2 Describe and explain the relationship between training program learning objectives and instructional methods.

3 Describe and explain the relationship between instructional meth- ods and andragogy.

4 Discuss the relationship between instructional methods and motivation.

5 Explain and examine the levels of instructional methods associated with levels of learning.

6 Describe and examine the process for identifying instructional methods to use in a training program.

7 Describe and explain the relationship between training learning styles and the selection of instructional methods.

8 Describe and explain the relationship between teaching styles and instructional methods.

9 Differentiate between instructional methods and learning locations. 10 Define, explain, and assess how instructional methods are meant to

impact the trainee’s learning process.

C o p y r i g h t 2 0 1 9 . R o u t l e d g e .

A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . M a y n o t b e r e p r o d u c e d i n a n y f o r m w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e p u b l i s h e r , e x c e p t f a i r u s e s p e r m i t t e d u n d e r U . S . o r a p p l i c a b l e c o p y r i g h t l a w .

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Book: Stanley C. Ross. (2019). Training and Development in Organizations: An Essential Guide For Trainers. Routledge

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Instructional Methods 69

Instructional Methods

Learning Objective #1: Define Instructional Methods and Explain the Important Role of these Methods in the Learning Process

Instructional methods are sometimes referred to as learning methods or teaching strategies. Each term refers to the same thing. Instructional methods represent practices used by trainers and teachers to stimulate trainee/student learning. Instructional methods are not learning locations such as online or the classroom. Locations represent places where learning occurs.

The goal in using instructional methods is to stimulate learning that results in different trainee behavior or a change in the trainee’s performance. In a formal training program learning has a purpose, and one of the primary responsibilities of the designers of training programs is to select those instruc- tional methods that enable the trainees to achieve the learning objectives identified by the trainers.

The preferred instructional methods are methods that directly link learn- ing to the relevant “real-world” requirements of the training program. These real-world requirements are associated with enabling the trainee to act dif- ferently at work in order to improve work performance. The organization should benefit as a result. However, training needs to be a win–win situa- tion for both the organization and the trainee. Trainees benefit by gaining promotions, positive performance reviews, financial benefits, or enhanced career opportunities. The trainee needs to perceive a direct benefit in order for learning to occur. Simply put, the trainee is motivated to learn because of the “WIIFM model” (i.e., What’s in it for me?).

Instructional methods associated with stimulating the learner’s metacogni- tion skills are important to the learning process because a learner’s metacog- nition skills represent the learner’s intellectual capabilities used to facilitate learning. These skills keep the learner focused and attentive, which results in the learner processing the information in a meaningful way. The end result in using metacognition skills is that learning increases and the information learned is retained.

Research studies show that actively involving learners in the learning pro- cess leads to more learning and longer subject retention rates. The concept that describes this phenomenon is active learning. By engaging the learner through their active involvement in the learning process, learning increases.

The preferred instructional methods associated with active learning are methods that focus the learner on learning the most important subjects to be learned. The focus on important subjects limits the potential problem of information overload and increases the retention rate of the subject.

Finally, instructional methods that excite the learner intellectually, socially, emotionally, and behaviorally (i.e., where the emphasis is on developing the values underlying behavior) represent the optimal instructional methods to facilitate learning because these methods engage the learner’s important

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70 Instructional Methods

self-influencing factors. Engaging the learner’s self-influencing factors simul- taneously leads to a more motived learner who is eager to learn. Learning will occur because the subject matter is relevant, narrowly focused, and does not push the learner beyond their capacity to learn.

Learning Objective #2: Describe and Explain the Relationship between Training Program Learning Objectives and Instructional Methods

Instructional methods represent one of the important issues to consider dur- ing the training program design process. Instructional methods represent the techniques selected to use to teach the subject matter sufficiently so that trainees will achieve the learning objectives.

The type of learning objective is one of the determining factors influ- encing the choice of instructional methods. A wrong choice almost always ensures that trainees won’t achieve one or more of the learning objectives. Skills-based learning objectives require instructional methods that focus on skill development. Learning objectives that focus on cognitive learning require instructional methods that emphasize intellectual development. These kinds of methods include knowledge acquisition but extend beyond the acquisition of knowledge (see Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Learning, as discussed by Huitt [2014]), such as by demonstrating comprehension or applying the knowledge and analysis, for example. Learning objectives for developing personal abilities require instructional methods that focus on such personal abilities as value acquisition, value strengthening, communication skills, problem-solving skills, and the ability to organize information, to name a few types of personal abilities.

