Careers in Education (Packback Question)
CHAPTER 6
History of Schools in the United States
Teacher Interview: Marvin Kuhn
Meet Marvin Kuhn, a teacher of 43½ years who just retired. Over his career, Mr. Kuhn taught in three school systems in Indiana, spending the last 30 years in the rural schools of Rush County, southeast of Indianapolis, where he grew up. Rush County is a farming community where the population is overwhelmingly white; less than 2% of the PreK–12 students are African American or Mexican American. The percentage of students who are on free or reduced-price lunch in the schools in which Mr. Kuhn taught over his career has grown from 10% when he began teaching to 50% in the largest elementary school in the county. For the last 19 years, he has served as the science coordinator for the five elementary schools in the county. He continued to be classified as a teacher while he was the coordinator because he was always working with the elementary teachers in the schools as he modeled hands-on science teaching in their classrooms. In retirement he continues to teach classes for schools in Rush County and surrounding areas on the stars and planets using StarLab, which is a portable planetarium. He also maintains and teaches classes at a nature center that he created and uses as a lab for elementary students.
What can teachers learn from the history of education that will be helpful in their work?
Interestingly, I was not crazy about history when I was in school, but I now love teaching history and making it fun for students. Knowing where we have been can be very helpful in looking forward. You should not be afraid of trying something new, but I have learned over four decades of teaching that not everything is new. Many teaching strategies that we have been expected to implement are refinements of methods developed earlier in our profession.
What does excellence in teaching look like?
The more enthusiasm you show in what you do and the more excited you are, the more excited the kids become. From the beginning of schooling, students have been asked to read and then discuss what they read and answer questions. You need to be much more creative than that to engage students in the lesson. I also find that hands-on activities help students remember what is being taught because they are actually doing it. Years after students have left my classroom, they remind me of a hands-on activity they did when they were in my classroom.
What do you find joyful about teaching?
Seeing the kids succeed and seeing them go from not doing something to being able to do something and say “look what I did.” It is the kids that always kept me going each and every day. Just to see the smiles on their faces, to see their accomplishments. I would say, “This is what you need to do; I want to see you do it.” And when they did, I was proud of them, and they were proud of themselves.
Questions to Consider
1. What are some of the lessons from history that can help you reflect on your own work in schools?
2. What reforms are being discussed today that have been tried in one form or another in the past?
3. What are some creative and hands-on strategies that you can use to engage students in learning and being excited about learning? What do we know from history about this approach to learning?
INTRODUCTION
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
1. Identify reasons that the states established free and universal education.
2. Describe the practical and pedagogical reasons for the establishment of schools by the age of children.
3. List some of the people and events that have been influential in determining school curriculum in the nation’s schools.
4. Analyze some of the historical events that have resulted in different educational experiences among students from diverse racial and ethnic groups.
5. Identify changes in the professional lives of teachers between the 19th century and now.
Knowing the past helps us plan the future. Since the Boston Latin School was established in 1635, the nation has adopted universal schooling for all children, established a public education system, desegregated schools, and opened post-secondary education to almost any student who desires it. In studying the history of education, we find that some educational practices appear cyclical, reappearing in a different form every few generations. Movements such as progressivism have had a lasting effect in some aspects of schooling even though it fell out of favor as a movement by the 1950s. Reforms of schools come and go as school administrators and policymakers strive to find the magic curriculum, teaching strategies, and system that will ensure that students learn at high levels.
HOW DID PUBLIC SCHOOLS COME TO BE?
The United States has had a long history of providing a free and universal education for its children. Many hard-fought political and legal battles over the past four centuries have led to universal education for all students regardless of their race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, or native language. However, this has not always been the case. In colonial times access to schooling in basic literacy and numeracy was available only to the affluent. Critical themes in these early debates were around the rights of individuals to decide for themselves whether to attend school and the basic requirements necessary for all citizens in a democracy.
Audio Link Listen to the ways teaching has changed over the years.
As with many other aspects of early society in the Colonies, the Puritans transferred their views and expectations for education from England to the United States. Who should be educated and the purposes of education were hot topics across Europe in the 1600s. Citizens were asking whether all children should attend school and whether girls as well as boys should attend. They were also asking what students should learn, how long they should attend school, who should pay, and whether school attendance should be compulsory.
Schools in the Colonies
Before communities built schools, children were often taught by women in their neighborhoods who established “dame schools” in their homes. Most schools were established and controlled by churches, where religion was taught along with reading, writing, and arithmetic. Locally controlled schools were first established in the New England colonies where the New England Primer was the first widely used textbook. It included the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and a list of the books of the bible. Students were asked to memorize the primer’s catechism , which was a series of questions and correct answers that taught the Protestant faith (Spring, 2011).
The Massachusetts Bay Colony is credited with first requiring all children to receive formal education. The Massachusetts Law of 1642 called for children to learn to read so they could understand the bible and the country’s laws. A 1647 statute, the Old Deluder Satan Law, established schools by requiring towns with 50 or more families to appoint a teacher and collect taxes to support schools. In 1650, Connecticut established its own school statutes. Other colonies were slower to engage with these core issues, and the South continued to resist the establishment of schools for anyone other than aristocrats.
Although the early Massachusetts and Connecticut statutes made reference to the importance of reading the Scriptures, they also implied that the state would be better off with educated citizens. This view had been championed by leading philosophers, scientists, and politicians in Europe for several centuries. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes, and John Locke argued in the 18th century that there was a public interest in having all citizens educated. They believed that citizens had to have skills in literacy and numeracy for a democracy to thrive and that education should be available to all children and youth (Urban & Wagoner, 2009). Most leaders in the United States agreed that a free and universal education was a cornerstone of democracy.
Around the time of the Revolutionary War, the concept of secular schools emerged. Some leaders were concerned that religious control of schools could limit political freedom and the scientific revolution. Thomas Jefferson, for one, believed that freedom of thought and beliefs was key to a republican society. This concern led to the adoption of the First Amendment to the Constitution, which prevents the establishment of a state religion. The focus on freedom of ideas during this period opened the door to teaching more than religion, morals , and civil obedience. Education began to be seen as providing intellectual tools based on science that would help create a better society (Spring, 2011).
Creating a System of Public Education
That the states should be responsible for education was seen as important even before the Constitution was written. During the Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress passed several ordinances related to the opening up of lands in the West. The Land Ordinance of 1785 required each new state to form a central government and address education as a component of its founding laws. It also required each township in the new territories north and west of the Ohio River to designate one section (one square mile) of its 36 allocated township sections for public schools. Two years later the Northwest Ordinance encouraged the establishment of schools because religion, morality, and knowledge were critical for a good government (Urban & Wagoner, 2009).
When the U.S. Constitution was adopted in 1789, it made no reference to education. Even though some of the founders wanted education to be a federal responsibility, the responsibility for education was clarified in the Tenth Amendment, which states that “(t)he powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively or to the people.” State legislatures became responsible for establishing education policies and financing a public education system.
As the 1800s unfolded, school debates focused on whether attendance should be compulsory and how schools should be supported and managed. Gradually a consensus emerged that each state would set expectations for public schools, that towns were responsible for the operation of schools, and that schools would be financed through taxation. Concerns about the quality and rigor of education across the states led to a system of education that was somewhat uniform in the organization and operation of public schools. By the 1830s, children were attending public primary schools to learn reading, writing, and arithmetic in what were called common schools . Important dates in the development of a system of education are outlined in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Significant Events in the Development of the American System of Education
|
1635 |
Boston Latin Grammar School established. |
|
1647 |
Massachusetts’s Old Deluder Satan Law required establishment of schools. |
|
1785–1787 |
Northwest Ordinances passed to support schools in new territories. |
|
1789 |
United States Constitution adopted without reference to education. |
|
1821 |
The English Classical School, the first high school established in Boston. The Troy Female Seminary first prepared teachers for certification. |
|
1825–1826 |
First known child care center opened in New Harmony, Indiana. |
|
1827 |
Massachusetts law established high schools. |
|
1837 |
Massachusetts established first state board of education; Horace Mann appointed the first secretary. |
|
1839 |
First public normal school for preparing teachers opened in Lexington, Massachusetts. |
|
1848 |
Quincy School, based on grades, was established in Boston. |
|
1852 |
Massachusetts establishes first compulsory attendance law. |
|
1872 |
Kalamazoo Decision made public high schools legal. |
|
1873 |
St. Louis opened the first public kindergarten in the United States. |
|
1918 |
Compulsory education required in all states. |
|
1965 |
Elementary-Secondary Education Act (ESEA) passed. |
|
1979 |
The U.S. Department of Education established by President Jimmy Carter. |
|
2001 |
ESEA reauthorized as No Child Left Behind Act. |
Although public schools have long been a reality in the United States, critics of today’s schools question their ability to prepare students for the global world in which we live. When asked how important public schools are today, retired teacher Marvin Kuhn replied,
It is just as important as back then. Everybody needs an education. If you don’t have the money, where else are you going to get your education but through public education? One of the things I’ve seen in the past few years is the creation of charter schools and vouchers. Even though they may be available to low-income students, charter and private schools pick who they want in their schools, and if those students do not perform at the expected level, the school does not have to let them come back.
