discussion board question and other assignment
missruf
chapter6.docxEmma is the school social worker in a rural school district. Many of the youth in rural areas leave home because of their parent’s substance abuse, only to become vulnerable to predators who eventually engage them in substance abuse. Emma helps these youths by facilitating a support and counseling group once a week.
Landon is a civilian social worker who serves military families. He helps families adjust to transition—in particular, to the long periods of separation that are followed by the challenges of reintegration when a service member comes home. He also helps military families cope with domestic violence and substance abuse issues.
Chikae trains groups of adults who are interested in becoming foster parents. The curriculum she teaches covers basic parenting skills, information about the child welfare system, insights into the perspectives and experiences of children entering the foster care system, and content on child development, including the impact of neglect and sexual and physical abuse on child development.
Marco is the chief administrator for a private, not-for-profit substance abuse organization in an urban area on the East Coast. His agency provides outpatient treatment services, case management services, transitional housing, and life skills and job search programs for addicts.
Dyani works for Tribal Social Services in the Southwest. Her primary responsibility is to design and evaluate community intervention and education programs that improve the quality of life in indigenous communities. She also facilitates the coordination of all community agencies and resources, including prevention services for substance abuse, teen pregnancy, school dropout, early intervention, foster care and adoption, and juvenile justice.
Tamiko is a policy expert for a social work advocacy organization. She writes policies and lobbies Congress to incorporate social work policy positions into legislation. Her main areas of focus are health care reform and aging.
As the examples demonstrate, social workers have different targets of attention (individuals, families, groups, organizations, communities, society) and numerous fields of practice (e.g., child welfare, health care, housing, substance abuse), and they serve a variety of populations (e.g., children, elderly people, rural, and urban communities). The techniques we use can be general or highly specialized. Some interventions require additional training beyond the baccalaureate social work (BSW) degree, and others require training beyond the master of social work (MSW) degree. A major task of social work training is teaching practitioners to assess what services are needed and appropriate and then either provide those services or refer clients to practitioners who can provide specialized interventions.
LO 1
Undergraduate social work education and the first or foundation year of graduate education are designed to transfer the knowledge, values, and skills required for generalist social work practice. Generalist social workers can intervene on a variety of practice levels, in many practice settings, for a wide range of social problems (see Box 6.1 ). The second year of graduate education is intended to transfer advanced or specialized knowledge and skills. Keep in mind that social work education and training is a continuing, lifelong process that does not end after the completion of a degree. Social workers must be dedicated to ongoing personal reflection and self-correction and actively engage in career-long learning.
Box 6.1
More About…Generalist Social Work Practice
Generalist practice is grounded in the liberal arts and the person and environment construct. To promote human and social well-being, generalist practitioners use a range of prevention and intervention methods in their practice with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. The generalist practitioner identifies with the social work profession and applies ethical principles and critical thinking in practice. Generalist practitioners incorporate diversity in their practice and advocate for human rights and social and economic justice. They recognize, support, and build on the strengths and resiliency of all human beings. They engage in research-informed practice and are proactive in responding to the impact of context on professional practice (CSWE, 2015, pp. 7–8: The Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards section B2.2).
LO 2
For purposes of explanation, it is helpful to distinguish between generalist micro and macro practice. However, the distinction between the two levels of practice is often a false one, and the boundaries between them are blurred. To be effective, social workers must be able to use both micro and macro interventions to address the needs and concerns of their clients. Few problems have only individual solutions. Social workers usually work on an individual and family level while also addressing structural concerns. For example, helping people who lives in a rural community to improve their job skills will not change the fact that there are few jobs available in their area. If there are no jobs nearby and no transportation to take him or her to a job, even strong job skills will not ensure that your client can get a job. Effective social work involves helping clients improve their employability as an individual and also helping change the environment so that there will be jobs available.
Generalist social work practice can include a wide array of approaches with different theories and emphases (see Box 6.2 ). Some approaches are more commonly used than others, and new ones emerge over time. Students may be trained to use one or several approaches, depending on the perspectives of their instructors, their schools, and later their supervisors. The varied approaches allow social work practitioners to choose from a variety of skills and techniques to find the intervention that best fits the person in his or her environment.
Box 6.2
More About…Levels of Practice
In the text, we discuss micro and macro levels of practice. Some in the field add a third level, mezzo practice. Micro means “small,” referring to work with individuals or families. Macro means “large,” referring to work with larger systems, usually communities or organizations. Mezzo refers to a middle level of practice, which for many in the field means work with small groups. One way of understanding mezzo practice is as a method that can be used at either the micro or macro level, using small groups to create change. If the focus of our change is individuals or families, we might use a support group to help the individuals in the group learn to function better. To create macro level change, we often use task groups as a method of creating change in communities or organizations. In this text, small-group practice is included as a part of micro practice.