There are over 150 different types of instructional methods. A rule of thumb to use in selecting instructional methods is to select those which offer the “best” practice. Best practice is subjective and open to interpreta- tion. Designers need to examine the selected learning objectives and the trainees’ needs and capabilities in order to develop a set of objective criteria for selecting the instructional methods that enable the trainees to achieve the learning objectives. An example helps to identify how to select objec- tive criteria. Let us use the learning objective “trainees are able to recall the stages of the new hiring process, explain each stage, and illustrate the stages of the hiring process.” In the example, “recall,” “explain,” and “illustrate” represent the critical words for identifying the objective criteria to use in selecting instructional methods. Another criterion to use is the time avail- able for training, since limited time allocated for training can eliminate such time-consuming methods as lengthy videos, role-playing exercises, group discussions, etc. Other criteria include the need for visual methods to present the stages of the hiring process; the need for hard copy to show each stage of the hiring process; and the sequence of the stages of the hiring

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Instructional Methods 71

process along with explanations. Trainees need the opportunity to review the proposed hiring process, ask questions, and demonstrate learning using a variety of assessment methods to determine if the trainees have achieved the learning objective.

The correlation between the motivation of the trainee and the level of learn- ing is strong. Knowing this, along with knowing the trainee’s personal char- acteristics, the important subject matter to cover, and the learning objectives enables the designers to select the instructional methods most likely to motivate trainees to learn. For example, the adult learner enjoys working on problems and solutions, working with others, and dealing with relevant issues pertinent to the trainee’s job performance. Lectures, video, or working independently would not be ideal instructional methods under these circumstances. Small group dis- cussion, case studies, and group work-related research are examples of instruc- tional methods which are more likely to motivate the trainee to learn and demonstrate learning occurred by achieving the learning objectives.

Learning Objective #3: Describe and Explain the Relationship between Instructional Methods and Andragogy

A prior chapter covered the theory of andragogy in detail. Chapter Six pro- vides the reader with an overview of how adults learn and the factors that motivate trainees to want to learn, as well as the relationship between the theory about adult learning (i.e., andragogy) and instructional methods. Understanding an adult’s learning process is important because the choice of instructional methods will either motivate or de-motivate the trainee(s) to learn. Learning objectives get achieved only if the adult trainee wants to learn.

The WIIFM (What’s in it for me?) principle is primary to the adult learner. The adult learner is inherently practical and views learning through the WIIFM lens. Training must be beneficial in terms of helping the trainee per- form their job better, leading to promotions, and/or leading to the achieve- ment of career goals. Anything less, and the trainee is less then enthused about training.

The use of prior experience during training is important for adult learning to occur because adults leverage their depository of personal and work-related experiences to facilitate the learning of new information. Prior experience is the anchor as the adult learner deals with new and unfamiliar learning topics. Adult learning relies on familiar, similar types of problems or situations, and adults attempt to use prior learning strategies for dealing with new problems or new learning situations. This represents the primary approach that adults use in learning situations. Furthermore, research indicates that 90% of women and 60% of men are relational learners, linking prior experiences and strate- gies to new situations as a starting point to facilitate learning.

Case studies, simulations, and group work represent three examples of instructional methods commonly used in training programs with adult

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72 Instructional Methods

trainees. The types of cases and simulations must be sufficiently relevant to the trainees; the designers cannot be whimsical in selecting instructional methods. Group work is an important learning method for the adult learner because the adult learner values social interaction to profit from the insights of peers and discuss topics relevant to the adult learner, and adult learners value the social dimension that is part of group dynamics. Group size is an important issue, because large groups often discourage many people from participating in the group discussion.