HOW DID SCHOOLS BECOME DESIGNED BASED ON THE AGE OF STUDENTS?
Early in the 18th century educators and policymakers envisioned schools as a way to overcome poverty and crime by inculcating a good moral character into students who the reformers believed lacked appropriate parental guidance. Charity schools , which were the forerunner of the common school, were developed for this purpose (Spring, 2011). Although some students from low-income families attended the schools that existed during this period, many, including African American students in the north, attended charity schools while more affluent children attended private or public schools (Spring, 2011).
The elementary school curriculum in the first half of the 19th century was influenced greatly by the spellers and textbooks written by Noah Webster. His influence was not only on schools; he wrote an American dictionary with which many of you may be familiar. Webster was a schoolmaster who, in 1779, had an idea for a new way of teaching that included a spelling book, grammar book, and reader. When he finished writing the books five years later, he became an itinerant lecturer, riding through the country selling his books. He was a good salesman, selling 1.5 million copies by 1801 and 75 million by 1875. Webster’s books contained catechisms, but he did not limit the recitation to religion. He included a moral catechism and a federal one that stressed nationalism and patriotism (Spring, 2011).
Teachers in the one-room schools of the past and today serve not only as the teachers, but also as the custodian, nurse, secretary, and principal.
The first schools built in many rural communities were one-room schools with a teacher who taught all subjects to students who sometimes ranged in age from five to 17. These schools generally had desks or long benches on which students sat together. A popular instructional method was recitation in which pupils stood and recited the assigned lesson. Values of punctuality, honesty, and hard work were stressed in these rural schools (Howey & Post, 2002).
In the 1830s and 1840s, the father of common schools, Horace Mann, was concerned with divisions between social classes and saw mixing the social classes in the common school as one way to reduce the tensions between groups. Mann applied his ideas to schools when he became the first secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education in 1837. His concept of the common school became the tax-supported, locally controlled elementary schools that dominated U.S. education in the industrial era.
The curriculum of the common school included the skills needed for everyday life, ethical behavior, and responsible citizenship, with standardized subject matter in reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling, history, and geography (Cremin, 1951). Common schools were also expected to create conformity in American life by imposing the language and ideological outlook of the dominant Anglo American Protestant group that governed the country. Education in common schools was seen as a venue for upward social and economic mobility for native whites and European immigrants in the United States. Both girls and boys attended the common schools, usually together.
Video Link Watch a clip about Noah Webster.
Elementary Schools
The first school based on grades was established in Boston in 1848 as Quincy School. Teachers had their own separate classroom, and each student sat at a desk in classrooms designed for 56 students. Within seven years, all Boston schools were graded. Other cities and communities soon adopted the Quincy model, setting the stage for the graded schools of today (Spring, 2001).
Many urban schools prior to 1850 had classrooms for more than 100 students. One teacher managed the classroom with the assistance of student mentors who were selected from the better students. In this Lancasterian method, developed by Englishman Joseph Lancaster, students sat in long rows and the teacher sat at a desk on a raised platform at the front of the room. When it was time for instruction by the teacher, students marched to the front of the room. Afterwards, they were replaced at the front of the room by another group. The first group of students moved to another section of the classroom for recitation and drill with one of the mentors. Throughout the day, students moved from one part of the room to another to work with different mentors with several recitations occurring simultaneously in the room. Many educators and politicians of this era saw this very structured and orderly learning environment as the panacea for efficient schooling of the masses (Spring, 2011).
The Lancasterian classroom was designed for one teacher to manage the education of as many as 100 students at one time in the same room.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the standard classroom had rows of desks bolted to the floor. As the century progressed, many educators moved from lecture and recitation to student-centered activities, which called for smaller classes that allowed experimentation and flexibility. New York City classrooms, for example, averaged 50 students around World War I; by 1930, the average was 38 students (Spring, 2001).
The Webster spellers were replaced in the last half of the 19th century by the McGuffey Readers, which were written by William Holmes McGuffey. The readers provided moral lessons for an industrialized society. The leading characters in the readers were stereotypically male (Spring, 2011). Although the stories were more secular than those in earlier textbooks, religious selections were included along with stories focusing on moral character and the importance of charity. The McGuffey Readers sold more than 120 million copies between 1836 and 1960 (Urban & Wagoner, 2009). Textbooks in the last third of the 20th century became much more secular to the chagrin of some church leaders, who sometimes suggested that the nation would be better off if textbooks and schools returned to their Puritan roots. The “Dick and Jane” readers, which were popular from the 1930s through the 1950s, reflected white middle-class lifestyles and behaviors (Kaestle & Radway, 2009).
Video Link Learn more about the Lancastarian method.
In response to the question about changes that have occurred in the elementary school since 1968 when Mr. Kuhn began teaching, he said:
One of the things that is different is the mass amount of paperwork you have to do. Yes, you had to do paperwork when I first started teaching, and you were accountable for your work, but you now have to document everything you do. You’re basically teaching more to the standards than anything else. If you are not teaching to the standards, you are supposedly not on the right track.
High Schools
During the colonial period, a struggle for intellectual freedom was under way in England to expand education beyond the classical study of Latin and Greek. Dissenters believed that schools were limiting the freedom of ideas by teaching students to be obedient to a church or the government. The scientific revolution fueled the debate, and intellectuals such as Francis Bacon argued that education should provide the intellectual tools and scientific knowledge required to create a better society. This movement led to the development of what was called dissenting academies (Spring, 2001).
When the idea crossed the Atlantic Ocean, the academies became a popular alternative to the Latin grammar schools. An early model of a high school, the academies taught ideas and skills related to the practical world, including the sciences and business. They provided useful education and transmitted the culture that helped move graduates into the middle class. Sometimes the academies were considered small colleges, at other times high schools (Spring, 2001).
The English Classical School was founded in Boston in 1821 as an alternative to boarding schools and the Boston Latin School, which provided a classical education. The curriculum included English, geography, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, history, navigation, and surveying. A few years later, it was renamed English High School, becoming the first high school in the United States (Spring, 2001). Within a few years, Massachusetts passed a law to establish high schools across the state. Other states followed suit, but not without resistance. One of the most famous cases against public high schools was the Kalamazoo decision in the 1870s, brought by three prominent citizens who believed that high school should not be supported with public funds. The courts did not agree, settling the question about taxes supporting high schools.
Massachusetts enacted the first compulsory attendance law in 1852, requiring 12 weeks of school. By the end of the 19th century, 27 states had compulsory attendance laws, but all 48 states had passed them by 1918 (Urban & Wagoner, 2009). However, the establishment of attendance laws did not come about without objections. There were competing interests for what children should be doing at a specific age, which sometimes meant working instead of attending school.
By the end of the 19th century children were a large component of the rapidly growing industrial labor force, especially in the textile mills. Three in 10 mill workers in the South were under 16 years of age and 75% of the spinners in North Carolina were 14 or younger (Woodward, 1971). They worked long hours in dark, dirty, and dangerous conditions, which eventually led to child labor laws. However, this was slow to happen, especially in the South. It was not until 1912 that southern states prohibited night work for children and set age and hour limits that were as low as age 12 and 60 hours per week.
By the beginning of the 20th century, most 7- to 13-year-old children attended school. However, only 10% remained in school beyond age 14, and less than 7% of the 17-year-olds graduated from high school (Olson, 2000). As the 20th century unfolded, the combination of child labor laws and compulsory attendance laws were increasingly effective in pushing young people into school.
As high schools were established in small towns and cities, debates about the purpose of high schools were similar to those that led to the development of academies during the colonial days. Some people argued that the high school should develop a well-disciplined mind in the tradition of the old grammar schools. Others believed that the curriculum should prepare students for the practical world and occupations. Most of the early high schools ended up focusing on advanced science, math, English, history, and the political economy, but the curriculum was generally determined by the textbooks of the period. Admission required passing rigorous examinations; only 4% of eligible students were enrolled in a high school in the 1870s. Less than one in three of the admitted students completed high school. Those who didn’t complete the four-year curriculum entered business or taught elementary school (Cuban, 2004).
The National Education Association (NEA), which today is the largest teachers’ union, formed the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies in 1892 to develop uniform requirements for college admission. Instead, its final report identified goals for secondary education, recommending that the children of wealthy and low-income families take the same course of study, regardless of whether they would attend college. The Committee called for at least four years of English, four years of a foreign language, and three years each of mathematics, science, and history (Spring, 2001). The number of high schools grew dramatically at the turn of the century. Seventy percent of the students entering college in 1872 were graduates of academies; by 1920, 90% were high school graduates (Alexander & Alexander, 2001).
