INFANT Child Development Need This Done Thursday April 9, 2019 By 12pm PACIFIC TIME ZONE!

87

C h

a p

t er

6 Chapter 6 Guidelines for Facilitating Learning and Development with Infants and Toddlers

By far the most important aspect of facilitating learning with infants and toddlers is understanding and responding to the fact that infants and toddlers are active, moti- vated learners. Infants and toddlers constantly explore the world around them, including

people and relationships, and make sense of things based on their experiences and devel-

opmental abilities.

To facilitate means to make easier. Teachers who effectively facilitate learning make

it easier for infants and toddlers to explore, concentrate on learning, make discoveries,

and solve problems. Teachers can facilitate learning by creating situations that allow chil-

dren to pursue their interests actively, observing as children learn, and expanding oppor-

tunities for learning. Teachers should begin by finding out about the children’s interests

and abilities from their families. Information from the families provides the foundation

for observing children and being responsive to their inborn drive to learn and gain mas-

tery. Effective teachers observe what children do in the setting, give them time for prac-

tice and repetition, communicate with children about their play and discoveries, and then

offer suggestions to help children expand their exploration and experimentation.

88

C h

a p

t er

6

The following guidelines are organized into two sections:

7. Facilitating Learning and Development 8. Implementing an Infant/Toddler

Curriculum Process The guidelines in this chapter describe

how programs and teachers can facilitate learning and development by responding to in- fants and toddlers as active and self-motivated learners and by providing play and learning opportunities that honor and build upon chil- dren’s abilities, interests, and learning styles. The curriculum process provides infant care teachers with an approach for extending and supporting the learning and development that occur naturally in a setting where children feel safe, connected to others, and free to explore. Above all this chapter also lays out a frame- work of professional development and content mastery for teachers to successfully facilitate the learning and development of infants and toddlers.

Section 7

Understanding that learning and development are

integrated across domains (physical, social–emotional,

language and communication, and cognitive)

Guidelines in this section link to the fol- lowing Desired Results:

• DR 1. Children are personally and socially competent.

• DR 2. Children are effective learners. • DR 3. Children show physical and motor

competencies. • DR 4. Children are safe and healthy. • DR 5. Families support their children’s

learning and development. • DR 6. Families achieve their goals.

Infants and toddlers learn every waking moment. They continually learn about trust and security from their relationships. They learn about new ways to use things, discover

social rules, and explore what is real and what is fantasy. For infants the areas or domains of development are not separate. Their learning and development in the physical, social–emo- tional, language and communication, and cognitive domains happen together and are integrated.

7.1

Teachers pursue professional develop- ment opportunities to better support the learning and development of infants and toddlers.

To respond to the daily challenges of care and education of infants and toddlers, infant care teachers need knowledge and an array of skills. To provide rich and meaningful learn- ing experiences, teachers rely on their knowl- edge of infant learning and development, group-care issues and strategies, the children’s families, and the unique characteristics of each child in their care. Infant care teachers have many options for continuing their professional

development, including college courses, train- ing institutes, and in-service workshops. In addition, having a mentor or participating in a supervised practicum is a valuable way to continue professional development while on the job. (Program support and rewards for professional development efforts are essential and are outlined in Chapter 5, Section 6.)

Teachers: • Find a colleague, supervisor, or another

family child care provider who can be a mentor or a professional development adviser.

• Continue to pursue or create a professional development plan, which may include: – Enrolling in early childhood learning

and development courses – Attending locally offered trainings – Participating in a supervised practicum – Participating in conferences – Creating a portfolio – Pursuing a degree in early childhood

education • Attend courses or trainings that cover the

early learning and development curricu- lum areas outlined in Chapter 3 (page 28).

7.2

Programs and teachers facilitate learn- ing across domains.

This guideline directly links to the follow- ing Desired Results:

• DR 1. Children are personally and socially competent.

• DR 2. Children are effective learners. • DR 3. Children show physical and motor

competencies. • DR 4. Children are safe and healthy.

Infants and toddlers are constantly mov- ing, thinking, communicating, and feeling. In other words they are learning all the time in many different and integrated ways. The way adults express emotions, the tone of voice they use, the pace of the personal care routines, the materials provided for discovery, even the quality of light in the environment all contrib-

ute to the children’s construc- tion of knowledge. Because their learning is integrated across domains and is occur- ring every moment, infants learn during play as well as during caregiving routines. In essence, teachers’ actions and emotions communicate to children even when children are not directly involved in an interaction.

Understanding that children learn and develop in an integrated way leads to such questions as “What captures this child’s interest?” or “What is she discovering as she explores these materi- als?” Young children repeat- edly demonstrate to teachers their amazing capacity to learn. An essential role of the teacher is to support and guide children’s interests in a manner that engages their natural enthusiasm and energy for exploration, repetition, and discovery. Infant care teachers need to be aware of the diverse ways that all

89

C h

a p

t er

6

Physical and motor, social-emo- tional, language, and cognitive learning all happen together

Asha grasps the rounded edge of the coffee table with both hands and pulls herself to stand- ing. She smiles at Erica, who is sitting on the couch giving a bottle to Orlando. Asha points to Orlando and nods. Erica says, “Orlando is having his milk. You just had your milk a little while ago.” Asha nods again. “Mmm,” she says with effort. Erica responds by say- ing, “Yes, Asha, milk, milk in a bottle.” Asha carefully lowers herself to the floor saying, “Baah . . . baah.” She crawls around the table and pulls herself up holding on to Erica’s knee. Asha points so closely to Orlando that she accidentally pokes his cheek. He starts to cry, but then he decides to go back to suck- ing on his bottle. He watches Asha closely. Erica strokes both Orlando’s cheek and Asha’s cheek and says, “Oops! Asha poked Orlando’s cheek. Asha, were you pointing to the bottle?” Asha looks at Erica with wide eyes and says, “Baah baah.”