Problem-solving strategies represent an important way the adult learner begins the problem-solving process. It is important to use instructional meth- ods that enable the adult learner to leverage these strategies during the prob- lem-solving process. Prior strategies represent the default setting as the learner attempts to solve a problem. New types of problems lead to incremental changes to the problem-solving strategies. Adults confront more situations than non-adults or young adults. Where problems occur, the adult develops strategies to solve these problems. As adults age, the adult confronts more and different situations with different types of problems. Familiarity with a range of different types of problems, learning how to distinguish problems from symptoms, and developing strategies to solve the problems represent a wealth of relevant experiences to draw on when confronting new types of situations that present new types of problems. Furthermore, the adult learner develops a problem-solving process that serves as a model to use in future situations; the model is modifiable when the adult confronts new situations because the adult has learned that the model is adaptable from prior experience. In sum, the model of a problem-solving process provides the framework that the adult learner uses when confronting different types of situations with different types of problems.

Learning Objective #4: Discuss the Relationship between Instructional Methods and Motivation

Motivated individuals direct their energy and behavior towards achieving the objective of their efforts. This applies to achieving the learning objectives within the context of a training program, as well as to personal objectives and organizational objectives. Trainees can enter training highly motivated but can quickly become unmotivated. The inverse is also true: trainees can start training unmotivated and then become motivated. Instructional meth- ods represent one of the critical training influences in motivating trainees.

Instructional methods serve as the vehicle for introducing trainees to the subject of the training program. Sometimes the training subject matter can be less than exciting, but the choice of instructional methods in delivering the subject matter often makes a significant difference. For example, games represent one type of instructional method. A game designed around the sub- ject introduces competition and rewards. Most people respond positively to

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Instructional Methods 73

a fun competitive situation. Rewards are often extrinsically and intrinsically motivating. Earning a prize of some type, such as a gift certificate, is an exam- ple of an extrinsic reward. The reward is external to the individual. Feeling good about winning or performing among the top performers is an example of an intrinsic reward. People feel good when they perform well. Games with goals to achieve and a reward for being successful represent the applica- tion of reinforcement theory. Reinforcement theory is one of the important motivational theories in the field of motivation studies; motivational theory influences the selection of instructional methods.

The variety of different motivational theories offers a plausible approach to motivate the individual. Identifying the “best” theory is a useless strategy because there is no one “best” theory. Each theory examines the subject of individual motivation from a different perspective in trying to understand how to motivate people. The training program designers do not need to be concerned with instructional methods matched with one particular moti- vational theory, however. In designing a training program, what is impor- tant is to utilize a variety of instructional methods associated with a variety of motivational theories. Using various types of instructional method likely ensures that each trainee gets motivated in some way. Designers need to know the more important motivational theories and the types of instructional methods closely associated with these theories. The theories most applicable are the theories that provide a comprehensive approach to motivating indi- viduals. For example, Maslow’s (1943) Needs Theory posits that people have needs to satisfy. One type of need is the need to socialize. Group work is an instructional method linked to fulfilling a social need. Expectancy theory offers another view on motivation. Using expectancy theory as a way to understand what motivates individuals, who focus and seek to achieve if they view the probability of success as being greater than the perceived likelihood of failure. Trainees may begin training with a fear of failure, but successful effort based on feedback in the form of formative formal and informal assess- ments throughout the training leads to a more motivated trainee, confident that the probability of achieving the learning objectives is increasing. Poor results from the formative assessments have the opposite effect, although the information gained from these assessments offers the trainer the opportunity to modify training to improve the assessment results. The goal is to motivate trainees to learn. Success in achieving the learning objectives and ending training with the trainee feeling positive about the training experience is the goal. Formal formative assessments include planned quizzes, exams, and pres- entations. Informal formative assessments (e.g., Q&A, surprise quizzes, etc.) are spontaneous and often used when the trainer has some concerns about flagging trainee interest.

The designers need to select meaningful instructional methods because instructional methods are instrumental in ensuring the motivation of trainees, and motivated trainees increase likelihood of a successful training program.

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74 Instructional Methods

Trainees are less likely to learn the subject matter sufficiently to achieve the learning objectives if the instructional methods are not helpful. For example, the use of lecturing as the only or primary instructional method is going to result in lots of sleepy, inattentive, and uninterested trainees!