High schools at the turn of the 20th century were beginning to sort students for specific roles in society. The NEA’s Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education published its report, Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, in 1918. Its attempt to redesign the high school to meet the needs of the modern corporate state impacted the high school curriculum for the next 50 years. The proposed comprehensive high schools were to teach English and social studies to promote unity among students from different socioeconomic, ethnic, and language backgrounds, but also included vocational programs in agriculture, business, industry, fine arts, and the household. The purpose of high schools was expanded from a narrow focus on academics to also attend to the socialization of students by encouraging their involvement in common activities such as athletics and extracurricular activities such as student government, the student newspaper, and clubs. The report also called for high schools to promote good health through physical and health education (Spring, 2011). During this period, high schools developed an academic track for students who were encouraged to attend college. All other students were guided into general or vocational tracks that would prepare them for jobs immediately after high school. Over time, fewer and fewer students took the academic courses, as shown in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1 Percentage of High Schoolers Taking Academic Courses: 1928 to 1961
Source: The failed promise of the American high school, 1890-1995 by Angus, David l.: Mirel, Jeffrey E. Copyright 1999. Reproduced with permission of Teachers College Press in the format of Textbook via Copyright Clearance Center.
It was not until after World War II that the need for a high school education became widespread. By the 1950s, a majority of teenagers were earning high school diplomas. Although more students were attending high school, not all of them were happy with the curriculum and the way they were treated. By the end of the 1960s and into the 1970s, students of color were disrupting many high schools as they confronted discrimination and demanded that their cultures be included in the curriculum. High schools entered the 1980s more peacefully, but with more rights for students, in part, due to a number of court cases. The curriculum and textbooks began to incorporate content on the experiences and history of people beyond the white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant male.
Middle Level Education
At the beginning of the 20th century, psychologist G. Stanley Hall argued that early adolescents were neither children nor adults. He believed that separate education would better serve the students between elementary and high school (Beane, 2001). A second reason for the creation of this new level of schooling was to prepare young people for the differentiated comprehensive high school in which they would be sorted into academic and vocational tracks (Urban & Wagoner, 2009). Table 6.2 lists some of the educators who have influenced U.S. education.
The first junior high school was established in1909 in Columbus, Ohio, followed by one in Berkley, California, in 1910. Although some educators and psychologists were calling for the creation of schools between elementary and high school, the number of junior high schools grew over the next few decades primarily in response to social conditions. Elementary schools were overcrowded with the large influx of immigrant children and the increasing number of students not being promoted to the next grade (Beane, 2001). Four in five students were attending junior high school by 1960 (McEwin, Dickinson, & Jenkins, 2003). For the most part, they had become miniature high schools that were not effectively serving young adolescents.
Still believing that early adolescents deserved an education that was different from that provided in elementary and secondary schools, middle level educators proposed a new structure. Like junior high schools, middle schools evolved, in part, because of the practicalities of the times. By the late 1950s, the baby boom generation was overcrowding elementary schools, which suggested building more elementary schools. Another option was to add a wing to the high school, move to it the ninth grade from the high school, and grades 6–8 from the elementary school. Some communities built a new high school and remodeled the old one for grades 6–8. Sometimes the fifth grade was moved into the new intermediate schools.
Middle school advocates argued that schooling for young adolescents should focus on their developmental as well as academic needs. Rather than a large, departmentalized school like high school, their vision was smaller clusters of teachers and students. Teachers and other school professionals in these schools were to provide guidance to help students maneuver though their changing social and physical development. Educators were to be more affectionate and sensitive to young people.
As the popularity of junior high schools declined, the number of middle schools grew quickly to more than 11,000 by 1999 (Snyder & Dillow, 2011) and more than 15,000 today (McEwin & Greene, 2011). With the national focus on academics in the 1990s, middle level educators pushed for a curriculum that would provide access to academic subjects in a positive and nurturing climate. Teachers were encouraged to use collaborative and cooperative learning with interdisciplinary teams of teachers and block scheduling. Advocates promoted eliminating the tracking of students and creating heterogeneous groups in which cultural diversity was celebrated and diverse learning styles were recognized.
Deeper Look Read about the history of Head Start.
How to best serve preadolescent students remains an unsettled issue. Critics charge that the middle school philosophy focuses on the self-exploration, socialization, and group learning to the detriment of academics. These charges are fueled by poor showings of eighth graders on national and international tests where they rank lower than fourth graders, suggesting that they are losing ground as they progress through the middle grades. Some research suggests that these students would be better served in K–8 schools (Meyer, 2011). You are likely to be engaged in discussions about the value of middle schools as you proceed through your teaching career.
Early Childhood Education
Throughout history, some mothers have had to work to support their families. Almost always, they have had to leave their children with someone, often a relative or a neighbor. Some women in the neighborhood watched several children, but organized schools with child care providers were not available until the 19th century. Robert Owens opened the first known child care center at a mill in New Harmony, Indiana, in 1825–1826 with more than 100 children (Ranck & NAEYC’s History & Archives Panel, 2001).
|
Noah Webster |
Author of spellers and textbooks that influenced the elementary school curriculum from 1783–1875. |
|
Emma Willard |
An early feminist who opened the Troy Female Seminary in 1821 where women prepared for a certificate to teach. |
|
Reverend Samuel Hall |
Established the Columbian School in Vermont in 1823 for preparing teachers. |
|
Robert Owens |
Welsh social reformer who opened the first known child care center at a mill in New Harmony, Indiana, in 1825–1826. |
|
Horace Mann |
First secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education and father of the common school movement. |
|
William Holmes McGuffey |
Wrote the McGuffey Readers that were used between 1836 and 1960. |
|
Friedrich Froebel |
Established the first kindergarten in 1837 in Germany that served as the model for early kindergartens in the United States. |
|
Samuel Chapman Armstrong |
Founder of Hampton Institute in 1868 to prepare African American teachers who paid for their education through manual labor. |
|
Booker T. Washington |
Educator and author who served as the first president of Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in 1881 and promoted preparing African Americans for the trades and their appropriate roles in the Jim Crow South. |
|
W. E. B. Du Bois |
Sociologist, historian, professor, author, and civil rights activist who challenged the oppressive southern economy and argued that African Americans should have a classical education to prepare them to be leaders. |
|
John Dewey |
Philosopher and professor who established a laboratory school in Chicago in 1896 to test his progressive ideas about a child-oriented curriculum. His ideas have been very influential in education and social reform. |
|
William James |
Harvard philosopher and psychologist who found that the stimulus-response concepts of learning could be used to help children develop desirable habits. |
|
G. Stanley Hall |
Psychologist who established child development and child psychology as fields that influenced education at the end of the 19th century. |
|
Margaret Haley |
Activist teacher who was an early member of the Chicago Federation of Teachers and later an organizer for the American Federation of Teachers. |
|
Catherine Goggin |
Along with Margaret Haley, she helped affiliate the Chicago Federation of Teachers with organized labor. |
|
Edward Thorndike |
Professor at Teachers College, Columbia University and author of Educational Psychology (1903). He promoted behaviorism and testing, which was widely used by the military. |
|
Mary McLeod Bethune |
An educational leader who opened a school for African American girls in 1904 in Daytona Beach, Florida, that evolved into Bethune-Cookman University. Also served as an adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. |
|
William Chandler Bagley |
Professor and author of Classroom Management (1907), which was the primary guide for preparing effective teachers for many years. |
|
William Heard Kilpatrick |
Teachers College, Columbia University professor who supported progressive education and introduced in 1918 the “project method” in which students direct their own learning. |
|
Thurgood Marshall |
U.S. Supreme Court justice who had argued Brown v. Board of Education in 1952–1953. |
|
Theodore Sizer |
Education reformer who wrote Horace’s Compromise and founded the Coalition of Essential Schools in 1984 to create a group of high schools based on the progressive tradition. |
Table 6.2 Who’s Who in U.S. Education
The first kindergarten was opened by Friedrich Froebel in 1837 in Germany for three- and four-year-old children. He believed that the kindergarten teacher should not be authoritarian , but instead would guide children’s learning through their own play, songs, stories, and activities (Gutek, 2012). The first public kindergarten in the United States opened in St. Louis in 1873 to serve children in poverty. Children were to learn the virtues and manners, moral habits, cleanliness, politeness, obedience, promptness, and self-control that would prepare them for elementary school. By the 1880s, Froebelian kindergartens had become popular in the United States (Spring, 2001).
Early nursery schools were developed in the 1920s and 1930s on what was known from the emerging field of child development and psychology.
By the beginning of the 20th century, about 6% of the kindergarten-aged population was enrolled in kindergarten. It was at this time that the work of G. Stanley Hall established child development and child psychology as fields of study. He defined childhood as the years between four and eight, which remains the general range for primary education today. The focus of a kindergarten class focused on creating order and discipline in the child’s life, but continued to encourage children to play and be creative. During this period, the age for kindergarteners in public schools was raised to five. Approximately 90% of five-year-olds were attending kindergarten in the 1980s at the time that the curriculum was beginning to shift from being child-centered to academics (Berg, 2003).
Understanding and Using Evidence
Public School Statistics for 1879
The federal government has collected data on the population and institutions for more than 100 years. These data provide demographic information, but they also assist policymakers and other leaders in planning for the future. The following statistics on the school populations by selected state were reported by the federal government in 1879.
aIn 1878. bIn 1876. cFor colored population, the school age is from 6 to 16. dIn 1877. eIn 1873.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau. (2006). Statistical abstract of the United States: 2006. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Your Task: Using these statistics, answer the following questions to compare attendance and length of school years in 1879 to today.