A Theoretical Framework for Generalist Social Work Practice
EP 6a, EP 7b, EP 8b
According to the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE),
generalist practitioners use a range of prevention and intervention methods in their practice with diverse individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities based on scientific inquiry and best practices. The generalist practitioner identifies with the social work profession and applies ethical principles and critical thinking in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels. Generalist practitioners engage diversity in their practice and advocate for human rights and social and economic justice. They recognize, support, and build on the strengths and resiliency of all human beings. They engage in research-informed practice and are proactive in responding to the impact of context on professional practice. (CSWE, 2015, p. 11)
EP 4c
In Chapter 1 , we discussed social work’s conceptual framework, which includes the ecological systems view, the strengths and diversity perspectives, and other theories of human behavior. This framework informs and guides generalist social work practice. In other words, social workers are not just well-intentioned people trying to help others. Social workers are well-trained professionals who use a core set of values and ethics, theoretical knowledge, and critical thinking skills to make decisions about how to effectively intervene with any given client. Over the last three decades, social work has become more of a science than an art. We use interventions that have demonstrated effectiveness, which we refer to as evidence-based practice.
Ecological Systems Framework
The ecological systems framework requires social workers to understand their clients in the context of the social systems and people that they interact with. In Chapter 1 , we used the example of Jane to illustrate the person-in-environment aspect of the ecological systems perspective. Shortly, we discuss the case of Michael, a client with AIDS. Our discussion focuses on individual interventions with Michael. However, in the context of the ecological systems framework, it is critical for Michael’s social worker to understand every system Michael interacts with and the impact each system has on him. Michael is affected by the medical system, the employment system, his family system, and many other systems.
Let’s use the medical system as an example. It is a large and complicated system in which even people with excellent private medical insurance can be devastated by the costs of a catastrophic and chronic illness like Michael’s. A study by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that 20 percent of people with health insurance have problems paying their medical bills. Many people had to use all of their savings or declare bankruptcy after a serious illness (Hamel et al., 2016).
Michael’s social worker has an obligation to help him understand and navigate the medical system. It may not be part of the social worker’s job description (primarily because of time constraints) to lobby or advocate for changes in the medical system, but at the very least, he or she should be well informed about the system. In addition, the social worker has an ethical obligation to be an educated voter and vote for those public officials who are invested in making the medical system more efficient and effective.
he Strengths and Diversity Perspectives
Along with the person-in-environment context, the strengths and diversity perspectives are at the heart of social work practice, particularly generalist practice. Following are the assumptions underlying the strengths perspective:
· Every individual, group, family, and community has strengths.
· Trauma and abuse, illness, and struggle may be injurious, but they may also be sources of challenge and opportunity.
· Every environment is full of resources (Saleebey, 2012).
EP 2a, 2b, 2c
Working from a diversity perspective means being aware of and sensitive to human diversity. Social workers must know about the ways that people differ based on race, ethnic background, gender, ability, sexual orientation, religion, gender identity, class, and age. It also means understanding and actively confronting our personal biases and developing a sense of cultural humility. Cultural humility means being aware that we see the world through our own particular lens and engaging in ongoing self-reflection and self-critique. It also means approaching people as individuals and taking the time to learn about how they are unique and what is important to them.
Historical Influence of Theories of Human Behavior in Social Work Practice
Generalist social workers often absorb a wide range of theories of human behavior, then draw on them eclectically when practical situations seem to call for, or respond to, different approaches. Social work operates from the belief that a mixture of theories works to ease suffering or achieve justice and is preferable to a dogmatic approach with less desirable consequences. Therefore, a generalist social worker in the field might call on any or all of the following theoretical traditions. The decision about which theory or theories to utilize will be made by the social worker based on the situation or context, the social worker’s strengths and traits, the client’s strengths and traits, and the resources available. We present several theories of human behavior, in a largely historical context, in order to demonstrate social work’s approach to theory over time.
Psychodynamic Theory
LO 3
By the early twentieth century, the ideas of Sigmund Freud had emerged as a dominant theory of human behavior and were influential among social workers. Freud’s theories of human behavior were adopted by others and eventually evolved into psychodynamic theory.
The components of psychodynamic theory that influenced early social work practice established that people’s behaviors were purposeful and determined and that some of those determinants were unconscious. These two fundamental beliefs changed the direction of social work practice. Social workers were no longer limited to working with people living in poverty, as in the early 1900s; their domain grew to include all people.