Teaching Toddlers

“When I was a teacher, I learned that teaching toddlers is an art. You have to be ready to change modes so quickly to catch up with them. They are so smart and quick. I have learned that when a toddler is working on something challenging, sometimes it helps if I make comments and describe what is happening; other times it helps if I get really quiet and al- most become invisible—as neu- tral as possible—so that the child and her discovery really can take center stage. How do I know which to do at a particular mo- ment? Watching, waiting, guess- ing . . . sometimes I am right, and other times I am wrong. Usually, if the child looks up at me expectantly, I stay active; but if the child seems to be ignoring me, I shrink myself down but stay available. We adults are so big, it is really easy for us to take center stage any time we want to. I like to try and be backstage, or on the sidelines, and see what the child is really doing.”

—D. Greenwald, 2003. Example given by faculty member at Pro- gram for Infant/Toddler caregiv- ers Training Institute, california

C h

a p

t er

6

children, including those with disabilities or other special needs, explore, experiment, and learn. For example, some children may observe or lis- ten a good while before act- ing; others may immediately reach out to touch and handle a new object. Or some chil- dren may want to share each discovery with an adult, and others may choose to explore and make discoveries on their own. Teachers who appreci- ate these differences become able to support learning as it occurs in the context of each child’s daily experiences.

Because learning is integrated for infants and tod- dlers, whatever an infant care teacher does with the children is related to all the Desired Results. Likewise, teachers observe each child’s prog- ress in all the developmental domains at the same time. The Desired Results Devel- opmental Profile-Revised (DRDP-R) indicators help teachers focus on specific areas while the child is learn- ing in multiple domains. For example, when trying out a new motor skill, a child may

Support • Support teachers in providing a variety of

learning experiences related to children’s interests and abilities.

• Provide training and professional devel- opment for teachers about the integrated nature of learning in early childhood.

TEAcHErS: • Communicate regularly with families

about children’s learning (using, for example, newsletters, notes sent home, documentation posted on walls, video tapes, audio tapes, photographs with ex- planations attached, and so on).

• Provide a variety of developmentally ap- propriate materials for infants and toddlers that are easily accessible and available throughout the day.

• Adapt environments as children’s interests and abilities change.

• Approach caregiving routines as opportu- nities for infants and toddlers to learn in all domains of development.

Orientation • Allow all children time to observe and

explore freely at their own pace objects, ideas, or actions that interest them.

• Understand the importance of practice and repetition in learning.

• Maintain a strong connection to what is familiar to the child when providing new materials or opportunities for learning.

• Remember that children are careful observers and that teachers are models of behavior even when they are not trying to be models.

Interaction • Follow a child’s lead, allowing infants

and toddlers to choose activities and play materials in the play environment.

• Participate in spontaneous group activities as they occur.

• Encourage further exploration, experimen- tation, and creativity by watching, wait- ing, and commenting on what children are doing.

also be learning language, developing prob- lem-solving skills, and learning rules for social behavior.

PrOGrAMS: • Communicate with families about an inte-

grated approach to facilitating learning. • Understand that daily interactions and

experiences influence all areas of develop- ment.

• Avoid the use of television, video players, computers, and other electronic devices in infant and toddler care.

90

• Observe a child solve a problem or make a discovery, remain available, but allow the child to decide what happens next.

• Avoid interrupting a child who is concen- trating—observe and wait for an appropri- ate moment.

7.3

Programs and teachers facilitate physi- cal development and learning.

This guideline directly links to the follow- ing Desired Result:

• DR 3. Children show physical and motor competencies. Physical development consists of a variety

of reflex movements at first and gradually becomes increasingly purposeful and coor- dinated. All infants and toddlers continually learn about themselves, their environment, and other children and adults when they move freely. They experiment and make discover- ies about weight, gravity, textures, balance, what moves and what does not, and what fits and what does not. Infants and toddlers use their large or gross muscles (such as those

that control the arms, legs, and trunk) as well as their small or fine muscles (such as those that control eye movements, fingers, or toes). Children with delays in their motor develop- ment will generally progress through the same stages but at a slower pace; some may follow a different developmental path.

Teachers and programs effectively facili- tate physical development by recognizing that gross muscle movements (such as in rolling, crawling, climbing, moving heavy objects) are just as important in learning as are small- muscle movements.

PrOGrAMS: • Create an environment that is safe for free

movement and exploration. • Create physical boundaries to keep chil-

dren from entering unsafe places (such as a bathroom) unattended.

Equipment • Provide a variety of developmentally

appropriate play equipment that offer opportunities for large-muscle movement both indoors and outdoors.

• Provide a variety of objects and materials for children to explore with their small muscles.

TEAcHErS: • Adapt the environment so that all children

can move freely in accordance with their own abilities and interests.

• Allow infants who are not crawling or walking to move freely in a space where they are protected from more active in- fants or older children.

Interaction • Provide opportunities for both indoor and

outdoor experiences for all children. • Remain available to infants and toddlers

as they physically explore the environ- ment.

• Give children time to solve problems they encounter as they experiment with large- and small-muscle movements.

91

C h

a p

t er

6

92

C h

a p

t er

6

7.4

The Developing Infant or dampen them, and this is rates and need different things to learned in tandem. The develop- help them along. They also are “An infant’s first learning oc- ing infant becomes interested more or less shy, bold, intense, curs in an interesting personal, in the objects enlivened by a distractible, and eager to please. emotional, and social interac- partner; she is endlessly curious Learning the individual emotion-tion. That learning is certainly and begins to explore places and al characteristics of each child is about how someone smells, things on her own in the security interesting and necessary if one sounds, looks, and feels; it is of the relationship. Gradually, is to be genuinely and usefully also about how one engages this different feelings are sorted and responsive. Finding the special other person, how one regulates she learns how to soothe and ways which each growing infant oneself and each other, how one quiet herself with maybe just a and toddler best responds is a learns to capture and maintain touch, or a look, or a word . . . great part of the pleasure.” each other’s attention as well as or maybe not, depending on who how each imitates and antici- — J. Pawl, Guidelines Expert she is to begin with. children pates the other. The baby learns Panel member master these things at different to share feelings, to intensify

Programs and teachers facilitate social–emotional development and learning.

