Psychology essay number 2
ItSaulGoodman
Chapter6.pptxChapter 6
Learning
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Chapter Preview
Classical Conditioning
Observational Learning
Health and Wellness
Operant Conditioning
Factors That Affect Learning
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For chapter 6
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Learning Theory
Learning: a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
Behaviorism
Associative Learning / Conditioning
Observational Learning
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Note: “durable” is an excellent gloss for “relatively permanent.” “Exposure, practice, & repetition” are what a behaviorist means by “experience”
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Types of Learning (1 of 2)
Operant Conditioning
Helps to explain voluntary behavior.
Performing well in swim competition (behavior) becomes associated with getting awards (consequence).
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Note: The instructor may wish to point out that in the example of classical conditioning, getting stuck with a needle was NOT a consequence of the subject’s behavior (namely, being fearful)– after all, what doctor would punish fearful patients by sticking them whenever they express fear?
Rather, the fear response is shifted from being elicited by a natural [reflexive] stimulus (namely, pain) to a once neutral stimulus, the sight of a doctor’s office. Hence, Classical Conditioning is characterized as a shift in stimulus control.
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Types of Learning (2 of 2)
Classical Conditioning
Helps to explain involuntary behavior.
Control of a response [fear] is shifted to a new stimulus [office].
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Note: The instructor may wish to point out that in the example of classical conditioning, getting stuck with a needle was NOT a consequence of the subject’s behavior (namely, being fearful)– after all, what doctor would punish fearful patients by sticking them whenever they express fear?
Rather, the fear response is shifted from being elicited by a natural [reflexive] stimulus (namely, pain) to a once neutral stimulus, the sight of a doctor’s office. Hence, Classical Conditioning is characterized as a shift in stimulus control.
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Classical Conditioning: Pavlov
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Suggestion: Instructor might point out that the frame labeled “conditioning” is not repeated merely once, but dozens of times.
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Classical Conditioning (1 of 12)
Neutral Stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus
Innate S-R Association
Unconditioned Response
Conditioned Response
Acquisition/Learning
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Pavlov’s research
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Classical Conditioning (2 of 12)
Contingency: CS regularly followed by UCS
Contiguity: Time between CS & UCS
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Note: Rescorla points out that the nature of contingency that best promotes classical conditioning is the same as the contingency a researcher might use to infer cause and effect (as if the CS causes the UCS)
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Classical Conditioning (3 of 12)
Phobias
Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert.
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Classical Conditioning (4 of 12)
Application
Advertising
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The positive associations with gorgeous actors having a grand time can become associated with a product they are shown using in a commercial ad.
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Classical Conditioning (5 of 12)
Application
Placebo Effect
immune and endocrine responses
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Through classical conditioning, the sight of or act of taking a pill with medicine soon comes to elicit the same pain relief as the medicine itself produces.
You may want to point out in the next slide that precisely the opposite effect occurs with drug tolerance.
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Classical Conditioning (6 of 12)
Application
Drug Tolerance / Habituation
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See text Intersection: Can Classical Conditioning Help Us Understand Drug Abuse– discussion of “Sign Tracking”
Note: The body naturally protects itself by attempting to neutralize the affects of psychoactive drugs (this is an unlearned reflex). Through classical conditioning, the body learns to anticipate the drug in the presence of drug paraphernalia, and begins neutralizing the drug before it is actually consumed. Thus, the body must take in even more of the drug to get the same effect. This is how classical conditioning creates drug tolerance. Also, this is why simply seeing drug paraphernalia can trigger withdrawal symptoms or “cravings”.
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Classical Conditioning (7 of 12)
Application
Taste Aversion
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Note: Unlike conventional classical conditioning, taste aversion can occur under very impoverished learning conditions. In particular, a powerful taste aversion can be learned with just one exposure (rather than dozens) where the UCR does not occur for several hours (instead of within a split second). This is considered a counterexample to Pavlov’s theory, and shows that not all S-R associations stand on equal footing. Some are biologically primed, or as we shall see toward the end of the presentation, biologically “prepared”.
