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Because learning changes everything. ®

ESSENTIALS OF

LIFE-SPAN

DEVELOPMENT 6e

John W. Santrock

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Chapter 6

Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood

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Chapter Outline

• Emotional and personality development

• Families

• Peer relations, play, and media/screen time

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Emotional and Personality Development

Children’s developing minds and social experiences produce remarkable advances in the development of

• The self

• Emotional development

• Moral development

• Gender

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The Self 1

Erikson’s psychosocial stages associated with early childhood

• Initiative versus guilt

• Children use perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen.

• Children exuberantly move out into wider social world on their own initiative.

• The great governor of initiative is conscience.

• Initiative and enthusiasm may bring guilt, which lowers self-esteem.

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The Self 2

Self-understanding and understanding others

• Increased awareness reflects young children’s expanding psychological sophistication.

• Self-understanding: substance and content of self-conceptions

• Physical activities: central component of the self in early childhood

• Tend to confuse ability and effort

• Unrealistically positive self descriptions, which are self-protective

• Better basic understanding of emotions in early childhood enabled children to develop more advanced understanding of others’ perspectives

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The Self 3

Understanding others

• Children start perceiving others in terms of psychological traits.

• Children begin to develop an understanding for joint commitments.

• Young children are not as egocentric as depicted in Piaget’s theory.

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Emotional Development 1

Growing self awareness is linked to feeling

Growing self awareness is linked to expanding and expressing a range of emotions

• Young children experience many emotions during the day.

• Emotional development allows for ability to make sense of other people’s emotional reactions and control their own

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Emotional Development 2

Expressing emotions

• Pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt are for examples of self- conscious emotions.

• During the early childhood years, pride and guilt become more common.

• Influenced by parents’ responses to children’s behavior, for example, “ You should feel bad about biting your sister.”

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Emotional Development 3

Understanding emotions

• Children’s understanding of emotion linked to increase in pro-social behavior

• Children begin to understand that same event can elicit different feelings in different people

• By age 5, most children show more ability to reflect on emotions and growing awareness of the need to manage emotions according to social standards

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Emotional Development 4

Regulating emotions

• Plays a key role in children’s ability to manage the demands and conflicts they face in interacting with others

• Parents can be described as taking an emotion-coaching or an emotion- dismissing approach to help children regulate emotions.

• Ability to modulate emotions benefits children in their relationships with peers.

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Moral Development 1

Involves thoughts, feelings, and behavior regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other people

Moral feelings

• Feelings of anxiety and guilt are central to the account of moral development.

• Emotions and guilt can motivate behavior.

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Moral Development 2

Moral reasoning

• Heteronomous morality: the first stage of moral development in Piaget’s theory, occurring from approximately 4 to 7 years of age

• Justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people.

• Autonomous morality: in Piaget’s theory, older children (approximately 10 years of age and older) become aware that rules and laws are created by people

• When judging an action, one should consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences.

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Moral Development 3

Immanent justice: concept that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately

Parent-child relations in which parents have the power and children do not are less likely to advance moral reasoning.

• Rules are handed down in an authoritarian manner.

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Moral Development 4

Moral behavior

• Processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation explain the development of moral behavior.

• Situation influences behavior.

• Cognitive factors are important in the child’s development of self- control.

Conscience: internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that involves integrating moral thought, feeling, and behavior

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Gender 1

• Gender identity: the sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by 2 1/2 years

• Gender role: a cultural set of expectations that prescribes how females or males should think, act, feel

• Gender typing: acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

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Gender 2

Biological influences

• Chromosomes

• Hormones

• Evolution

Social influences

• Social theories of gender

• Social role theory: gender differences result from contrasting roles of women and men

• Psychoanalytic theory of gender: preschool child develops a sexual attraction to opposite-sex parent

• Social cognitive theory: children’s gender development occurs through observation and imitation of others’ words and actions

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Gender 3

• Parental influences

• Mothers’ socialization strategies for daughters to be obedient restrict autonomy

• Fathers’ socialization strategies for sons to engage in activities promote intellectual development

• Peer influences

• Preschoolers prefer socializing with same gender.