Learning Objective #5: Explain and Examine the Levels of Instructional Methods Associated with Levels of Learning

No one begins anything as an expert. There is a learning process to follow that can lead to an individual developing an expertise in something. How rap- idly some individual progresses towards becoming an expert depends on sev- eral factors. Personal abilities such as intelligence, physical talents, and values represent important factors that can lead to success. However, a theoretical explanation for understanding how the learning process towards becoming an expert works aids in applying this learning process in other ways. Theory provides a blueprint or roadmap to follow even if the theory seems to offer an incomplete explanation. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning (see Huitt, 2016) is a useful theoretical model to follow which guides designers in designing training programs. There are other comparable theoretical models that the reader can reference, but Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning model is well rec- ognized and universally accepted.

Briefly, Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning identifies different levels of learn- ing. Levels range from the basic and lowest level – knowledge acquisition – to the most advanced level (i.e., the ability to evaluate).

The selection of instructional methods for use in a training program depends on the goal(s) of the training program and the ability level of the trainees at that point in time. If the goal is to train new sales clerks who have little work or sales experience, then the emphasis is on the fundamen- tals, emphasizing knowledge acquisition. Time constraints limit what trainers can cover during initial training anyway. With some work experience, the same novice sales clerks – no longer novices – can advance their learning in future training programs that focus on advanced levels of learning. At a col- lege or university there are introductory courses, advanced courses, and more advanced courses such as graduate courses. Each category of course empha- sizes a different level of learning. Frequently, course instructors use different instructional methods as a student progresses through their major area of con- centration. This process is dubbed “tiered lessons,” where the instructional methods vary by the level of complexity of the subject matter. The student progresses through the learning process, level by level, stopping only when the program ends, personal limitations hasten the end, or the motivation of the student flags.

Tables 6.1 to 6.3 provide examples of instructional methods associated with different levels of learning grouped by category and labeled as the cogni- tive domain, psychomotor domain and affective or personal abilities domain.

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Instructional Methods 75

The list of instructional methods is not meant to be exhaustive but merely illustrative for the reader to understand the application of tiered lessons asso- ciated with different levels of learning.

During the process of designing a training program and choosing instructional methods based on the varied application of these instructional

Table 6.1 Cognitive Domain Levels of Learning and Examples of Instructional Methods that Can Apply to Each Level

Cognitive Domain Levels Instructional Methods

Knowledge • Lectures • Handouts • Multiple choice test

Comprehension • Reciprocal teaching • Essay exams • Presentations

Application • Self-reflection exercises • Role play • Demonstration

Analysis • Case studies • Problem-based exercises/vignettes • Brainstorming

Synthesis • Research study • Open-ended questions • Model building

Evaluation • Advanced case studies • Group project • Individual project • Report with recommendations

Table 6.2 Psychomotor Domain Levels of Learning and Examples of Instructional Methods that Apply to Each Level

Psychomotor Domain Levels Instructional Methods

Imitation • Lectures • Video • Handout with diagrams • Demonstration

Manipulation • Demonstration • Simulation • Hands-on

Precision • Hands-on (role play) • Presentation • Cooperative learning exercise (two people)

Articulation • Mentor or coach • Presentation • Prepare detailed proposal with diagrams

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76 Instructional Methods

methods, the training program designers need to consider the criteria of training goals, time constraints of training, intellectual capabilities of the trainees, and level of sophistication of the trainees when selecting instruc- tional methods. Furthermore, often some instructional methods can be var- ied sufficiently to apply at different levels of learning. For example, the case-study method is usable at all levels beyond the basic knowledge acqui- sition level within the cognitive domain category. The designers need to select the type of cases that match the level(s) that is the focus of train- ing. There are cases that are simplistic in content, and there are extremely sophisticated cases with lots of complex scenarios. Designers need to be sensitive to the criteria underlying the focus of training in selecting the most useful instructional methods.

Learning Objective #6: Describe and Examine the Process for Identifying Instructional Methods to Use in a Training Program

Selecting the correct instructional methods to use in a training program is more of an art than a science. There is no formal set of rules governing the process for selecting the optimal instructional methods. All too often, the default instructional methods are lectures, PowerPoint, and handouts, with the bulk of the time allocated to lecturing. The end results are often pre- dictable: a bored learner with less than satisfactory learning results. However, the more training program designers can objectify the instructional methods selection process, the greater the likelihood that more effective methods are chosen. Enhancing the trainees’ learning experience and enabling the trainees to achieve the learning objectives and transfer learned subjects to their job are the goals of training.