This guideline directly links to the follow- ing Desired Result:

• DR 1. Children are personally and socially competent. Research and experience have repeat-

edly shown that personal and social compe- tence are closely linked to all other domains. As infants and toddlers interact with others, they learn about themselves and others. In particular, they learn how others respond to

their emotions, needs, and interests. Experi- ences in relationships with others affect the child’s emerging sense of identity and feel- ings of security. At the same time, interacting with others influences the child’s intellectual, language and communication, and physical development. Infants who become emotionally secure through nurturing relationships freely explore their environment and become confi- dent learners.

PrOGrAMS: Implement policies and support practices

for relationship-based care.

Teachers: • Observe and respond to infants’ verbal and

nonverbal cues. • Respond to crying by giving full, sensitive

attention, speaking in comforting tones, and holding to soothe, as appropriate.

• Provide enough predictability, without adhering to a rigid schedule, that children can anticipate interactions and events.

• Enjoy opportunities for one-to-one inter- action as they occur throughout the day.

• Allow authentic expression of feelings by offering support and comfort rather than distracting the child.

• Remain available during greetings and departures, which can be vulnerable times for children and family members.

Socialization • Provide guidance to infants and toddlers

as they learn how to be with each other and with the larger community (children from other classrooms, staff members, volunteers, and other children’s families).

• Help children understand the beginnings of social behavior. (“You offered her the doll, and she took it. Now she is offer- ing you a doll. You made a trade. How thoughtful!”)

• Model respectful relationships by avoiding communicating concerns about a child in the presence of children.

7.5

Programs and teachers provide guid- ance for social behavior.

This guideline directly links to the follow- ing Desired Result:

• DR 1. Children are personally and socially competent. One of the most challenging and reward-

ing aspects of infant/toddler care and educa- tion is that of guiding behavior and facilitating socialization. Infants and toddlers in groups develop close, emotional relationships with each other. From the first, infants and toddlers are interested in other people. Many families and teachers have been surprised to find that even very young children are aware when someone is absent or feeling sad. Infants and toddlers gradually respond to the thoughts and feelings of the people around them. They learn about how their own actions influence other people. They discover the difference between interacting with adults and with other children. Because infants and toddlers learn from both interacting with people and watching others interact, adults in early care and education settings need to interact respectfully with each other as well as with children.

When conflicts arise, teachers help infants and toddlers learn ways of managing intense emotions without hurting other people. Young children look to adults they trust to set limits for them and guide their behavior. One of the most important ways that teachers foster so- cialization is to set up calm, safe environments

for small groups of children. A well-planned program can prevent conflicts between chil- dren and encourage them to engage in positive interactions with each other.

PrOGrAMS: • Communicate with fam-

ily members about the program’s socialization and guidance policies and practices, seeking views from each family about their child.

• Implement continuity of care so that groups of chil- dren and teachers know and can anticipate each other’s behavior.

Teachers: • Prepare the environment

to encourage smooth group interactions (for example, provide enough play materials for all children to be engaged; arrange play areas to encourage small, focused groups of children).

93

C h

a p

t er

6

Playing in Water

Elio and Sandi were gleefully dropping blocks in the toilet while their teacher, Juan, was changing another child’s diaper. They giggled and looked at each other when the blocks made a plopping sound.

A moment later, when Juan saw what was happening, he realized that he had left the gate between the play area and the bathroom unlatched. Juan kneeled down and said, “This is not a place for playing. I can see that you like playing in water, but this is not the place.” Juan helped the two toddlers wash their hands thoroughly. Elio protested loudly and reached over toward the toilet—he was not finished with the game! Juan listened to him and said, with empathy in his voice, “Yes, you really liked that game. I will find another way for you to play in water.” Elio was not happy about it; he cried and resisted Juan’s attempt to hold him.

Then Juan placed some tubs of water on the water and sand table and observed as Elio and two other children found items from the play yard to drop into the water.

94

C h

a p

t er

6

• Interact respectfully with Reciprocal Interaction infants and toddlers, both “The back-and-forth emotional emotionally and physi- interaction in making sounds cally. leads to more vocalizations, • Guide behavior in ways the meaningful use of sounds, that take into account and, eventually, the meaningful each child’s developmen- use of language. An example of this back-and-forth (or recipro-

tal abilities. cal) interaction is when a child • Model appropriate vocalizes for her rattle or to get behavior and remain an a smile and receives a purpose- active presence to prevent ful response, such as getting her problematic situations. rattle or a smile from her teacher. When interactions like this occur Orientation again and again, the child learns that these utterances are use-

• Approach guidance by

ful tools. As a result, she will be understanding that the more and more likely to explore child is a competent her developing language.” problem solver trying to

—S. Greenspan, Guidelines negotiate a complicated

Expert Panel member social world. • Remain aware of indi-

vidual differences in children’s ability to tolerate frustration or deal with stress.

Addressing Concerns • Understand that exploratory behaviors,

such as testing limits and making mis- takes, are some of the ways infants learn and that sometimes they may need redirec- tion. (See “Playing in Water” on p. 93.)

• Intervene when children are about to cause harm to others or the environment.

• Explore with a child’s family possible causes of stress or changes in behaviors.

• Work together with families to develop ways to guide, without creating or rein- forcing a negative self-image, children who exhibit challenging behaviors.

• Acknowledge a child’s angry feelings with a gentle response (being sensitive to differences in the expression of emo- tion) and, if necessary, redirect the child’s behavior.