1. How do the ages of students in 1879 compare with the ages of students in schools today?
2. What percentage of the school-aged population was enrolled in schools in 1879 in the states above?
3. How many months did students in schools in 1879 attend school? How does the length of the school year compare with the time spent in schools today?
4. What percentage of the enrolled students in 1879 attended school daily?
WHAT HAS INFLUENCED THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM?
Curriculum has gone through some major changes since the first schools were established in the Plymouth colony. It no longer has the religious and moral overtones of the past. Educators today are concerned about the academic performance of their students and providing equal access for all students to learn. In his reflections on curriculum changes over his 43 years of teaching, Mr. Kuhn reports that
you used to use the textbook to develop curriculum guides that reflected the current state standards. State standards existed, but they were not emphasized as much as now. At that time, the basic test taken by almost all Indiana students was the Iowa Basic Skills Test. Now it is the ISTEP, which all Indiana students take at exactly the same time of the year.
Audio Link Learn more about global education.
In addition, the curriculum has been influenced by the changing needs of businesses and evolving new technologies. The intensity of debates among educators, politicians, and the public about what should be taught and how it should be taught continues as reflected in numerous national and state reports about the state of education. In this section we will examine how the curriculum changed in different historical periods.
The Industrial Revolution
As industrialization took hold in the cities of the Northeastern United States at the end of the 19th century, schooling was greatly influenced by the need to help new immigrant populations become literate and disciplined workers. Education was becoming more standardized, compartmentalized, and centralized. The Lancasterian system was promoted as an inexpensive solution for the education of the masses.
The move toward preparing young people to contribute effectively to the industrial revolution was assisted by the work of psychologists at the turn of the century. Harvard philosopher and psychologist William James found evidence that the stimulus–response, or behavioral, concepts of learning could be used to help children develop desirable habits. His ideas were expanded by Edward Thorndike, whose ideas of teaching as a science and behaviorism in which rewards and punishment were used to control student behavior influenced education for the next few decades (Spring, 2011). He also promoted testing as a way of determining which people are suited for which social roles. Thorndike’s principles were applied to schools in the popular textbook Classroom Management by William Chandler Bagley, who believed that schools should help students develop the industrial habits needed for the assembly line.
Progressivism: Curriculum for Reform
In Emile, published in 1762, European philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau questioned the focus of education on memorization and the subordination to authority. He thought that learning occurred through experience and discovery. He also believed that moral education should occur in adolescence, not childhood (Urban & Wagoner, 2009). Influenced by Rousseau, Johann Pestalozzi of Switzerland introduced a teaching approach in 1781 that used teaching objects from the real world, learning by doing, and activities rather than seat work (Urban & Wagoner, 2009).
A philosopher who integrated psychology and pedagogy into his thinking about education, John Dewey opened his laboratory school in Chicago in 1896 to test his progressive ideas about a child-oriented curriculum. His classrooms had movable tables rather than individual desks to encourage group work and learning (Spring, 2011). Unlike most of his colleagues, Dewey saw education as critical to changing society and preparing students to participate in a democratic society (Urban & Wagoner, 2009).
A colleague of Dewey’s at Columbia University, William Heard Kilpatrick, introduced in 1918 the “project method” that was widely adopted by school districts. The project method developed school activities that were meaningful to students and relevant to society (Urban & Wagoner, 2009). In the eyes of progressives, traditional curriculum with its emphasis on lecture and recitation could not possibly address students’ individual needs and learning styles. They believed that curriculum must be moderated through activities directed by the learner.
Student-centered instruction had become good practice in the 1940s, and schools were more humane by the 1950s. As progressives pressed for reformed schools that they believed could solve societal problems, they became more vulnerable to criticism for neglecting academic subjects (Urban & Wagoner, 2009). Not to be kept down, progressive thought reappeared in the 1960s and early 1970s, but it was confronted by the back-to-basics movement at the end of the 1970s. Nevertheless, it continues to reappear. For example, Theodore Sizer founded the Coalition of Essential Schools in 1984 to create a group of high schools along progressive lines. The progressive ideology was adopted by hundreds of schools across the country (Coalition of Essential Schools, 2012). The progressive ideology continues to be reflected today in charter schools and other schools of choice that have some freedom from the central-office-driven culture. Many of the practices of the progressive movement are now taken for granted by educators as they use movable furniture, place students in small work groups, and teach an integrated curriculum.
The progressive movement led to moveable furniture, small-group work, and more hands-on work in classrooms.
Sputnik I
An urgent demand for new curriculum and teaching techniques emerged after the Soviet Union launched the first satellite, Sputnik I, on October 4, 1957. U.S. leaders were bound to do whatever it would take to regain their nation's scientific and technological supremacy over the Soviet Union during this Cold War period. Congressional resistance to financially supporting education disappeared with passage of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) in 1958 to improve the curriculum and teaching of science, mathematics, and foreign languages. The law also included support for guidance, counseling, testing, and the identification of the brightest students. The development of more scientists, mathematicians, and engineers was seen as critical to U.S. prominence in the world, and the federal government began to take its first step toward a national curriculum (Kliebard, 2004).
The National Science Foundation (NSF) was charged with developing curricula for science and mathematics. Professors in major research universities, rather than professional educators, designed the new curricula that would transform the teaching of science and math in the nation’s schools. “New mathematics” was one of the outcomes of this work that changed how math was taught in schools. Math teachers participated in professional development workshops to learn the new math and how to teach basic concepts such as set theory and functions. Although the public generally supported the new focus on reforming schools, they questioned the need for the new math as they tried to help their children with their homework (Spring, 2011).
New formats for textbooks and ideas for the presentation of relevant subject matter emerged from these projects. Teachers were suddenly presented with an avalanche of choices regarding what and how to teach. There were Attribute Games and Tangrams. Elementary school science packages offered Petri dishes full of fungi and amoebas on order from the local science laboratory (Spring, 2001). Reading texts were organized around literary themes and generalizations relating to the students’ own lives. Many teachers benefited from the programs that taught new math and introduced them to new curriculum materials.
The curriculum reforms after Sputnik I continue to resurface in the nation’s discourse about improving education. Today’s critics once again are concerned that the United States is falling behind other countries in scientific and technological advances. As a result, achievement on standardized tests is of utmost importance to the public and policymakers. The federal government has called for the recruitment of more bright students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Finally, common core standards for mathematics and reading have been adopted by most states to improve the academic achievement of students and the prominence of the United States in these fields.
HOW HAS THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM CONTRIBUTED TO EQUALITY?
An examination of how different groups have been treated in our educational system over the past four centuries provides insights into the importance of education in the struggle for equality in the United States. All groups have fought for quality education for their children. The progress toward ridding the nation of inequality and providing equal education for all students has involved committed people of color as well as whites. The joy in this sad history of discrimination and inequality is that much has changed, especially in the past 50 years. In addition, teachers are key in providing a quality and equitable education for all students. Our understanding of how we got to where we are today should encourage us to make a commitment to ensure that all of our future students have every possible opportunity to learn. A chronology of significant events in providing equality for students is shown in Table 6.3.
First Americans
European colonists thought that American Indian leaders should be educated in the schools of the colonists for the purposes of learning Christianity and the Anglo-Saxon culture, with the goal of replacing their native cultures and languages. When Virginia’s William and Mary College was established in 1693, a part of its mission was the education of Native American students (Glenn, 2011). New Hampshire’s Dartmouth College had the same goal when it was established in 1780, but most of its students were white (Spring, 2011).
Deeper Look Read more about the history and current state of Native American education.
Resistance to Conversion
The conversion of American Indians to the Anglo-Saxon culture met with great resistance from tribes and their members. The conversion that did occur was most often among the families formed by marriages of whites and American Indians. Because the government’s plans for deculturalizing Native Americans were ineffective, Congress passed the Civilization Act of 1819 with the explicit purpose of culturally transforming the native population, especially the southern tribes. To move the effort forward, the Superintendent of Indian Trade, Thomas L. McKenney, encouraged the establishment of tribal schools with missionary teachers. The Protestant churches that joined this effort believed that the spread of Anglo-Saxon culture around the world was part of the nation’s manifest destiny . Most Native American families who participated in the missionary schools had a different goal than the federal government. They were interested in literacy, not the extinction of their cultures or the adoption of Christianity (Spring, 2011).
One of the federal government’s goals for the tribes in the south was to convince tribal members to divide tribal lands into private property that could then be sold to Anglo settlers—a goal that was reinforced by missionary schools. When few Native Americans were willing to sell tribal lands, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, authorizing the president of the United States to set aside land west of the Mississippi River for Native Americans who then were living in the southern states east of the Mississippi River. Within a few years, the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaw, Chickasaws, and Seminoles were forcibly moved to the new “Indian Territory.” In the Trail of Tears one in four Cherokees died on the trek west from their ancestral homeland in Georgia. In the new territory, which is now Oklahoma, tribes established their own schools. By 1848 the Choctaws had nine boarding schools with many Choctaw teachers. The Choctaws also established segregated schools for the children of freed slaves after the Civil War and a system of schools that included academies for boys and girls (Spring, 2011).