Table 6.3 Affective or Abilities Domain Levels of Learning and Examples of Instructional Methods that Apply to Each Level

Affective or Abilities Domain Levels Instructional Methods

Personal • Ability development vignettes • Lectures • Handouts • Video

Professional • PowerPoint presentation • Group exercises • Self-directed learning • Scenario exercises

Ethical • Self-reflection exercises • Mentoring • Developing personal code of conduct • Research on organizational code of conduct

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Instructional Methods 77

Objectivity is subjectivity one step removed. Table 6.4 provides the reader with a model methodology to select instructional methods. Lecturing is one instructional method to use because trainees need to be introduced to the training program and introduced to each stage of the training program, and it is necessary to bring closure to the training program. Designers need to be sufficiently knowledgeable about the range of types of instructional methods. With over 150 instructional methods available, designers need to consider the important factors to guide the selection process. There is no model rubric that categorizes instructional methods using some theoretical framework. The field of andragogy is helpful in designing training programs for adults because andragogy offers a detailed understanding about how adults learn and can help to select the instructional methods that capitalize on the adult learning process. The insights from andragogy are useful, but

Table 6.4 Sample Process for Selecting Instructional Methods to Use in a Training Program

Instructional Methods Selection Process

Subject Score

1 Multi-sensory training requirements 2 senses 3 senses 4–plus senses

1 2 3 ______ 2 Trainee background in subject matter

Introductory Prior Knowledge Advanced knowledge

1 2 3 ______ 3 Trainee’s time in organization

< 1 year 1–2 years 3–plus years

1 2 3 ______ 4 Time allocated for training

1 hour 1–2 hours 2–4 hours 4–8 hours > 8 hours

1 2 3 4 5 ______ 5 Purpose of training program

Revenue Costs Revenue Costs Other

4 3 2 1 _______

15–18 points 5 or more instructional methods Total Score _______

12–14 points 4 or more instructional methods

7–11 points 3 or more instructional methods

< 7 points 2 or more instructional methods

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78 Instructional Methods

they are insufficient; additional criteria are needed for the process for select- ing instructional methods.

Table 6.4 shows a model checklist for scoring criteria that can guide the designers in selecting instructional methods. The model emphasizes a process for selecting a variety of different types of instructional methods. Research indicates that using a variety of instructional methods keeps trainees focused and motivated.

Based on the model, the higher the score the greater the number of instructional methods to select, and the more sophisticated types of instruc- tional methods to select. Of the over 150 instructional methods, many are very simplistic, while others vary in the level of complexity. For example, games represent one type of instructional method. A game can vary from being simple with few rules and a clear path to the goal of winning, to a game with detailed rules and where winning is more than just crossing the finish line. Children’s games are a useful analogy. In games for very young children it is easy to comprehend the rules and what constitutes winning because children’s cognitive development is at an early stage. Games increase in complexity for children as they get older, because children’s cognitive development is evolving. Designers need to know the trainee’s abilities, the range of instructional methods to select from, and the level of complexity of an instructional method to select for the instructional methods best suited for use in a particular training program.

The model in Table 6.4 shows five criteria to use. The literature on train- ing and adult learning (i.e., andragogy) indicates that impacting more of an adult’s senses during training means the greater the likelihood that learning will occur. Senses include sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Trainee prior experience with a subject is another important determinant in selecting instructional methods. Less exposure to a subject warrants less sophisticated instructional methods to ensure trainees do not get overwhelmed with infor- mation. A trainee’s time in the organization is also an important factor to consider because the trainee’s exposure to the corporate culture, the respon- sibilities of the job, and the way the organization operates are important issues to consider in the choice of instructional methods. The underlying assump- tion is that the greater the time in the organization, the more likely that more sophisticated instructional methods can be chosen to use. The model includes time allocated to training because time is an important constraint to consider in selecting instructional methods. To be successful, some instructional meth- ods require more time to organize, implement, and then process the results. For example, role playing is an instructional method that is time consuming. Finally, the purpose underlying the training goals is another factor to consider in selecting instructional methods. For example, revenue generating goals and cost reduction goals warrant instructional methods that aid in achieving these goals. Achieving the training program goals is the primary purpose of the training program.