7.6

Programs and teachers facilitate language and communication develop- ment and learning.

This guideline directly links to the follow- ing Desired Result:

• DR 1. Children are personally and socially competent. From the start, young children seek to

communicate with others. Infants learn about the power of communication from adults’ re- sponses to their first attempts to communicate with gestures, facial expressions, and sounds. Infants need adults to communicate nonverbal- ly and verbally with them. These early experi- ences with communication lay the foundation for learning language and are important first steps in preliteracy development.

For infants whose language at home is dif- ferent from the language their teachers speak, supporting the development of both languages is critically important. Having competence in the home language assists children in identity development and communication with fam- ily members. In addition, children who gain mastery in two languages during the early childhood years have a strong basis for learn- ing to read in elementary school. Their rich understanding of language through learning English and their home language contributes to their continued literacy development as they grow older.

PrOGrAMS: • Support teachers as they take time to listen

and respond to infants and toddlers in their care.

C h

a p

t er

6

• Encourage discussion between teach- ers and family members about children’s language and communication development and learning.

• Hire teachers who speak the children’s home language, if possible.

• Provide numerous and varied opportuni- ties for children whose home language is different from English to experience their home language in the care setting. For example, volunteers from the community can regularly visit and tell stories, read books, and sing songs in the child’s home language. Tapes and books in the child’s home language also support bilingual development.

Teachers: • Converse regularly with families about

children’s verbal and nonverbal commu- nication (for example, “Sanjay said ‘baba’ over and over this morning during break- fast. What do you think he meant?”).

• Respond to children’s verbal and non- verbal communication.

• Respond positively to children when they communicate in their home language.

• Encourage children whose language at home is different from English to continue

• Talk to infants and toddlers in a pleasant, soothing voice, using simple language and giving children ample time to respond.

Child-Initiated Communication • Repeat words, sounds, and hand gestures

that children use to communicate and wait for a response.

• Pay close attention to the gestures of babies with a family member who is deaf, as these babies may “babble” with their hands.

• Respond to children when they practice and play with language.developing their home language.

Volunteers Make a Difference

In one community men from all corners of the community volunteered to go into child care programs once a week and read books, tell stories, or sing to children. Some of the men were fathers or grandfathers, and oth- ers were not.

In many cases the men were released from work to read to the children, and afterwards they re- turned to their jobs. They arrived with books under their arms, wearing tool belts and hard hats or business suits. They read to

children in their home languag- es. Some of the men told stories from their communities’ oral tradition, complete with voice variation and gestures. Others sang songs they remembered from childhood. They laughed when their voices cracked, and the children did not mind one bit. In fact, the children did not mind when a song or story was in a language they had not previ- ously heard. They appeared to enjoy the experience anyway.

The volunteers found that the children liked hearing the same

simple songs and stories over and over. They also learned that a small group of two or three very young children may sit for a story, and then one may leave, and a little later another may join the group. Although the situation kept changing, the men had a lot of fun. They donated books to the child care centers and family child care homes they visited. The children, the teachers, the family members, and the volun- teers all enjoyed these weekly visits.

95

96

C h

a p

t er

6

7.7

Discovering Books Together he bends down and feels the says ricardo, as he hands to rosa edge of the beanbag and rosa’s the textured book of animals he Eighteen-month-old ricardo leg and hears her voice: “I’m picked out. He knows the book walks over to the book corner happy that you could join us, and finds it each time he enters as he keeps his left hand mov- ricardo.” the book corner. ing along a low toy shelf leading

to the book corner. His teacher, rosa has added a couple of rosa reaches for the book and rosa, is seated comfortably on a textured and sound books to accommodates ricardo on her large beanbag holding another the book corner with ricardo lap along with the other child. child, who is thumbing through in mind, since he has a visual As she guides each child to turn a cloth book in her lap. rosa impairment. rosa knows that the the pages, rosa also guides them watches ricardo to make sure other children in her care will to feel the texture as she names he navigates his way to the book also benefit from reading and each animal. area safely. ricardo smiles when exploring these books. “Doggie,”

• Give children many opportunities to express and explore their unique qualities, interests, and abilities.

Teacher-Initiated Communication

• Ask simple, open-ended questions re- lated to children’s interests and wait for a response.

• Comment on a child’s focus of interest or activity.

• Describe objects, events, interactions, behaviors, and feelings as children ex- perience them during the course of daily routines and other activities.

• Listen and add to topics toddlers initiate, encouraging give-and-take communica- tion.

Programs and teachers nurture a love of books and stories.

This guideline directly links to the follow- ing Desired Results:

• DR 1. Children are personally and socially competent.

• DR 2. Children are effective learners. The foundation of literacy is established in

the early years through a variety of two-way exchanges with others, such as pretend play, imitation, songs, and experiences with books and stories. Seeing teachers appreciate and use books heightens young children’s fascination with books. Reading with infants and tod- dlers is an important way to introduce them to books and the written word. A warm lap, an exciting story, and a quiet time with a respon- sive teacher motivate young children to seek out reading opportunities. Children often are especially interested in books and stories that contain themes and pictures that relate to their lives. For instance, many teachers and family members know that young children are fasci- nated with stories of a mother looking for her baby. There are numerous versions of this type of story all around the world. Young children are also drawn to books that feature pictures of people who look like them and their family members. Photo albums that tell stories of the children and their families or events in child care are a wonderful way to help children recall and reflect upon experiences.

In high-quality settings storytelling is also a valued part of the program. Storytelling has a long and rich history. Family members and volunteers from the community may be able to contribute to the children’s learning by visiting the program and telling stories.

PrOGrAMS: • Communicate with families to learn about

which books and stories are important in the home and find ways to bring those books into the program.

Books • Provide a variety of books and pictures

that are sturdy enough for children to handle on their own.

• Ensure that children’s books are develop- mentally appropriate.

Teachers: • Offer opportunities for playfulness with

language.