• Group size: boys tend to create larger clusters

• Interaction in same-sex groups: boys tend to competitively play; girls tend to have conversations

Cognitive influences

• Gender schema theory: children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture

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Families

• Parenting

• Child maltreatment

• Sibling relationships and other birth order

• The changing family in a changing society

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Parenting 1

Parents as compared to non-parents

• are typically more satisfied with their lives

• feel relatively better on a daily basis

• have more positive feelings toward children and daily activities

Recent study: 1/2 of fathers and 1/4 of mothers report feeling they are not spending enough time with their children

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Parenting 2

Baumrind’s parenting styles

• Authoritarian parenting

• Parents exhort child to follow directions and respect their work and effort

• Allows little verbal exchange

• Associated with children’s social incompetence

• Linked to child’s higher level of aggression

• Authoritative parenting

• Encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions

• Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed

• Associated with children’s social competence

• Children are more prosocial

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Parenting 3

Neglectful parenting

• Parent is uninvolved in the child’s life

• Associated with children’s social incompetence and lack of self-control

• Children externalize problems

Indulgent parenting

• Parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them

• Associated with children’s social incompetence and lack of self-control

• Associated with children not respecting others

• Children may be domineering, egocentric, noncompliant, and have difficulties in peer relations

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Parenting 4

Parenting styles in context

• Authoritative parenting conveys the most benefits to the child and to the family as a whole.

• Parenting is reciprocal socialization and synchrony: children socialize parents, and parents socialize children.

• Consistent parenting is recommended; however, flexibility in style is warranted depending on the situation.

• Research about parenting styles mostly on mothers, not fathers, who often are authoritarian in comparison

• Consistent parenting styles are most beneficial.

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Parenting 5

Punishment

• Corporal punishment is linked to

• Higher level of child’s behavioral problems

• Higher levels of aggression as children and adolescents.

• Higher incidence of intimate partner violence as adults

• Fear of parent

• Best to handle misbehavior by reasoning with child and explaining consequences of child’s actions for others

Coparenting: support that parents give each other in raising a child

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Classification of Parenting Styles

Parenting Styles Accepting, Responsive

Rejecting, Unresponsive

Demanding, controlling

Authoritative Authoritarian

Undemanding, uncontrolling

Indulgent Neglectful

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Child Maltreatment

Types of child maltreatment

• Physical abuse

• Child neglect

• Sexual abuse

• Emotional abuse

Context of abuse

• Among the family and family-associated characteristics that may contribute to child maltreatment are parenting stress, substance abuse, social isolation, single parenting, and socioeconomic difficulties.

• About 1/3 of parents who were abused themselves when they were young go on to abuse their own children.

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Developmental Consequences of Abuse

• Poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, poor peer relations, difficulty in adapting to school, depression

• Physical abuse linked to diminished cognitive development and school participation

• Engaging in violent behavior and substance abuse

• Engaging in violent romantic relationships, delinquency, sexual risk taking, substance abuse

• Increase in 13 to 18 year olds’ suicide ideation, plans, attempts

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Sibling Relationships and Birth Order

Sibling relationships

• Important characteristics

• Emotional quality of the relationship

• Familiarity and intimacy of the relationship

• Variation in sibling relationships

Birth order

• Compared with later-born children, firstborn children have been described as more adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, and self- controlled.

• Only children often are achievement-oriented.

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Changing Family in a Changing Society 1

Working parents

• More than 1 of every 2 U.S. mothers with a child under the age of 5 is in the workforce.

• Children of working mothers engage in less gender stereotyping and have more egalitarian views of gender than do children of nonworking mothers.

• More recent study found negative associations with father’s employment but not mother’s employment.

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Changing Family in a Changing Society 2

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Changing Family in a Changing Society 3

Children in divorced families

• show poorer adjustment than their counterparts in never-divorced families

• New research indicates that experiencing divorce during childhood was linked to worse cohabitating/material relationships from 16 to 30.