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Instructional Methods 79

Learning Objective #7: Describe and Explain the Relationship between Trainee Learning Styles and the Selection of Instructional Methods

Learning styles theory tells us that individuals have personal preferences on how best to learn. Since learning involves a process, then the preferred learn- ing style emphasizes how the program designer designs a learning process that enables the individual to master a subject that will be to their benefit.

Multiple sensory learning theory’s central theme is the idea that individuals learn through their senses, and while one sense might be the dominant sense, training program designers need to select instructional methods that involve more than one sense.

Integrating learning styles theory with multiple sensory learning theory helps the designers select instructional methods that leverage the train- ees’ preferred learning style. Table 6.5 provides examples of instructional methods paired with specific learning styles superimposed on senses. The instructional methods in Table 6.5 are meant to be illustrative and not exhaustive of all possible options. Furthermore, the instructional methods do not preclude emphasizing more than one learning style, such as video. Video can emphasize thinking as well as visual sensory learning, depend- ing on the choice of video subject and the guideline instructions which the designers provide to accompany the video. For example, the designers could use a checklist instructional method to focus the viewer on specific content areas of the video.

Table 6.5 Individual’s Learning Styles Matched with Examples of Instructional Methods

Learning Styles Instructional Methods

Print • Handouts • Books • Reference guides

Visual • PowerPoint • Demonstration • Video

Thinking • Case studies • Research projects • Open-ended questions

Interactive • Co-operative learning groups • Q&A • Reciprocal teaching

Tactile • Role play • Simulations • Field trips

Kinesthetic • Make it for real exercises • Follow the clues exercises • Model building

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80 Instructional Methods

There is an alternative view on individual learning styles presented in Table 6.6. The application of each instructional method varies according to the respective learning style. Some learners prefer instructional methods that allow the learner to use personal experiences (i.e., concrete experimentation) with the emphasis on self-awareness. There are learners that prefer abstract conceptualization. These learners are thinkers and analyzers. A “hand’s-on” learner prefers active experimentation types of instructional methods for learning. Finally, there are learners who learn through the process of self- reflection. These learners benefit from instructional methods that emphasize reflective approaches in learning a subject during training.

Training program designers’ opinions on learning styles can vary, as long as the designers recognize that a trainee’s learning style is an essential factor to consider in designing a training program.

Learning Objective #8: Describe and Explain the Relationship between Teaching Styles and Instructional Methods

Figure 6.1 illustrates the dynamic relationship between the trainer’s teaching style, the trainee’s learning style, the subject of the training program, and how this relationship guides the process for selecting instructional methods. The training program designers need to calibrate the selection of instructional methods with an awareness that a trainer’s teaching style is an important fac- tor in motivating trainees. Training style impacts the learning style of trainees and the achievement of the learning objectives.

The single most important factor contributing to teaching style preference is the experience level of the trainer. Inexperienced trainers emphasize the use of instructional methods where they are in full control of the training program. Control is driven by inexperience in managing and implementing

Table 6.6 Alternative View of Individual Learning Styles with Examples of Instructional Methods

Learning Style Role Instructional Methods

Concrete experience • Sense • Feel • Intuition

• Role play • Presentations • Group activities

Abstract conceptualizing • Think • Analyze • Intellectual

• Case studies • Independent study • Games

Active experimentation • Immerse self in task • Diagram • Model building • Research project

Reflective observation • Look • Ponder • Different viewpoints

• Mentor • Coach • Self-study

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Instructional Methods 81

training, and limited exposure to sophisticated types of instructional meth- ods, associated with inexperience, is an additional factor that contributes to over-control. This type of trainer, less confident in their abilities, selects instructional methods that are easy to execute, generate fewer questions from trainees, and result in fewer training delivery issues.

Experienced trainers are more comfortable with delivering training pro- grams, and are more accommodating in using a wide variety of instructional methods during training. Experience provides familiarity with the nuances associated with the use of complex instructional methods. Experienced trainers understand the potential problems that can occur with some instruc- tional methods. The experienced trainer knows the strategies to solve to these problems successfully and the types of questions trainees are likely to raise. Also, the experienced trainer knows the strategies for delivering the subject matter in a way that motivates the trainees, achieving the learn- ing objectives and influencing post-training transfer of the subject matter learned to the job.