Table 6.3 Significant Events in the Movement Toward Educational Equality
|
1693 |
William and Mary College established with mission to educate Native Americans. |
|
1855 |
Massachusetts outlawed the segregation of schools. |
|
1896 |
Supreme Court finds “separate but equal” laws constitutional in Plessy v. Ferguson. |
|
1905 |
San Francisco schools are desegregated, allowing Chinese youth to attend regular high schools. |
|
1915 |
Student strike in Puerto Rico supports instruction in Spanish. |
|
1918 |
Texas makes it a criminal offense to use any language other than English for instruction. |
|
1928 |
Meriam Report attacks government’s policies of removing American Indian students from their homes. |
|
1934 |
Padin Reform restricts English instruction to high schools. |
|
1940 |
Federal court requires equal salaries for African American and white teachers in Alston v. School Board of City of Norfolk. |
|
1947 |
Federal appeals court strikes down segregated schooling for Mexican Americans in Méndez v. Westminster School Dist. |
|
1951 |
Puerto Rico gains greater control of their school systems after being granted commonwealth status. |
|
1954 |
Supreme Court makes school segregation unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education, overturning Plessy. |
|
1956 |
Virginia legislature calls for “massive resistance” to school desegregation. |
|
1958 |
In Cooper v. Aaron the Supreme Court rules that fear of social unrest or violence does not excuse state governments from complying with Brown. |
|
1959 |
Officials close public schools in Prince Edward County, Virginia, rather than integrate them. |
|
1964 |
Congress passes the Civil Rights Act, which prohibits discrimination in school programs and activities that receive federal assistance. |
|
|
Supreme Court orders Prince Edward Country, Virginia, to reopen its schools on a desegregated basis. |
|
1965 |
In Green v. County School Board of New Kent County the Supreme Court orders states to dismantle segregated facilities, staff, faculty, extracurricular activities, and transportation. |
|
|
Congress passes the Handicapped Children’s Early Education Assistance Act. |
|
1968 |
Title VII of ESEA supports bilingual programs in Indian languages and English. |
|
1971 |
In Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenberg Board of Education the court approves busing, magnet schools, compensatory education, and other tools as appropriate remedies to overcome the role of residential segregation in perpetuating racially segregated schools. |
|
1972 |
Congress passes Title IX Education Amendment outlawing discrimination based on sex. |
|
1973 |
Court rules that education is not a “fundamental right” and that the Constitution does not require equal education expenditures within a state in San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez. |
|
1974 |
Supreme Court blocks metropolitan-wide desegregation plans to desegregate urban schools with high minority populations in Milliken v. Bradley. |
|
|
In Lau v. Nichols the Supreme Court stipulates that special language programs are necessary to provide equal educational opportunity to students who do not understand English. |
|
1975 |
Congress passes Education for All Handicapped Children, Public Law 94-142. |
|
|
Congress passes Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act. |
|
1978 |
Supreme Court rules that race can be a factor in university admissions, but it cannot be the deciding factor in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke. |
|
1982 |
Supreme Court rejects tax exemptions for private religious schools that discriminate in Bob Jones University v. U.S. and Goldboro Christian Schools v. U.S. |
|
1986 |
Federal court finds that a school district can be released from its desegregation plan and returned to local control after it meets the Green factors in Riddick v. School Board of the City of Norfolk, Virginia. |
|
1988 |
Tribally Controlled Schools Act gives grants for tribal schools. |
|
1990 |
Native American Languages Act promotes preservation of Native American languages. |
|
1996 |
Federal appeals court prohibits the use of race in college and university admissions, ending affirmative action in Louisiana, Texas, and Mississippi in Hopwood v. Texas. |
|
2003 |
Supreme Court upholds diversity as a rationale for affirmative action programs in higher education admissions but declares point systems inappropriate in Gratz v. Bollinger and Grutter v. Bollinger. Federal district court case affirms the value of racial diversity and race-conscious student assignment plans in K–12 education in Lynn v. Comfort. |
|
2007 |
Supreme Court strikes down the use of race in determining schools for students in Parents Involved in Community Schools Inc. v. Seattle School District and Meredith v. Jefferson County (Ky.) Board of Education. |
Boarding Schools
Still trying to convert American Indians, the 1867 Indian Peace Commission said that American Indians could become citizens if they gave up their native religions and ways of life. Again, education was to play an important role in this process. The charge to schools was to replace native languages with English, destroy tribal customs, and develop allegiance to the federal government. The new strategy called for boarding schools, requiring the removal of children from their families at an early age to isolate them from the language and customs of their parents and tribes. Between 1879 and 1905 a number of boarding schools were located far from the reservation. Thousands of young Native Americans from the Dakotas were boarded at the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania (Glenn, 2011). Parents and tribes continually complained about the boarding schools, how their children were being treated, and how their native cultures were being denigrated.
Federal policies removed many American Indian children from their homes to attend boarding schools into the 20th century.
Children continued to be removed from their homes and placed in boarding schools at the time citizenship was granted to Native Americans in 1924. Not until then did concerned citizens seriously investigate the horrible conditions in these schools. Red Cross investigators found that children at the Rice Boarding School in Arizona were fed “bread, black coffee, and syrup for breakfast; bread and boiled potatoes for dinner; more bread and boiled potatoes for supper” (Szasz, 1974). The poor diet and overcrowded conditions contributed to the spread of diseases such as tuberculosis and trachoma (Spring, 2011). Investigators found that boarding schools were supported by the work of students who attended classes half the day and worked the other half. The 1928 Meriam Report by Johns Hopkins University attacked the government’s policies of removing Native American children from their homes. Following the release of this report, the government began to support community day schools and native cultures (Spring, 2011).
Video Link Watch a video about boarding schools.
American Indian Control
When John F. Kennedy was elected to the presidency in 1960, the Bureau of Indian Affairs began to involve American Indians in policy decisions. The Office of Economic Opportunity and the Bureau of Indian Affairs supported the creation of the Rough Rock Demonstration School on the Navajo reservation, in part to preserve the Navajo language and culture. In addition, Navajo parents were again able to control the education of their children.
As the Civil Rights Movement grew in intensity in the 1960s, America Indian tribes began to participate in a Pan-Indian movement that recognized that tribes shared a common set of values and interests. The American Indian Movement (AIM) and the Indians of All Tribes led demonstrations demanding self-determination. At the same time, a Senate report, Indian Education: A National Tragedy—A National Challenge, condemned previous federal educational policies for Native Americans. The report said “a careful review of the historical literature reveals that the dominant policy of the Federal Government toward the American Indian has been one of forced assimilation. … [because of] a desire to divest the Indian of his land” (Senate Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, 1969, p. 9).
Federal policy began to change. Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1968 provided support for bilingual programs in Indian languages and English. In 1975, Congress passed the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, which gave tribes the right to operate their own schools. The 1988 Tribally Controlled Schools Act gave grants to tribes to operate their own schools. In a complete switch of earlier policy for assimilation and the destruction of native cultures and languages, the 1990 Native American Languages Act promoted the preservation of traditional Native American languages.
African Americans
The education of African Americans is also built on a history of discrimination, but their relationship with the European colonizers was different than that of the American Indians. They were not the native inhabitants of the United States. For the most part, they had not chosen to immigrate to the United States, but entered involuntarily by force. They did not own land that the settlers wanted, but they were a critical source of labor necessary for the southern economy. Most African Americans were owned and sold, and had little control over their own lives. Until the early part of the 20th century, most African Americans lived in the South where before the Civil War it was illegal to attend school. Although literacy was a punishable crime for African slaves in the South, at least 5% of them were literate by the outbreak of the Civil War (Anderson, 1988).
Participation in Schools After the Revolutionary War
African American children in the North most often attended segregated and inferior schools. Charity schools for freed slaves opened at the end of the 18th century in Philadelphia, New York City, and Baltimore (Kaestle, 1983). African American children could attend Boston schools at that time, but most did not because of their poor economic situations and the hostile reception of them in schools. In 1798 a group of black parents petitioned the School Committee for a separate school to protect their children from the hostile environment. The School Committee did not accept the parents’ proposal at first, but it changed its position in 1806 and opened a segregated school with public funds and money from white philanthropists (Spring, 2011).
By the 1820s black parents decided that the segregated school was providing an inferior education for their children and began to demand better conditions and teachers. They petitioned the Boston School Committee in 1846 to desegregate schools. Even though the School Committee found the segregated schools unacceptable, it took no action to change those conditions or to require its public schools to be open to African American children. In response, Benjamin Roberts sued the city for excluding his daughter from all-white schools near their home. He lost his case before the Massachusetts Supreme Court when it ruled that the city had provided “a separate, but equal” school for his daughter. Not long afterwards, in 1855, however, the state legislature passed a law that prevented the segregation of schools based on race or religion, becoming the first state to outlaw school segregation. The Boston schools were integrated that year (Spring, 2011).