Books • Encourage children’s free exploration of

books. • Look at books with children; read to them

and tell stories when they are interested. • Read or describe pictures to infants, when

they show interest, so that they can enjoy the pictures, the rhythms of the text, and the sound or feel of the pages turning.

Stories • Learn finger play, songs, and simple

games from each family. • Participate playfully as toddlers engage

in activities that involve self-expression, such as make-believe and dramatic play.

7.8

Programs and teachers facilitate cogni- tive development.

This guideline directly links to the follow- ing Desired Result:

• DR 2. Children are effective learners. Infants learn through exploration and

imitation. Intellectual activity in infants and

97

C h

a p

t er

6

toddlers is driven by the child’s inborn curios- ity and motivation to understand the world and share meaning with others. Through following their own play interests, children make discov- eries about gravity, relative size, quantity, or the use of tools. (See box on page 97.)

Infants explore through their senses and through movement. For instance, infants’ mouthing and banging inform them about the properties of objects. As infants grow older, their ways of exploring become increas- ingly sophisticated and complex. Infants who mouthed and randomly banged objects begin to experiment with the different sounds of objects banged on different surfaces. Through exploration and experimentation infants and toddlers learn about the relationship between cause and effect, for example, and how things move and fit in space.

Infants and toddlers constantly watch the behavior of adults and other children, wanting to be like others and do what they do. Teachers and family members see their actions reflected in children’s social behavior and handling of objects. For instance, a young toddler may hold a toy phone to his ear with his shoulder, as he has seen a family member do at home.

The teacher’s role in facilitating cognitive learning and development is to understand the child’s stage of development and to use this understanding when setting up the environ- ment, selecting materials, and planning inter- actions to encourage and expand the child’s learning. When teachers understand that young

C h

a p

t er

6

children’s play is rich in discovery and learn- ing, they find ways to support, facilitate, and extend children’s playful exploration of the world.

PrOGrAMS: • Work closely with family members, teach-

ers, and specialists to facilitate cognitive competence in children with disabilities or other special needs. For many children with delays in cognitive development, learning is best accomplished through active experience and ample opportunities for repetition and practice.

Materials • Make available board books, materials

that change shape when manipulated, and things that fit together (such as nontoxic play dough, soft blocks, nesting cups).

• Provide materials that give children op- portunities to learn about cause and effect, relative size, number, quantity, and group- ing.

• Provide materials that support children’s interest in imitating others (such as toy phones, dolls, objects from home).

Teachers: • Observe to understand the focus of an

infant’s attention. • Rotate toys, both inside and outside, when

children have not used them for a while. • Allow children to engage freely in explo-

ration even if over a long period of time. • Remain flexible and adapt to a child’s

creative ways of manipulating or explor- ing materials (for example, a child puts a handbag on his head as a hat).

Orientation • Let children’s interests be your guide to

facilitating cognitive development. • Recognize that what the child chooses to

do is the most important thing for the child to be doing at that moment.

• Acknowledge when a child has a mastery experience, in other words has accom- plished something and feels good about it.

• Pay attention to a child’s growing ability to remember or to hold images in her mind (for example, when an older toddler talks about a loud trash truck she heard at home that morning).

98

Assistance • When a child asks for help, provide only • Wait and watch before helping a child the assistance requested by the child and

engaged in exploration. Assistance given do not take over. Help a bit, in the context too quickly might interrupt a significant of the learning situation. learning experience.

Discoveries of Infancy “Learning Schemes Learning schemes are the build- ing blocks for all other discovery during infancy. By using schemes such as banging, reaching, and mouthing, children gain valu- able information about things. Scheme development helps chil- dren discover how objects are best used and how to use objects in new and interesting ways.

Cause and Effect As infants develop, they begin to understand that events and outcomes are caused. They learn that:

• They can cause things to happen either with their own bodies or through their own actions.

• Other people and objects can cause things to happen.

• Specific parts of objects, for example, wheels, light switches, knobs, and but- tons on cameras, can cause specific effects.

Use of Tools Tools are anything children can use to accomplish what they

want. Among the tools infants use are a cry, a hand, a caregiver, and an object. Infants learn to extend their power through the use of tools. They learn that a tool is a means to an end.

Object Permanence For young infants, ‘out of sight’ often means ‘out of mind.’ Infants are not born knowing about the permanence of objects. They make this important discovery gradually through repeated ex- periences with the same objects, such as a bottle, and the same persons, such as their mother or father. Infants learn that things exist even when one cannot see them.

Understanding Space Much of early learning has to do with issues of distance, move- ment, and perspective. Infants learn about spatial relationships through bumping into things, squeezing into tight spaces, and seeing things from differ- ent angles. In a sense, infants and toddlers at play are young scientists, busily investigating the physical universe. For example, they find out about:

• relative size as they try to fit an object into a container

• Gravity as they watch play cars speedily roll down a slide

• Balance as they try to stack things of different shapes and sizes

Imitation One of the most powerful learn- ing devices infants and toddlers use is imitation. It fosters the development of communication and a broad range of other skills.

Even very young infants learn from trying to match other people’s actions. . . .

As infants develop, their imita- tions become increasingly com- plex and purposeful. . . . At every stage of infancy, children repeat and practice what they see. By doing the same thing over and over again they make it their own.”

—Discoveries of Infancy: Cogni- tive Development and Learning (PITc child care Video Maga- zine)

C h

a p

t er

6

99

100

C h

a p

t er

6

Section 8

Implementing an infant/toddler curriculum process

Guidelines in this section link to the fol- lowing Desired Results:

• DR 1. Children are personally and socially competent.

• DR 2. Children are effective learners. • DR 3. Children show physical and motor

competencies. • DR 4. Children are safe and healthy.

As active learners infants and toddlers have their own curriculum that teachers can support and strengthen. Infants and toddlers are engaged in learning about themselves and the world around them in many different ways.