Because trainee learning style and the subject of a training program are important factors to consider when designing a training program, the choice of trainer or trainers is critical during the design process. An experienced trainer is preferable over an inexperienced trainer when the subject to learn demands active learner involvement in the learning process. A quick review of an existing policy or a routine work process are simple training issues. An inexperienced trainer using simplistic instructional methods (e.g., lecturing, PowerPoint, handouts, etc.) is sufficient for this. However, a program that covers a complex theme (e.g., improving sales, changing values, improv- ing manager–subordinate interactions, new policies and a new or modified policy implementation process, etc.) warrant the use of sophisticated instruc- tional methods (e.g., role play, self-reflection exercises, case studies, etc.) that require an experienced trainer. At this point the reader may be curious as to how a trainer can gain experience in the use of sophisticated instructional methods. The answer is simple, where appropriate and feasible the designers

Theme

= Instructional Methods

Teaching Style

Learning Style

Figure 6.1 The Selection of Instructional Methods Influenced by the Link between Teaching Style, Learning Style, and the Theme of the Training Program

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82 Instructional Methods

can pair an experienced trainer with an inexperienced trainer to serve as mentor and mentee during training.

An alternative approach to assess trainer teaching styles is to categorize a trainer’s teaching style. This approach represents another way trainers can be matched with the relevant training program. There is the passive style, where the trainer gives little direction and allows the trainees great latitude in regulating the pace of training and the level of their involvement in training activities, and has a laissez-faire attitude about achieving the learning objec- tives. An authoritarian teaching style represents another category. Here the trainer has an overall plan to follow, including instructional methods. The trainer actively controls the entire training process to ensure success in imple- menting the training program to a successful conclusion. The democratic cat- egory represents a training style that allow trainees the ability to influence the training process, including the selection of instructional methods. In applying the democratic training style, the trainer, during the introductory stage of the training program, encourages input from the trainees on their preferences about how to conduct the training program. Participation in adapting train- ing to meet the interests of the trainee is meant to motivate the trainees.

Learning Objective #9: Differentiate between Instructional Methods and Learning Locations

The training program designers can choose from a range of learning loca- tions. The selection of learning location influences the type of instructional methods best suited for that particular location. Several criteria are helpful to the designers during the learning location identification process. The choice of learning locations follows.

• Classroom setting • Online or distance learning from home, office, or other • Computer lab • Home: combo online and offline • Office: combo online and offline • Mock site or on-site

Table 6.6 identifies and describes relevant criteria, with brief explanations that designers can use in selecting a training location. During the location selection process, the designers need to consider the overarching focus of the training program in conjunction with the selection criteria. More than one learning location can be used simultaneously. For example, a classroom works best for certain types of instructional methods needed to facilitate learning, and online study is useful to complement classroom instruction. For example, often university courses are taught as hybrids, with some percentage of the time spent online and the remaining time in a classroom.

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The purpose of training is most influential in selecting the learning loca- tion because the training subject is one of the primary criteria to use during the selection process.

The convenience criterion refers to the need to minimize disruptions when conducting the training. Furthermore, the number of participants is an important issue for consideration, given the constraint of room size and whether all learners need to participate simultaneously – if it is group work, it is necessary to deter- mine if trainees will meet in in one location or in satellite locations. Face-to-face instructional methods often require the use of a local site, but technology (e.g., Skype), can support certain types of face-to-face instructional methods online. Finally, when the use of an actual setting or mock site is essential to training this becomes an important consideration in choosing a learning location.

Training costs can be identified easily along with the budget allocated for a training program. Designers can compare costs against the budget limit to narrow the choice of location options.

Common sense enables the designers to consider one or more of the crite- ria when moving through the process of selecting a learning location. Once a learning location is chosen, the designers need to consider the most relevant instructional methods to use. The different criteria for selecting the learning location(s) are outlined in Table 6.7.