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Classical Conditioning (8 of 12)
Generalization
CRs may also appear after various new NS that are similar to the CS
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Suggestion: Generalization is easily illustrated with sounds from markedly different bells, one on which the subject is trained, the second on which the subject is tested for generalization.
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Classical Conditioning (9 of 12)
Discrimination
CRs appear after the CS but not after other CSs.
Discrimination generally learned by presenting other CSs without the UCS
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Eventually the subject learns that one bell works and the other doesn’t
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Classical Conditioning (10 of 12)
Extinction
CR weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS
Pavlov rang bell but did not present food; the dog stopped salivating.
Spontaneous Recovery
CR recurs after a time delay and without additional learning.
When Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated.
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Classical Conditioning (11 of 12)
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Classical Conditioning (12 of 12)
Counterconditioning
Goal: Associate CS with new, incompatible CR
Means: CS paired with new UCS
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This diagram illustrates how school itself can become aversive when associated with bullies, but pleasant when associated with kindly friends. Thus, to counteract the association with bullies, keep the bullies away (extinction) and replace them with kindly friends (producing an incompatible response).
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Extinguishing Eating
Eating in the Absence of Hunger
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Operant Conditioning (1 of 2)
Better explains voluntary behaviors.
The consequences of a behavior change the probability of that behavior’s occurrence.
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Operant Conditioning (2 of 2)
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
consequence strengthens or weakens an S – R connection
B.F. Skinner
expanded on Thorndike’s work
shaping (reward approximations of the desired behavior)
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Note: An important contribution of B.F. Skinner was that he standardized the language scientists use to refer to learning. After all, Skinner’s undergraduate studies were not in Psychology, but English Literature.
Skinner worked with the U.S. military to train pigeons to guide missiles/torpedoes, per above illustration.
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Reinforcement (1 of 6)
Reinforcement increases behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
behavior followed by rewarding consequence
rewarding stimulus is “added”
Negative Reinforcement
behavior followed by rewarding consequence
aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “removed”
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Note: It is important to stress that positive means “something is added,” that negative means “something is removed,” and that reinforcement is defined by the resulting effect on behavior (increase).
Activity/Demonstration: Ask students to generate examples of both positive and negative reinforcement.
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Reinforcement (2 of 6)
Reinforcement increases behavior.
What is the effect on the behavior?
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Reinforcement (3 of 6)
Reinforcement increases behavior.
What is the effect on the behavior?
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Reinforcement (4 of 6)
Reinforcement increases behavior.
What is the effect on the behavior?
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Note: The scenario here is you sit down in a friend’s car and notice that there are several interesting buttons on the dash. You randomly press one out of curiosity.
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Reinforcement (5 of 6)
Reinforcement increases behavior.
What is the effect on the behavior?
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Note: The consequence in avoidance reinforcement is indirect: It amounts to consequence prevention, which is far different from negative reinforcement. The latter is stimulus removal—an actual consequence.
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Reinforcement (6 of 6)
Learned helplessness: an organism learns it has no control over negative outcomes
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Types of Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers
innately satisfying
Secondary Reinforcers
become satisfying through experience
repeated association with a pre-existing reinforce
token economy
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Note: A few decades ago, secondary reinforcement was proffered as an account of why young children cling to their mothers. Mom feeds the infant: Food (primary reinforcer) ; Mom (secondary). Keep in mind that Harlow’s research with monkeys and terry-cloth mothers has debunked this analysis. Social stimulation is definitely a primary reinforcer.