Education in the South
Before the end of the Civil War, former slaves in the South were fighting for universal education. They craved literacy but were unwilling to wait for the government to provide schools. They established and staffed their own schools with African American teachers throughout the South. The African American teachers, school officials, and other leaders adopted the common school ideal with the New England classical liberal curriculum. The curriculum in elementary schools included reading, spelling, writing, grammar, diction, history, geography, arithmetic, and music. In the black colleges, students studied Latin, Greek, mathematics, science, and philosophy (Spring, 2011).
Deeper Look Read about segregated schools in the South.
To pursue the goal of universal education, the former slaves sought the help of Republican politicians, northern missionary societies, the Union army, and the Freedmen’s Bureau, which had been created by Congress in 1865. However, it was very important to them that they control their own education, which was sometimes difficult as northern missionaries moved into the South to establish schools. When John W. Alvord was appointed the national superintendent of schools for the Freedmen’s Bureau in 1865, he discovered a system of at least 500 “native schools” as he traveled across the South (Anderson, 1988). These schools had been established and were being managed by ex-slaves who were committed to ensuring that African American children and adults would learn to read and write as soon as possible. In some communities, black churches developed Sabbath schools that offered literacy instruction in the evenings and on the weekends. In these schools, the speller was as prevalent as the bible (Anderson, 1988).
Most planters resisted universal education for former slaves and impoverished whites. Their opposition was, in part, due to economics. The planters needed a workforce that would work for low wages; it depended heavily on child labor, which led to schools being opened as late as December. They supported low taxes, opposed compulsory school attendance, and discouraged universal public education. Eventually, they began to provide schools for low-income white students, but they failed to provide schools for black children in most communities. The gains made by African Americans in the 1860s were quickly stymied and the proportion attending school began to drop (Anderson, 1988).
Education at the Beginning of the 20th Century
Although ex-slaves had founded their schools with a classical curriculum, some leaders questioned the need for such advanced study. They argued that black children would be better served with training for the trades and learning their appropriate role in the Southern culture. With this goal in mind, Northerner Samuel Chapman Armstrong founded Hampton Institute in Virginia to prepare teachers. Most of Hampton’s early students had completed only the eighth grade. They were required to work long hours in a sawmill, on the school’s farm, or in the school’s kitchen or dining room to develop the ethic of hard work that Southern landowners expected of their laborers. One of Armstrong’s top students, Booker T. Washington, founded Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in 1881 to extend Armstrong’s pedagogy.
Most African Americans had a different vision for their education. They saw Washington giving in to the white demands of industrialists who wanted a steady, complacent workforce at low wages. The primary spokesperson for a different vision, W. E. B. Du Bois, wanted no compromises with the powerful white elites. Instead, he wanted to challenge the oppressive southern economy. He argued that black education should be about preparing the African American leaders of the future. He supported the classical education that was available in black colleges like Atlanta and Wilburforce. While Washington supported segregated schooling, Du Bois became one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)—the organization that spearheaded the effort to desegregate schools later in the century. By 1915, the Du Bois supporters had prevailed; the Hampton-Tuskegee model began to lose favor among its previous supporters (Spring, 2011).
At the beginning of the 20th century, most African American children did not attend elementary school because no schools existed for them, and they were not allowed to attend the schools that white children attended. If they wanted a school, African American families in the South often had to build their own schools even though they paid local and state taxes to support white segregated schools (Spring, 2011). When African American children could attend school, their schools were usually inferior to those attended by white students. The schools lacked equipment and supplies. They were allocated textbooks after they had worn out their usefulness in the white schools. Families and leaders in the African American community turned to the courts for support in accessing resources for the education of their children.
School Desegregation
Nearly 100 court cases from 20 states and the District of Columbia were filed for equal education in the 19th century. African Americans in the North won a majority of their cases, prohibiting segregation in their public schools (Hendrie, 2000). Nevertheless, segregation continued in the South. After Homer Plessy was arrested for refusing to ride in the “colored” section of a train in Louisiana, he protested that his Fourteenth Amendment rights had been abridged. The United States Supreme Court disagreed, ruling in its 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision that “separate but equal” facilities were legal. This decision supported the segregation of schools for the next six decades.
The NAACP decided to pursue a legal path toward desegregating public schools. Five cases from South Carolina, Virginia, Delaware, Kansas, and the District of Columbia were percolating in the lower courts in the mid-1940s. The first four cases were argued before the U.S. Supreme Court in 1952 and 1953 by Thurgood Marshall, who later became the first African American Supreme Court justice. In 1954 the Court declared that “[i]n the field of public education the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal” (Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 1954). The fifth case, Bolling v. Sharpe (1954), declared that the federal government could not segregate schools in the District of Columbia.
Most school districts did not respond to this mandate until after the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Many white families fiercely resisted the desegregation of their schools. In cities like Little Rock, Arkansas, the National Guard protected African American students who were entering white schools for the first time. Virginia’s Prince Edward County School Board resisted desegregation, closing its public schools for five years. White families established private Christian schools or moved to the suburbs where the population was primarily white to avoid integration. The 1971 Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg decision moved desegregation efforts to another level when it upheld district-wide busing to overcome segregation.
As schools were desegregated, many African American teachers and principals who had worked in segregated schools were not invited to teach in the integrated schools, leaving many of them without jobs. However, the race of the students in schools did change in the three decades following the Brown decision. In the mid-1960s only 2% of black students attended integrated schools; by the late 1980s, 45% of them were in integrated schools (Frankenberg, Lee, & Orfield, 2003). During this period, rural and small-town schools across the South were integrated. The achievement gap between black and white students closed substantially, students of color had greater access to quality schools and college admission, and students were better prepared to work and interact in a multicultural society (Boger & Orfield, 2005). Even more dramatic than the desegregation of schools during this period was the dismantling of Plessy v. Ferguson and its resulting Jim Crow laws , which did not allow African Americans to use the same facilities as whites.
By the mid-1980s federal court sanctions for integration began to be lifted. After the Supreme Court allowed federal courts to end desegregation plans with Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell in 1991, many federal courts prohibited school districts from voluntarily using race-conscious assignment policies to maintain diversity in their schools (Boger & Orfield, 2005). Because of de facto segregation in many communities, neighborhood schools were often comprised of students of the same race. Segregation in schools began to return to pre-1970 levels. At the beginning of the 21st century African American and Latino students were again much more likely than other students to attend schools that are characterized by poverty and their peers are predominantly other students of color. Half of the nation’s schools are highly segregated white schools, but the degree of poverty in those schools is considerably less. Although the ability to attend less impoverished schools provides all students a better chance at being successful in school and life, the one-time goal of integrating schools has been abandoned (Boger & Orfield, 2005).
Latinos
Whether Mexican American students could attend the same schools as whites depended on whether they were classified as white. There was no common agreement on the race of Mexican Americans. In 1897, Texas courts ruled that Mexican Americans were not white. However, California classified them as Caucasian until 1930 when the Attorney General categorized them as American Indians (Spring, 2001). As a result of not being white, most Mexican American children attended segregated schools through the first half of the 20th century. The same separate but equal laws applied to them as to African Americans.
African American students often had to be protected by the National Guard as they desegregated schools in the 1960s.
The Battle for the Use of Spanish
In addition to being in segregated schools, Mexican American students often were not allowed to speak Spanish in school. To ensure that teachers would deliver instruction in English, states passed laws to that effect. In 1918 Texas made it a criminal offense to use any language other than English for instruction. Often, students were forbidden to use Spanish at any time while they were in school. In the last half of the 19th century, Mexican Americans sent their children to Catholic or nonsectarian private schools, both of which were more likely to provide bilingual instruction, to escape the anti-Mexican attitudes of public schools (Spring, 2011).
Many Mexican American children were not attending school at the beginning of the 20th century, in part, because farmers were not willing to release them from work in the field to attend school. On the other hand, many school officials wanted them in schools to Americanize them and rid them of their cultures and language (Spring, 2011).
Deeper Look Read more about Latino education.
Concerned about discrimination against Mexican American students in public schools, the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) called for bilingual instruction and the maintenance of Mexican cultural traditions in schools as early as 1929. However, the English-only laws were not repealed until 1968 when the federal government supported bilingual education as an option for teaching English-language learners (Spring, 2011). As the federal policy has moved away from support of bilingual education in recent years, some states have now returned to laws prohibiting bilingual education and the use of any language other than English for classroom instruction.
Mexican American families were fighting for the right to attend white schools at the same time that African Americans had turned to the courts for assistance. In the 1930s the Texas courts upheld the right of school boards to provide segregated education for Mexican Americans. The first breakthrough for integration occurred with the 1947 Mendez v. Westminster School District decision that required a California school district to allow a Mexican American girl to attend the white school. The Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (MALDEF) was established in 1967 to continue suing for the civil rights and equality of Mexican American students. Court cases since then have focused on discriminatory practices in the funding of schools, the sole use of English in classrooms, and the disproportionate placement of Spanish-speaking children in special education classes as a result of biased tests or tests being given in English.