Learning Objective #10: Define, Explain, and Assess how Instructional Methods are Meant to Impact a Trainee’s Learning Process

Learners have an established learning process. The purpose in using instruc- tional methods is to interface with the learner’s learning process to facilitate

Table 6.7 Criteria for Selecting One or More Types of Learning Locations Where Training Can Occur

Criteria Explanation

• Cost • Financial requirements and budget constraints • Purpose of training • The subject matter directly impacts the

choice of learning locations • Convenience • Best learning location that makes delivering

training easy to do • Number of participants • The number of participants and whether

training needs to occur simultaneously or at different times

• Need for face-to-face meeting • Training requires interaction among trainees and between the trainers and the trainees

• Need for actual or mock site • When actual background enhances the use of particular instructional methods that strengthen the trainees’ learning experience

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84 Instructional Methods

learning. Instructional methods impact the learning process in two ways. First, training will likely modify the learner’s learning process when the trainer needs to use instructional methods that require some adjustments to the learner’s learning process to achieve the learning objectives. Second, training is meant to impact the learner’s learning process to ensure that learn- ers achieve the learning objectives; the designers know that learners’ inclina- tion is not to modify their learning process and therefore they must adapt the learning process to achieve the learning objectives.

Though each learner’s learning process is unique to that learner, there is a core foundation common to the learning process of all learners. The core foundation functions in the following way. Learning occurs when infor- mation stored in the long-term memory is recovered by the learner, and the information moves into the short-term memory for quick retrieval. The learning process begins with the learner storing information learned into the short-term memory. The reader should think of short-term memory as hav- ing two parts – visual memory and auditory memory – working together. The purpose of using a variety of instructional methods is to involve both the auditory and visual memories simultaneously to ensure learning occurs. The use of videos (auditory and visual memories), lectures (auditory memory) and PowerPoint (visual memory) are examples of instructional methods that impact auditory and visual memories. In an earlier discussion on the use of a variety of instructional methods, the focus was to tap into any and all of the learner’s multiple senses; the visual and auditory senses are the primary senses associated with learning.

One of the important learning activities performed by the learner as part of the learning process is to screen and eliminate non-critical information from the critical information to be retained. Identifying the critical information is important. The lesson for the training program designers is to understand this part of a learner’s learning process by emphasizing the learning of criti- cal information and de-emphasizing the presentation of information which is peripheral in achieving the learning objectives. By including non-essential information alongside critical information, learners can suffer from informa- tion overload. Information overload can result in the breakdown of the learn- er’s learning process. Retention of critical information is lessened, lessening the chance to achieve all the learning objectives.

From short-term memory, the learner moves critical information into long-term memory, storing the information for future retrieval. When required, the learner retrieves the needed information from the long-term memory back into the short-term memory, ready for use.

Designers that understand the fundamentals of a learner’s learning process can use this knowledge to design a training program that aids the learner in achieving the learning objectives. Along with the learner’s learning process is the need for learners to want to learn (i.e., motivation to learn), and also the learner’s capacity to learn. If the subject of training is essential to the learner,

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the motivation of the learner is strong. If the subject of training falls within the learner’s capacity to learn the information, the learner is motivated to learn. The learner’s learning process, the value of the subject, and the capacity for learning are linked and can lead to either a motivated or an unmoti- vated learner.

Selecting relevant instructional methods is essential in facilitating learning. Designers need to choose instructional methods linked to the interests and capabilities of the learner for motivation purposes, and which do not exceed the learner’s ability to learn. Leveraging the learner’s learning process is also an important factor to consider in the selection of instructional methods.

The goal in picking instructional methods is to select instructional methods with a strong emphasis on utilizing the auditory and visual senses. The use of multiple instructional methods introduces variety to keep the learner focused and interested. Where relevant, the trainer should follow a simple instructional process of presenting, demonstrating, using exam- ples, practicing, and providing feedback. Also, repetition is essential to ensure retention in the short-term memory, and because repetition helps to move important information into the long-term memory. The chapter on assessment methods helps to explain the role of assessment for information retention over the short-run (short-term memory) and long term (long- term memory).

Questions

1 Describe the role of instructional methods. 2 Explain the relationship between learning objectives and instructional

methods. 3 Describe how the selection of instructional methods is associated with

the motivation of trainees. 4 Describe the linkage between instructional methods and levels of learning. 5 Describe the learner’s learning process and the role of instructional meth-

ods that impact the process.

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