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Types of Reinforced Behavior
Generalization
Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation.
stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response
responding occurs to similar stimuli
Discrimination
stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be reinforced
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
behavior decreases when reinforcement stops
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Note: Remind students that these concepts are a carryover from Classical Conditioning
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Schedules of Reinforcement (1 of 5)
Continuous Reinforcement
Partial Reinforcement
Fixed
Variable
ratio
interval
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Schedules of Reinforcement (2 of 5)
Fixed Ratio (FR)
reinforcement follows a set # of behaviors
Variable Ratio (VR)
reinforcement follows an unpredictable # of behaviors (e.g., an average)
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Schedules of Reinforcement (3 of 5)
Fixed Interval (FI)
reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after a set amount of time has elapsed
Variable Interval (VI)
reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed
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Note: A commonly used but incorrect example of Fixed Interval schedule of reinforcement is the weekly paycheck. By definition, a “fixed interval” of time is an interval of waiting, where behavior would be pointless because it will not be reinforced. Note that unlike waiting for the regularly scheduled mail delivery, waiting for a paycheck without working in the meantime is not conducive to eliciting reinforcement from one’s employer. The worker needs to work the entire week in order to receive a delayed reward. Waiting until payday before you start working—a bad idea. So the weekly paycheck is a delayed reward schedule, not a fixed interval schedule. On the other hand, waiting until payday to look for the check in the mail, that is indeed an interval schedule of reinforcement, but it is just a specific case of the original example of checking the mail.
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Schedules of Reinforcement (4 of 5)
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Note: A commonly used but incorrect example of Fixed Interval schedule of reinforcement is the weekly paycheck. By definition, a “fixed interval” of time is an interval of waiting, where behavior would be pointless because it will not be reinforced. Note that unlike waiting for the regularly scheduled mail delivery, waiting for a paycheck without working in the meantime is not conducive to eliciting reinforcement from one’s employer. The worker needs to work the entire week in order to receive a delayed reward. Waiting until payday before you start working—a bad idea. So the weekly paycheck is a delayed reward schedule, not a fixed interval schedule. On the other hand, waiting until payday to look for the check in the mail, that is indeed an interval schedule of reinforcement, but it is just a specific case of the original example of checking the mail.
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Schedules of Reinforcement (5 of 5)
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Punishment
Punishment decreases behavior.
Positive Punishment
behavior followed by aversive consequence
aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added”
Negative Punishment
behavior followed by aversive consequence
rewarding stimulus is “removed”
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Reinforcement (1 of 2)
Punishment decreases behavior.
What is the effect on the behavior?
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Note: The answer to the question, “What is the effect on the behavior?” is not the same for the three consequences presented on this slide.
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Reinforcement (2 of 2)
Punishment decreases behavior.
What is the effect on the behavior?
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Note: This example presumes that getting pulled over and ticketed is aversive in its own right, even if you only get a warning.
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Operant Conditioning
Timing of Consequences
immediate versus delayed reinforcement
immediate versus delayed punishment
Applied Behavior Analysis
behavior modification
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Delayed consequences work much differently (more effectively) on adult humans than on animals and small children.
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Observational Learning
Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior (modeling).
Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Theory
Four Processes of Observational Learning
Attention
Retention
motor reproduction
reinforcement
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Cognitive Factors in Learning (1 of 2)
Do cognitions matter?
Does learning involve more than environment-behavior connections?
Purposive Behavior in Humans
goal directed
goal setting
self-regulation and self-monitoring
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Cognitive Factors in Learning (2 of 2)
Expectancy Learning
information value
Latent Learning/Implicit Learning (unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior)
Insight Learning (form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem’s solution) e.g. the “eureka” moment
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Other Factors in Learning
Biological Constraints
instinctive drift
preparedness
Cultural Influences
Psychological Constraints
mindset: fixed v. growth
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Note: For biological preparedness, recall taste aversion.
Cultures can influence emphasis on types of learning as well as content
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Other Factors in Learning: Critical Controversy
Learning Styles
visual, aural, kinesthetic
Research suggests there is no actual advantage to instruction within one’s preferred style.
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Learning and Health and Wellness
Factors influencing degree of stress
predictability of stressor
control over stressor
improvement of (reduction in) stressor
outlets for frustration
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Chapter Review
Describe learning.
Explain classical conditioning.
Explain operant conditioning.
Understand observational learning.
Describe the role of cognition in learning.
Identify biological, cultural, and psychological factors in learning.
Describe how principles of learning apply to health and wellness.
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Note: Instructors may use the learning objectives presented on this slide to review the chapter material.
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