Equity for Puerto Ricans
Education for students in Puerto Rico has been interrelated with a history of occupation by the United States. Puerto Rico had just received its autonomy from Spain when it came under the control of the United States as part of the spoils (along with the Philippines and Guam) from the Spanish-American War at the end of the 19th century. With the 1900 Foraker Act, Congress established a colonial government to replace military rule in Puerto Rico and appointed the first U.S. Commissioner of Education for Puerto Rico. Just as with American Indians, the federal policy was to Americanize Puerto Ricans through education. Because the language of instruction was to be English and many Puerto Rican teachers spoke only Spanish, teachers from the United States were hired. Not only were students expected to learn English; they were also supposed to learn American ways. Educational policies required celebration of the U.S. patriotic holidays, such as the Fourth of July. Students were required to pledge allegiance to the U.S. flag and study U.S. heroes. Local textbooks were replaced with U.S. textbooks. When new teachers applied for a teaching certificate, their test included an English examination (Spring, 2011).
Puerto Ricans were not interested in becoming Americans and losing their own native language and culture. In 1912, the Puerto Rican Teachers Association began to defend Spanish as the language of instruction. When a student at San Juan’s Central High School was expelled in 1915 for collecting signatures in support of instruction in Spanish, a student strike was sparked (Spring, 2011). Calls for nationalism and independence were common. Congress granted Puerto Ricans citizenship in 1917, which obligated them to serve in the military, but did not grant the right to vote in elections.
Tensions increased in the 1920s when a Puerto Rican who supported the United States’ assimilation policies became the Commissioner of Education. He pressed his predecessor’s policies even further. He required seniors to pass an English examination before they could graduate. He banned school newspapers in Spanish. Teachers were required to use English in teacher meetings and informal discussions with students. Protests by teachers, professors, and college students expanded. College students were expelled for participating in anti-American marches and professors were warned to stop supporting student protests (Spring, 2011).
The efforts to change U.S. educational policies in Puerto Rico resulted in the Padin Reform of 1934, which restricted English instruction to high schools. Spanish could be used at other levels. However, textbooks continued to be printed in English. After the Teachers Association had successfully lobbied the Puerto Rican legislature to pass a bill requiring the use of Spanish, President Harry Truman vetoed it. After Puerto Rico was granted commonwealth status in 1951, Puerto Ricans gained greater control of their school systems, restoring Spanish as the language of instruction (Spring, 2011).
Asian Americans
The first Chinese migrants arrived in California in the 1850s to join the gold rush as free laborers. They faced a great deal of hostility and discrimination from the dominant white population. The courts considered Chinese immigrants as having the same status as American Indians, and policies related to citizenship continued to discriminate against Asians. It was not until 1943 that the Chinese Exclusion Law was rescinded, allowing Chinese immigrants the right to become naturalized citizens (Spring, 2011).
When the court ruled in 1885 that native-born Mamie Tape had equal access to public schooling, the California legislature responded by allowing school districts to establish segregated schools for Asian Americans. By 1905, the segregated system in San Francisco was broken as Chinese youths were admitted to the regular city high school (Spring, 2011). Southern courts retained Asian American children in segregated schools attended primarily by African Americans. The family of a Chinese American girl argued that she was not black and therefore should be able to attend the white school. However, the court ruled in 1924 that she was not white and gave schools the authority to determine the race of their students (Spring, 2011).
After the passage of the 1965 Immigration Act, the number of Asian immigrants began to grow. Schools in cities like San Francisco were faced with a growing number of students who spoke languages other than English. Because the language of instruction was English, parents worried that their children were not able to achieve at the high academic levels they expected. They sued the San Francisco school system and, in 1974, won the right to have their first language used in instruction in Lau v. Nichols. The court said “under state imposed standards, there was no equality of treatment merely by providing students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers, and curriculum; for students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education” (Lau v. Nichols, 1974).
HOW HAS TEACHING EVOLVED?
Asked about the teaching profession itself, Mr. Kuhn, who has served on negotiating teams for the teachers’ union, indicated that “teachers are generally highly respected in my community. You have to earn their respect. Once you have gained that respect, students and the parents will respect you.”
The role of women in teaching defines the profession. Because of their traditional roles as nurturing mothers, women have been seen as the natural teachers of children. Historically, they have provided a stable, inexpensive, moral teaching force for the country. Women have not always been the majority of teachers. During the colonial period, teachers were men except in the dame schools. After the Revolutionary War, females began to be recruited as teachers. Teachers today are even more likely to be women than in the 19th century, which may contribute to the lower status attributed to teaching.
The emerging pattern in the 19th century was men administrators managing women teachers. The leadership of the NEA was male school administrators, college presidents, and professors throughout most of its first 100 years. Women teachers had to seek permission from the male leadership to speak at the business meetings of the annual conference. The American Federation of Teachers (AFT), on the other hand, evolved from the Chicago Federation of Teachers, where two activist women teachers—Margaret Haley and Catherine Goggin—joined forces with organized labor because they felt they shared the same interests as workers (Spring, 2011).
Although teachers are held responsible for preparing students to meet national standards, they have not always been represented in the groups developing those standards. The expertise and knowledge of teachers are not yet valued by the policy-makers, business leaders, and think tanks as reflected by their limited involvement on many national and state committees on education reform. The Center for Teaching Quality asserts that “teachers must be seen as solutions, not problems” to raise student achievement and serve students effectively (Berry, 2011, p. 20).
Teacher Preparation
To ensure that teachers taught the curriculum that educational leaders desired, teacher education programs were developed. Reverend Samuel Hall is credited with establishing one of the first institutions for preparing teachers in 1823 in Concord, Vermont, but Emma Willard had opened the Troy Female Seminary in 1821, in which women earned their certification, which many school boards required. However, certified teachers were not readily available in many rural areas for another century (Spring, 2011).
Women teachers in the 19th century were expected to be single and follow strict codes of behavior set by local school boards.
Normal schools were established in 1839 in Lexington, Massachusetts, to prepare teachers for elementary schools. Most students in normal schools were women who had completed elementary or common schools, but had not completed high school. Curriculum in the normal schools required one to two years of study in which the elementary school curriculum was reviewed, classroom management studied, and teaching methods taught. Many of today’s state colleges and universities began as normal schools. They changed their names and expanded their missions beyond the preparation of teachers in the mid-1900s. Today, they continue to prepare the majority of teachers in the country.
Teachers of children in the 1700s had not always finished elementary school although teachers of adolescents may have attended college. The amount of education increased in each century that followed. In the 1800s, a growing number of elementary school teachers completed high school and began to attend teacher institutes and normal schools to further develop their knowledge of the subjects they were teaching as well as their teaching skills. It was not until the mid-1900s that most teachers completed a four-year college, which is now required for a teaching license. Into the mid-1900s teachers had more education than most members of their community. However, by the beginning of the 21st century, a larger proportion of the population had a bachelor’s degree than in previous centuries.
Teacher Behavior
Teachers have long been under the control of school boards and administrators. Not only did administrators oversee the work of teachers and select their textbooks; they also monitored their personal behavior. Teachers were expected to live exemplary moral lives. Their social activities were monitored by school officials throughout the 19th century and into the 20th. Horace Mann in 1840 indicated that a teacher should have “perfect” knowledge of the subject being taught, an aptitude for teaching, which he believed could be learned, the ability to manage and govern a classroom and mold moral behavior, good behavior as a model for students, and good morals (Spring, 2011).
Even though morals were only one of Horace Mann’s five qualifications, it appeared to be one of the most important to school superintendents and school board members. Contracts for women teachers did not allow them to socialize with men or be married. The emphasis on high moral character continued into the 20th century as teachers were warned that they should be very careful about their dress and behavior. Although moral character is not included in today’s teacher contracts, teachers are still expected by the public to be models of high moral character.
Teachers’ Lounge
One-Room School
This story was told to Dr. Sturgeon in 2003. The information was gathered as part of an undertaking to document the teaching experiences of 1930s and 1940s one-room school teachers in Mason County, West Virginia.
OK, I’ll tell you about fun things in the one-room school. The children liked it when we played “button, button, who has the button” because they always seemed so excited. They also looked forward to playing “I Spy.” When we played “I Spy” you would hide these scissors so that maybe only the tip end would stick out. Then they would have to hide their eyes; all but the one that was hiding the scissors was up and around. He would walk around and around inside the school and then after he had hidden the scissors somewhere he would pretend he was putting them in other places so that they wouldn’t know just where you were. So, OK they are hidden and the kids get up out of their seats and then the teacher would say “Wayne, you’re getting hot, you’re getting hot.” The closer you got to it, the hotter you’d get. Or, “Oh, Thelma, you’re cold, you’re just so cold it’s a wonder you wouldn’t be freezing,” you know, stuff like that. Anyway, then whoever found it got to hide it then from the rest of them. Then, “Button, Button, Who Has the Button?” you’d seat them all; you had these front seats, you know, where the kids came up to recite, and so there would be a long row of just people sitting and they would have to hold their hand. Then you had a button, and it would slide through their hands. Only one person got the button up there. So you had to make, pretend like you were dropping it when you weren’t so that when you got through then finally you’d open your hand and show it to someone else. Then the teacher would say, “OK, button, button, who has the button?” Then she’d say, “Carla May has it.” Then she’d say, “No I don’t.” “Fred. Fred has it.” “Nope.” So finally they’d get it and whoever had it last, they got to be the button hider. They were fun, because we didn’t have any toys or playground equipment or computer games, you know. We were all together in the school, in one room. We had a baseball bat and softball. And that’s about all we had. A lot different from today. But I loved every day. That school was the center of those little communities.