Effective teachers use a curriculum pro- cess that is responsive to infants’ and toddlers’ interests and abilities. Program leaders play an important role in supporting teachers as they facilitate children’s learning and devel- opment. The following guidelines describe the teacher as one who continually learns and adapts to meet the learning agenda of infants and toddlers as individuals and as members of a group.

The infant care teacher has the responsi- bility to observe, document, and assess each child’s developmental progress. Because the California Department of Education’s DRDP- R is based on naturalistic observation and a developmental conceptual framework, it is presented in this publication as an integral part of the curriculum process. The DRDP-R is considered key in planning for individual chil- dren. Rather than being two separate documen- tation activities, the curriculum process and the DRDP-R work hand in hand to help infant care teachers facilitate the learn-ing and develop- ment of infants and toddlers.

8.1

Teachers observe children during per- sonal care routines, interactions, and play.

Through observation the teacher gets to know each infant. Observing each child helps

the teacher make decisions about how to sup- port learning. For example, the teacher may gain insight into ways to adapt the environ- ment, adjust to a particular interaction style, or expand on a child’s interest.

Infant care teachers use observation to learn children’s interests, abilities, and needs. Teachers observe infants’ and toddlers’ ongo- ing behavior in familiar situations and settings without changing the environment, arrang- ing special situations, or interacting with the children in scripted ways. Observation can be conducted in two ways. A team of two teach- ers may choose to have one teacher observe while the other goes about daily routines and interacts with the children. Another approach is to set up ways to record observations within daily routines, such as by taking notes, vid- eotaping, or taking photos between or during events. Many teachers find different ways to combine these two approaches to fit the par- ticular context in which the teachers work.

The teacher’s observation notes can be used to complete the DRDP-R. In addition, the DRDP-R can serve as a guide for teachers as they attend to aspects of development while observing. The DRDP-R indicators and mea- sures within indicators can help an infant care teacher focus on areas of development such as motor skills or self-regulation. For instance, a teacher may observe and record that when she brings out the clean diaper during a diaper change, a child stops moving and points at the diaper until the teacher says the word diaper, and then the child smiles and makes the sound di. This observation record could be used as the teacher determines whether the child is at the “Acting with Purpose” developmental level of the DRDP-R’s “Communication and Language” indicator. As teachers gain experi- ence in using the DRDP-R, they become more sensitive in observing behavior that indicates children’s current level of learning and devel- opment.

While observing, the teacher routinely fo- cuses on the child’s interest. For instance, the teacher may see that a child watches, reaches for, and eventually approaches shiny things, such as a necklace, a metal bell, or the chrome water faucet. When the child picks up a shiny bell, it makes a noise, and she quickly learns

Observing While Participating

One of the key challenges for infant care teachers is to be able to observe and record their ob- servations while providing early care and education. Learning how to address this challenge takes time and a good support system. Teachers can develop plans together for observing and recording behavior in the context of daily routines and events. Some teachers take turns; others have systems such as cameras and note cards placed around the rooms and play yards so they can take quick notes or photos “on the fly.” There are many ways to participate and observe at the same time. children be- come accustomed to the teach- er’s taking notes and photos, and it becomes incorporated into the daily routines. Observations from teachers who are involved with children daily are really the most useful because the teacher understands the child’s context; everything from how the child slept the night before to his cur- rent interests. Infant care teachers who observe regularly are better able to provide care and educa-

to repeat the noise many times by shaking the bell. In exploring this object, she has made a discovery about cause-and-effect, which can be tested out on other objects. The teacher continually observes how the child explores such objects of interest and makes discoveries about them.

During observation the teacher may also notice and address barriers to learning. For example, the teacher may focus on whether the child can hear the soft ring of the bell when there are loud sounds nearby, such as the cry- ing of a baby or tumbling block towers. An es- sential part of observation is identifying things that may take the child’s attention away from exploration and discovery. Information about such barriers feeds directly into planning how to facilitate learning.

tion that connects with each

PrOGrAMS: child in the group.

• Hire staff members who have observation and recording skills or provide training to new and current staff members.

• Encourage teachers to observe as they participate in daily routines and events.

Preparation • Set aside regularly scheduled time for

child observation. • Provide places for observation, such as an

observation room or an adult chair away from the room’s traffic flow.

• Provide the DRDP-R materials and train- ing for infant care teachers.

• Supply observation tools (such as note- pads, cameras).

C h

a p

t er

6

101

Teachers: Observing and Listening

• Observe the behavior of “By observing and listening to the infants and toddlers children with care and attention, we can discover a way of truly

throughout the entire day.

seeing and getting to know them. • Observe children when By doing so we also become they are alone, with able to respect them for who peers, with family mem- they are and what they would bers, and with caregivers. like to communicate to us. We know that to an attentive eye

• Watch carefully for

and ear, infants communicate a infants’ cues in order to great deal about themselves long respond to them appropri- before they can speak. Already at ately. this stage, observing and listen- • Observe children during ing is a reciprocal experience, times of spontaneous free because in observing how the activity. children learn, we learn.”

• Incorporate observation —L. Gandini and J. Goldhaber, and assessment processes in Bambini: The Italian Approach to Infant/Toddler Care

in daily routines and activities.

Orientation • Find some time to observe while not par-

ticipating. • Review the DRDP-R regularly and keep

the indicators and themes in mind while observing behavior.

• Remain aware of the broad range of de- velopmental differences in children even when they are of a similar age.

• Pay attention to children’s activity levels, their biological rhythms, and their re- sponses.

8.2

Teachers document observations for later use.