• Also influenced by SES at birth

• Also influenced by experiences of childhood sexual abuse

• Parental divorce and child maltreatment linked to midlife suicidal ideation

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Changing Family in a Changing Society 4

• Many problems children experience after parents divorce date to before the divorce.

• Frequent noncustodial parent visits benefit children.

• Children with difficult temperament have problems coping with divorce. The opposite is also true.

• Co-parenting after divorce helps children adjust, reduces anxiety and depression, and increases self-esteem and academic performance.

• Divorced mothers often lose income and experience increased workloads, high rates of job instability, and high rates of moving.

Changing Family in a Changing Society 5

Gay and lesbian parents compared to heterosexual parents

• Few differences between children growing up in homosexual families

• No differences in peer relationships, mental health adjustment

Cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic variations

• Trends toward greater family mobility, migration to urban areas

• Minority parents tend to have less education and may live in low- income circumstances.

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Changing Family in a Changing Society 6

Lower-SES parents

• More concerned that their children conform to society’s expectations

• Create a home atmosphere in which it is clear that parents have authority over children, among others

• Use more physical punishment

• Are more directive and less conversational

Changing Family in a Changing Society 7

Higher-SES parents

• More concerned with developing children’s initiative and delay of gratification

• Less likely to use physical punishment

• Create a home atmosphere in which children are more nearly equal participants and in which rules are discussed

• Are less directive and more conversational

Peer Relation, Play, and Media/Screen Time 1

Peer relations

• Give children information and comparison about the world outside their family.

• Good peer relations are necessary for normal socioemotional development.

• Developmentally, children start spending time with same gender.

• Children make friends of all ethnic groups.

• Parents’ lifestyle decisions determine their children's friend choices.

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Peer Relation, Play, and Media/Screen Time 2

Play

• Play therapy is used to allow the child to work off frustrations and to analyze the child’s conflicts and ways of coping with them.

• Provides important context for development of language and communication skills.

• Children have less unconstructed play time, need more time for play for development

Peer Relation, Play, and Media/Screen Time 3

Connected Worlds of Parent-Child and Peer Relationships

• Parents influence children’s peer relationships directly and indirectly

• Basic life decisions

• Attachment and security

• Play’s Function

• Important aspect of development

• Play therapy: allows children to work off frustrations and analyze children’s conflicts and ways of coping

• Important context for cognitive development, exploration, and language development

Peer Relation, Play, and Media/Screen Time 4

Types of Play

• Sensorimotor: infants derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemas

• Practice: involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned

• Pretense/symbolic: transforming physical environment into symbols

• Social: involves interaction with peers

• Constructive: combines sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation

• Games: activities are engaged in for pleasure and have rules

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Peer Relation, Play, and Media/Screen Time 5

Television strongly influences children's development

• Children also use other media

• Screen time: includes how much time individual spends with television, DVDs, computers, video games, and mobile devices

• Young children’s use of mobile devices dramatically increased 2011 to 2013

• playing games using apps

• watching videos

• watching TV/movies

Peer Relation, Play, and Media/Screen Time 6

Playful learning and cognitive development

• Creativity

• Abstract thinking

• Imagination, attention

• Concentration, and persistence

• Problem-solving; social cognition

• Empathy, and perspective taking

• Language

• Mastery of new concepts

Playful learning and socioemotional development

• Enjoyment

• Relaxation

• Self-expression

• Cooperation

• Sharing, and turn-taking

• Anxiety reduction

• Self-confidence

Peer Relation, Play, and Media/Screen Time 7

Many 2 to 4 year olds spend 2 to 4 hours/day watching TV, more time than they spend with parents

Children and Television: American Academy of Pediatrics

• 2- to 5-years olds should watch maximum of 1 hour of TV per day, watching high quality programs, for example, Sesame Street and PBS shows.

• Can teach children positive, prosocial behavior

• Linked to higher obesity rates in children and adolescents

• Linked to violent and aggressive behavior

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Peer Relation, Play, and Media/Screen Time 8

Media/Screen Time

• Best types of educational apps parents can purchase for children

• Active involvement

• Engagement

• Meaningfulness

• Social interaction