Dr. Douglas Sturgeon Shawnee State University Portsmouth, Ohio
Challenging Assumptions
Are college students preparing to be teachers as academically strong as college students preparing for other jobs?
The Assumption
Some teacher candidates are not as academically talented as other college students, contributing to the lower than expected academic performance of PreK–12 students.
Study Design and Method
A researcher at the Educational Testing Service (ETS) examined college students’ performance on the SAT, Praxis II licensure tests of content knowledge, and undergraduate GPAs to determine whether this assertion was true.
Study Findings
Teacher candidates today have stronger undergraduate GPAs than their predecessors with over 80% of them reporting a 3.00 or higher GPA. A smaller proportion of candidates taking Praxis II are passing it, primarily because states have raised their licensure requirements. Both candidates who have completed teacher education programs and those in alternate route programs have stronger academic profiles than in the past across ethnic, racial, and gender groups.
The research data indicated that candidates in secondary programs had verbal SAT scores at least as strong as other college students and sometimes stronger. Teacher candidates in math and science had math SAT scores well above other college graduates. Although scores on the verbal and math portions of the SAT are improving, candidates in elementary, special, and physical education score lower than other college students. The academic profiles of middle level teacher candidates are more like elementary teachers than secondary teachers.
Implications
To ensure that more candidates pass the content test for licensure, colleges and universities may consider raising requirements such as GPAs for admission into teacher education. An analysis of candidate performance on licensure tests, their performance on authentic assessments such as performance in student teaching, and the achievement of their students during the first years of practice could provide valuable information about the predictability of current assessments for determining successful practice in classrooms.
Source: Gitomer, D. H. (2007). Teacher quality in a changing policy landscape: Improvements in the teacher pool. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
CONNECTING TO THE CLASSROOM
This chapter has provided you with some basic information about how schools and the education of different students have evolved to the schools we know today. Below are some key principles for applying the information in this chapter to the classroom.
1. The history of education helps us understand teaching practices that have been tried previously by educators, the reasons for their falling out of favor, and the possibility of their recycling again as desirable practice.
2. Teachers in primary, middle, and high schools are expected to provide age-appropriate education for students based on research on child and adolescent development.
3. Good teachers are able to analyze and evaluate the different curriculum packages their school districts are likely to impose on them during their careers and make wise, pedagogically sound decisions about their use in their classrooms.
4. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s and 1970s was the foundation for ensuring that an equal education could finally be accessible to all children regardless of their race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, language, gender, and abilities.
5. Expectations for the high academic achievement of teachers continues to rise in these times of accountability.
SUMMARY
This chapter reviewed key developments over the past four centuries that established public schools and influenced the schools you know today. The following five major topics were discussed:
· Establishment of public schools in the United States. The Constitution gave the responsibility for education to states, which were expected to provide schools for their children.
· Schools designed by students’ age. As scholars learned more about child and adolescent development, schools were divided into grade levels to meet the needs of early childhood, elementary, middle level, and high school students.
· Historical influences on the school curriculum. The curriculum has been influenced by strong religious and nationalistic themes, the industrial revolution in the 1800s, the progressive movement in the early 1900s, and the launching of the first satellite by the Soviet Union in 1957.
· Education and equality. When students of color began attending school, they were enrolled in segregated schools, which did not change until schools were desegregated in the 1960s.
· The evolution of teaching. The preparation of teachers has evolved from the requirement for completion of elementary school in colonial days to a college degree today.
CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Today Americans assume that a free and universal education is a “right,” but that has not always been the case. If you had been a participant in the various debates of the past three centuries, why would you have argued for, or against, the state establishing common schools? How would you have argued about citizens being taxed to pay for public schools for all children? What is the relationship of these issues to debates today about vouchers to attend private schools, charter schools, and decreases in state support of public education?
2. You have probably decided that you want to teach students of a specific age. How long have schools for this group of students existed and what makes students of this age different from students at a different level? Why have you chosen to work with children of this age, and how will you learn the age-appropriate strategies for these students?
3. The Industrial Revolution, progressiveness, and Sputnik I are among societal changes that have impacted the school curriculum over the past 200 years. What remnants of these events and the early emphasis on religion and nationalism are reflected in today’s schools?
4. Historically, not all children have had access to the same quality of education, sometimes legally not being allowed to either attend school or attend school with white students. What factors led to the changes in equal educational opportunity that occurred in the 1960s and 1970s? How has education changed for students of color since the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision by the Supreme Court?
5. The education level of today’s teachers is much higher than in the past. In what other ways have the conditions of teaching changed over the past two centuries? What conditions appear to remain little changed from the past?
KEY TERMS
SELF-ASSESSMENT
WHAT IS YOUR CURRENT LEVEL OF UNDERSTANDING AND THINKING ABOUT THE HISTORY OF SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES?
One of the indicators of understanding is to examine how complex your thinking is when asked questions that require you to use the concepts and facts introduced in this chapter. After you answer the following questions as fully as you can, rate your knowledge on the Complexity of Thinking rubric to self-assess the degree to which you understand and can apply the ideas presented in this chapter.
1. Who are some of the key educators and scholars who contributed to the establishment of the common schools in the 1800s and the early childhood and middle school movements in the 1900s?
2. How has the field of child development contributed to the types of schools that exist today?
3. Why were high schools initially established? Why and how have they changed since those early days?
What is your current level of understanding of why schools developed into educational settings for students of different age levels?
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Complexity of Thinking Rubric |
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Parts & Pieces |
Unidimensional |
Organized |
Integrated |
Extensions |
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Indicators |
Elements/concepts are talked about as isolated and independent entities. |
One or a few concepts are addressed, while others are underdeveloped. |
Deliberate and structured consideration of all key concepts/ elements. |
All key concepts/ elements are included in a view that addresses interconnections. |
Integration of all elements and dimensions, with extrapolation to new situations. |
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Understanding of history of school development |
Identifies some of the key people involved in establishing common schools, early childhood education, and middle level education. |
Identifies the role of child development in creating the type of schools that exist today. |
Describes the development of schools based on the age of students. |
Discusses the development of schools based on the age of students and the work of the scholars and educators who contributed to their development. |
Explores the major developments over time of the level of the school in which he/she plans to teach and discusses the major issues faced at that school level today. |
STUDENT STUDY SITE
Visit the Student Study Site at www.sagepub.com/hall to access links to the videos, audio clips, and Deeper Look reference materials noted in this chapter, as well as additional study tools including eFlashcards, web quizzes, and more.
Field Guide
for Learning More About the History of Schools in the United States
Ask a Teacher or Principal
Identify a teacher who has been teaching for more than 10 years and ask him or her to describe some of the curriculum packages or programs the school system has asked teachers to use over the years. How long did most of them survive? Why were they successful or not successful? What does the teacher think are keys to a curriculum package being successful?
Make Your Own Observations
When you begin teaching, you will probably work in a preschool, kindergarten, or primary, elementary, middle, or high school. Your teaching license may allow you to teach observations at two or more levels. The levels are different not only in the curriculum taught, but also the organization of a school day and the interactions of students and teachers. As you observe teachers in schools at two different levels (for example, middle and high school), make notes of the similarities and differences between the levels. You could organize your notes into a table or narrative. Write a brief paper on what level you would prefer to teach and why.
Reflect Through Journaling
Expectations for education have changed greatly since colonial times. Take a few minutes to reflect in your journal on what has changed and remained the same since the primary goal of education was to learn to read the scriptures and be a moral and patriotic person. In your opinion, what should be the goals of education today?
Build Your Portfolio
What is the largest group of color in your community or state? What do you know about the historical educational experiences of this group in your community or state? Write a brief paper on the historic and current segregation or integration of schools in your area.
Teachers have a history of not being included as members of committees or panels developing policies to reform education. Why are they not included? How could teachers become more involved in these activities? Prepare a brief paper about the importance of teacher involvement on policy groups that are making recommendations for improving teaching and public schools.
Read a Book
For more information on the issues, trends, and personalities that have shaped education in the United States since 1900, check these articles by Education Week staff: Education Week, Lessons of a Century: A Nation’s Schools Come of Age (2000; Bethesda, MD: Editorial Projects in Education).
To learn more about the court cases that led to Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka and the ones that stopped desegregation later in the 1900s, read the Spring 2004 issue of the Southern Poverty Law Center’s magazine Teaching Tolerance.
Search the Web
Check out the references to the Constitution of the United States and the amendments mentioned in this chapter ( http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution.html ).
Listen to National Public Radio’s discussion and background on the historic Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka by historians, political leaders, and educators ( http://www.npr.org/news/specials/brown50/ ).
To review the 200-year history of education in the United States with images of schools, classrooms, and students, visit http://www.pbs.org/onlyateacher/timeline.html , a part of the website of the Public Broadcasting System (PBS).