Recording observations allows teachers to gain additional insights about children’s learning. Some teachers document observa- tions by writing down what they see or by taking photographs. Other teachers record on videotape infants and toddlers explor-

C ing materials, trying out developing skills,h a

p t

er

and interacting with one another. Sometimes teachers use an observation form divided into

6 categories, such as whether the child is alone

or with other children. Teachers often create

102

forms that divide observation notes into areas of development: namely, motor development, social–emotional development, communica- tion and language development, and cognitive development. Information from observation records is used to complete formal assess- ment profiles, such as the DRDP-R. To gain a complete picture of the developing child, teachers combine documentation strategies. Photos, observation notes, sketches, video- taped material, and assessment indicators can be used together to reflect on and understand the children’s exploration and discovery.

PrOGrAMS: • Help teachers to develop an effective

recordkeeping system that can be used by others.

• Obtain written permission from families to allow taking photographs, videotap- ing, and other forms of recording their children’s learning.

• Adopt policies that protect children’s confidentiality.

• Obtain documentation from other set- tings that also serve children enrolled in the program, when applicable and when

103

C h

a p

t er

6

permission is granted in writing from the Recordkeeping family. • Develop an effective recordkeeping sys-

Preparation tem that can be used by others who have permission to gain access to such records.

• Provide documentation tools. • Maintain growth and development re-

• Provide time and space for documentation. cords, using checklists or forms that are • Provide documentation training and guid- consistent with the DRDP-R.

ance to teachers. 8.3

Teachers: • Document each child’s social–emotional, Teachers assess children’s developmen-

physical, cognitive, and language develop- tal progress. ment based on teachers’ observations and Because the DRDP-R is based on observa- information from the family. tion, teachers can use their observation notes

• Keep samples of older toddlers’ drawings and other documentation to complete this or paintings. assessment. They can then use information

from the DRDP-R on individual children as a Tools guide for planning. The DRDP-R identifies the

Use methods of recording observations developmental levels at which a child is oper- that work for the whole team. For example: ating. (See Table 3.) Understanding the child’s

• Take photographs. developmental level in different domains helps teachers create ways to facilitate learning and

• Make notes on note cards kept in pockets development. For instance, using the DRDP- or in various places in the environment. R, a teacher may have determined that a young

• Use an audiotape recorder. infant is operating at the “Expanding Re- • Use a video camera. sponses” developmental level on the DRDP-R • Make sketches. measure of “Identity of Self and Connection to

Others.” She knows that at this level, infants

Care for Children First While Observing and Documenting: Two Examples

Losing sight of the child’s needs hands and uses only one of her him up, and they settle together and setting up an artificial situ- fingers to hold up the bottle for in a low chair. Juan touches the ation feeding. bottle and Maria’s hand as Maria

holds the bottle for him. After Juan cries, and Maria thinks he’s Meeting the child’s needs and several minutes, Juan finishes hungry. Maria goes to the food documenting naturally occurring the bottle, burps, and smiles preparation area and begins to behavior sleepily at Maria. She loves that prepare his bottle. Juan calms Juan cries, and Maria recognizes look on his face. Juan needs to down and watches her. Maria his hunger cry. Maria moves stay upright for several minutes notices that Juan has calmed close to Juan, looks in his eyes, after his bottle so Maria carries down and goes over to write it puts her hand on him and says, him with her to the charts. She down on her observation notes. “I think you are ready for a makes a note of how much he Juan watches Maria leave the bottle. I will go get it for you.” drank. She also notes that his kitchen area without a bottle. Maria goes to the food prepara- hunger cry was recognizable to Juan begins to cry again. Ma- tion area and begins to prepare her, that he stopped crying when ria realizes as she looks at her his bottle. Juan calms down and he saw she was getting a bottle notes that she has never seen watches her. She smiles at him (a sign that he can anticipate her Juan grasp his own bottle. Maria and nods. Maria returns with actions and he trusts her), and finishes making Juan’s bottle and the bottle and shows it to Juan. that he touched the bottle for the places the bottle between his He reaches for her, she picks first time today.

C h

a p

t er

6

often learn by attending to other people’s faces or voices for long periods of time. This infor- mation alerts the teacher to the child’s interest in seeing and hearing other people. In the ex- ample, awareness of the child’s developmental level helps the teacher be more sensitive to the child’s potential interests.

Table 3 shows the two sets of levels that are used to identify developmental progress in a DRDP-R assessment of an infant or toddler. The first set of developmental levels is used to summarize a child’s progress on each of the DRDP-R indicators; for example, “Self- Regulation” or “Cognitive Competence and Problem Solving Skills.” The second set of developmental levels is used to summarize progress on the “Motor Skills” indicator. Both

Table 3. Levels of Developmental Progress in a DRDP-R Assessment of an Infant or Toddler

General DRDP-R Developmental Levels

Responding Expanding Acting with Discovering Developing Connecting with Reflexes Responses Purpose Ideas Ideas Ideas

Developmental Levels for Motor Skills

Moving Making Coordinating Exploring Making Expanding with Simple Simple Complex Complex Complex

Reflexes Movements Movements Movements Movements Movements

sets of developmental levels identify progress from left to right or from least advanced to most advanced.

PrOGrAMS: • Integrate the DRDP-R into the curriculum

process. • Provide assistance to teachers who are

learning to record information in the DRDP-R and use it in the planning pro- cess.

• Provide teachers with planning time so that they can include assessments as part of the curriculum process.

• Communicate with families and staff members about the assessment of chil- dren’s behavior, recognizing there is a wide range of typical behavior.

Teachers: • Complete periodic assessments of each

child using the DRDP-R. • Track each child’s developmental progress

over time. • Summarize DRDP-R assessment informa-

tion on individual children in a form that can be easily used for curriculum plan- ning.

• Include family members in the ongoing assessment process.

Recordkeeping • Maintain a confidential file for each child

with all DRDP-R assessment information.

