PSY HELP FINAL PAPER
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Memory and the Brain
Human memory depends heavily on frontal structures of the brain for the creation and retrieval of memories and on temporal structures for the permanent storage of these memories.
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Memory and the Brain
Brain structures are involved in the creation and storage of memory.
TEMPORAL CORTEX
Includes the hippocampus
Involves storage of new memories
PREFRONTAL BRAIN REGIONS
Responsible for the encoding of new memories and retrieval of old memories
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Modal Model of Memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
Computer as a model for human cognition
Memory is an integrated system that processes information
Acquire, store, and retrieve information
Components of memory do not act in isolation
Memory has a limited capacity
Limited space
Limited resources
Limited time
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Caption: Flow diagram for Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) model of memory. This model, which is described in the text, is called the modal model because of the huge influence it has had on memory research.
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Modal Model of Memory
Control processes: active processes that can be controlled by the person
Rehearsal
Strategies used to make a stimulus more memorable
Strategies of attention
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Modal Model of Memory: Sensory Memory
Holds large amount of information for a short period of time
Collects information
Holds information for initial processing
Fills in in the blank
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Stores small amounts of information for a brief duration
Includes both new information received from the sensory stores and information recalled from long-term memory
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory, when rehearsal is prevented, is about 15-20 seconds
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Proactive interference (PI): occurs when information learned previously interferes with learning new information
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Capacity of short-term memory
Digit span: how many digits a person can remember
Typical result: 5-8 items
But what is an item?
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Chunking: small units can be combined into larger meaningful units
Chunk is a collection of elements strongly associated with one another but weakly associated with elements in other chunks
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Ericcson et al. (1989)
Trained a college student with average memory ability to use chunking
had an initial digit span of 7
After 230 one-hour training sessions, could remember up to 79 digits
Chunking them into meaningful units
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
How is information coded in STM?
Coding: the way information is represented
Physiological: how stimulus is represented by the firing of neurons
Mental: how stimulus or experience is represented in the mind
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Auditory coding – Conrad (1964)
Participants briefly saw target letters and were asked to write them down
Errors most often occurred with letters that sounded alike
STM is auditory
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Sensory Memory Holds Information Briefly
SENSORY MEMORY
Stage of memory that registers information about the environment and holds it for a very brief period of time
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Sensory Memory: Auditory Sensory Memory
AUDITORY SENSORY STORE
Echoic memory
An echo is a brief persistence of a sound in the auditory system.
Perceptual regions of the cortex hold a brief representation of sensory information for further processing.
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A Theory of Short-Term Memory
SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM)
Proposed intermediate system in which information has to reside on its journey from sensory memory to long-term memory
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A model of memory that includes an intermediate short-term memory Information coming in from the environment is held in a transient sensory store from which it is lost, unless attended to. Attended information goes into an intermediate short-term memory with a limited capacity to hold information. The information must be rehearsed before it can move into a relatively permanent long-term memory.
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A Theory of Short-Term Memory
MEMORY SPAN
Number of elements one can immediately repeat back
Typical short-term memory span is about seven items of information (i.e., words).
SHEPARD AND TEGHTSOONIAN (1961)
Information cannot be kept in short-term memory indefinitely.
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A Theory of Short-Term Memory
DEPTH OF PROCESSING (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)
Proposes that rehearsal improves memory only if the material is rehearsed in a deep and meaningful way
Depth of processing more critical to memory than how long information is rehearsed
SHALLOW PROCESSING: Fragile memory
DEEP PROCESSING: Durable memory
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A critical assumption in this theory was that the amount of rehearsal controls the amount of information transferred to long-term memory.
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Working Memory
BADDELEY’S THEORY OF WORKING MEMORY
Memory system that provides temporary storage for information that is currently being used in some conscious capacity (Baddeley, 1986)
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Working Memory
BADDELEY’S THEORY OF WORKING MEMORY
Components of working memory
VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD
System for rehearsing visual
PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
System for rehearsing verbal information
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
System for controlling slave systems like the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop
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Working Memory
BADDELEY’S THEORY
Phonological loop consists of:
ARTICULATORY LOOP
“Inner voice” used during rehearsal of verbal information
The articulatory loop involves speech.
PHONOLOGICAL STORE
An “inner ear” that hears the inner voice and stores the information in phonological form
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Working Memory
Working memory differs from STM
STM holds information for a brief period of time
WM is concerned with the processing and manipulation of information that occurs during complex cognition
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Caption: Diagram of the three main components of Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974; Baddeley 2000) model of working memory: the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketch pad, and the central executive.
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Phonological Loop
Phonological similarity effect
Letters or words that sound similar are confused
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Phonological Loop
Word-length effect
Memory for lists of words is better for short words than for long words
Takes longer to rehearse long words and to produce them during recall
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Phonological Loop
Articulatory suppression
Prevents one from rehearsing items to be remembered
Reduces memory span
Eliminates word-length effect
Reduces phonological similarity effect for reading words
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Working Memory
WM is set up to process different types of information simultaneously
WM has trouble when similar types of information are presented at the same time
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WM and the Brain
Prefrontal cortex responsible for processing incoming visual and auditory information
Monkeys without a prefrontal cortex have difficulty holding information in WM
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Activation and Long-Term Memory
SPREADING ACTIVATION
The process by which currently attended items can make associated memories more available
Proposes that activation spreads along paths of a network
Think back to the knowledge networks in the last chapter!
One concept spreads activation to related “nodes”
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Activation and Long-Term Memory
PRIMING MEMORIES (Meyer and Schvaneveldt, 1971)
Participants judged whether pairs of items were real words.
When the pairs had an associated relationship (bread, butter), participants were faster than when unrelated.
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Factors Influencing Memory
ELABORATIVE PROCESSING
Involves creating additional information that relates and expands on what it is that needs to be remembered
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Factors Influencing Memory
ELABORATIVE PROCESSING
Memory for material improves when it is processed with more meaningful elaborations.
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Techniques for Studying Textual Material
FLASHBULB MEMORIES
Particularly good memory for events that are very important or traumatic
People claimed to have vivid memories of Kennedy’s assassination 13 years later.
Brown and Kulik (1977)
Flashbulb memories may not be as accurate as originally thought and fade with time.
McCloskey et al. (1988); Talairco and Rubin (2003)
No better than normal memories – we just feel that they are more vivid but they are now! Our mind fills in the gaps
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