104

105

C h

a p

t er

6

8.4 group of children. A teacher’s perspective on the observation records and assessments is

Teachers take time to reflect on only one point of view. Teachers can expand observations, documentation, and as- their understanding of the observations and as- sessments. sessment information through discussions with

family members and others who interact with Reflection is a way of looking back to the child regularly (such as specialists, health

look ahead. To make the most of observations, care providers, and others). documentation, and assessments, teachers need time to think about or reflect on them. At first, reflection is open-ended and, if there is

PrOGrAMS: • Provide time and space for reflection,a team of teachers, may include one or more

which requires some physical and emo-colleagues. The purpose is to understand what tional distance from caregiving. was observed and what resulted from formal

assessments. During this first part of reflection, • Provide a format for reflection for those teachers use information given to them from who need it, such as by dedicating a por- the family, from their experience teaching, and tion of staff meetings to open discussion. from their knowledge of child development to interpret their observations and assessments of Teachers: individual children. After arriving at an under- • Slow down and take time to consider standing of the observations and assessments, thoughts and feelings. teachers consider how this new understanding • Find a quiet place and set aside time to might lead to the introduction of new materials review documentation and assessment or possibilities to explore for a child or small information.

Adapting Teaching and Caring would not bother him made him ing treatments as if he had a Styles cry loudly. One day he dropped different temperament. She felt

a ball and cried and cried rather she could adapt to that. She had Jack was a talkative and exuber- than pick it up. Annalisa was known many other two-year olds ant two-year-old. His mother concerned and talked to Jeri who cried easily and needed brought him to Annalisa’s family about it. Jeri was concerned, too. extra help when things became child care home each morning She said she raised this issue difficult. with his older sister Autumn, who with Jack’s doctor, but he said the was three. Jack would bound into This new perspective helped her highest priority was clearly for the living room, greet the other to anticipate Jack’s needs. She Jack to breathe well. So Annalisa children, and ask to play outside. stayed closer to him and offered took some time over the week-He loved to play ball, chase, and assistance a bit sooner than end to look at her observation climb. Annalisa always enjoyed previously. Seeing him struggle notes on Jack and to reflect on Jack’s enthusiasm for life and his was difficult, but she was there how she might handle this chal-resourcefulness when he played. for him when he needed her. lenging situation. Eventually, Jack was prescribed One morning Jack’s mother, Jeri, On Sunday evening she called a different medication that did told Annalisa that Jack had been her friend Dorie, who was also not affect him as intensely. diagnosed with asthma, and he a family child care provider, to This change was a relief for all had to take breathing treatments. talk about it. Talking with Dorie involved, but Annalisa remem-Jeri was a nurse, and she helped helped Annalisa see that she bered for years to come how Annalisa learn how to oper- would need to adapt how she when Jack changed, she had to ate the nebulizer. Annalisa was was interacting with Jack. An- change, and this memory helped surprised to observe that after nalisa decided that she would her in many other situations. Jack had his breathing treatment start to get to know this new Jack, he seemed like a very different who emerged after the breath-child. Little things that normally

106

C h

a p

t er

6

• Consider how personal thoughts and feelings may have affected what has been observed and recorded.

Interpretation • Speculate how different thoughts, feelings,

and behaviors might relate to the behavior and responses of children and families.

• Use observations as a basis to think about how new materials or ways of presenting

old materials may engage a child’s curios- ity and interest and speculate about the effects of novelty.

• Hypothesize, learn, guess, and adapt to the children and families.

• Discuss reflections with other teachers and a child’s family members.

8.5

Teachers plan their approaches and the materials they will offer based on their observations, documentation, and reflections.

After teachers have reflected on their observation records and thought about ways to support or extend learning, they make plans to carry out these ideas and see what happens. These plans take into account general cur- riculum recommendations based on individual children’s developmental levels as assessed by the DRDP.

PrOGrAMS: • Provide necessary play and learning mate-

rials. • Provide time for staff members to plan and

prepare the environment.

Teachers: • Generate ideas, knowing that some will be

used and others discarded. • Consider the children’s developmental

levels that have been identified in the DRDPs.

• Examine all resulting ideas and select the most appropriate for implementation.

• Create brief, flexible written plans that are based on the responses and interests of the children.

Orientation • Make plans that relate to what children ac-

tually do rather than to preconceived ideas about what children should or might do.

• Make decisions about how to support and extend a child’s learning through interac- tions and changes to the environment.

8.6

Teachers implement their plans for facilitating learning.

The implementation process is closely linked with the first step of this process: obser- vation. As a teacher tries out something new, such as placing baskets and balls of different sizes on the floor in the morning, she observes how the children respond to this change—and the cycle begins again. When implementing ideas, teachers must remember that children’s responses may be surprising. Children may ap- proach and interact with materials differently from how teachers imagined, or they may not approach the materials at all. Much can be learned through observation, documentation, and assessment but, during the infant/toddler years, each child is constantly changing and at any moment may present teachers with new interests, needs, or behavior. Part of what makes this work so invigorating is that, with very young children, teachers learn to expect the unexpected. As teachers implement their plans and eagerly await children’s responses, they must remain flexible when ideas take a different turn. The curriculum process as presented in this publication is fluid enough so that infant care teachers can adapt to new interests and abilities as children continually change and grow.

PrOGrAMS: • Support teachers to implement plans in the

spirit of experimentation; each time a plan works or does not work, teachers can learn and grow from the experience.

Teachers: • Use the information gathered from the

process of observing, documenting, as- sessing, reflecting, and planning to create a rich learning setting for each child and the group.

107

C h

a p

t er

6

• Try out different ways to arrange materi- als, equipment, and areas in the environ- ment to see how they work.

• Follow the children’s lead as they interact with materials, the environment, and each other.

• Remain available to the child to answer questions (or even a questioning look) and offer assistance, when appropriate, for that particular child.

Orientation • Trust the children to teach themselves

as they interact with materials and other people in the environment.

• Interact with each child (such as by talk- ing, listening, touching, watching, waiting, responding) to support the child’s curios- ity, exploration, and integration of new knowledge.