The modern practice of psychosocial treatment was influenced by Anna Freud (1946), Sigmund’s daughter, and by Erik Erikson (1950). Both made significant contributions to the understanding of ego psychology. Building on the works of Mary Richmond, Anna Freud, and Erik Erikson, Florence Hollis’s Casework: A Psychosocial Therapy (1964) became the social work profession’s guide to psychosocial treatment. (A second edition was prepared by Woods and Hollis, 1990.)
The core tenet is that interacting genetic, biological, and sociocultural factors explain the cognitive and emotional processes, both conscious and unconscious, that motivate human behavior. This theory is the basis of many casework interventions, including psychosocial treatment, the problem-solving method , and task-centered casework . All three are used in social work practice with individuals and families.
One of the criticisms of psychosocial treatment is that it does not pay enough attention to external conflicts or the influences of social systems. For example, a psychosocial approach would probably not be effective in assisting Michael to navigate the medical system, because his situation requires more focus on external conflicts or problems with social systems than on internal conflicts.
Problem-Solving Method During the 1950s, Helen Harris Perlman (1957) developed the problem-solving method of intervention. Her goal was to move away from the psychosocial focus on early childhood experiences and memories and to make social work practice more pragmatic and more focused on the present moment (Turner & Jaco, 1996). Two fundamental assumptions underlie the problem-solving method. The first is that client problems do not represent weakness and failure on the part of the client, but are instead a natural part of life and the process of human growth and change (Compton & Galaway, 1994). The second assumption is that if clients cannot solve their problems, it is because they lack the knowledge or resources to effectively do so (Turner & Jaco, 1996). As is the case with psychosocial treatment, the client–worker relationship is critical to the problem-solving method. The relationship is collaborative and provides the client with a source of encouragement and the safety needed to initiate creative problem solving.
Task-Centered Social Work In the late 1960s, task-centered social work evolved out of the discovery that shortened treatment periods were more effective in problem solving than the long-term treatments associated with psychosocial interventions. Thus, Reid and Epstein (1972), who were influenced by Perlman’s problem-solving model, developed task-centered social work with time limits in mind. The basic characteristics of task-centered casework are that it is short term; the focus is on client-acknowledged problems; and sessions are highly structured into specific activities. Because task-centered casework is brief and focuses on the presenting problem, the emphasis is on identifying a problem rather than identifying the underlying cause. Once the problem is identified, the desired outcome or change is then identified. Determining tasks to overcome obstacles and achieve the desired outcome is the goal of this approach.
Cognitive Behavioral Theory
In addition to Freud’s explanations of human behavior in the early twentieth century, another important theory was developed by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian chemist and physiologist. Pavlov discovered the conditioned reflex or response while doing experiments on the digestive process of dogs. The conditioned reflex is a learned reflex, in contrast to an innate reflex such as pulling one’s hand away from a hot flame. Pavlov’s finding later became a critical component of behavioral psychology.
John Watson, an American psychologist, was a critic of Freud’s theories of human behavior and was fascinated by Pavlov’s discovery of the conditioned response. He undertook a series of studies on the behaviors of children and developed a set of ideas that came to be known as behaviorism, a branch of psychology (Watson, 1914). During the 1950s, behaviorism was further developed by B. F. Skinner (1953). Behaviorism took the focus off Freud’s unconscious motives and instinctual drives, and argued that maladaptive behaviors are learned and can therefore be unlearned (Barker, 2003). Although early life experiences are not ignored, behavior therapies are more present centered and forward looking than psychosocial therapies.
Although all of the theories we just discussed are still being used by many social workers, in the last two decades, cognitive-behavioral theory and interventions have increasingly become dominant. Cognitive theory is based on the belief that how and what a person thinks determines or contributes to how the person feels and behaves. Maladaptive behaviors can be explained by irrational or distorted thinking that results from misperceptions and misinterpretations of the environment (Payne, 2005).
Cognitive and behavior theories have been combined in several different types of cognitive-behavioral interventions. In these approaches, the behavioral aspects of treatment are designed to weaken the connections between habitual reactions (fear, depression, rage, or self-defeating behaviors) and troublesome situations, and also to calm the mind and body so the person can think more clearly and make better decisions. The cognitive aspects teach about thinking patterns and how to change patterns that are based on distorted or irrational beliefs. Cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBT) have been the most researched of any therapy model. Research over many years found cognitive-behavioral therapies to be effective in treating depression, anxiety, relationship challenges, social phobias, eating disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). As a result, cognitive-behavioral therapies are one of the most frequently used clinical interventions in social work practice (Gonzalez-Prendes & Brisebois, 2012). However, findings from recent research have raised the question as to whether the effectiveness of CBT has been overstated. An examination of research studies conducted over many years found that the effectiveness of CBT for depression has been decreasing over the years (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). Findings such as these have encouraged researchers and practitioners to continue exploring other theories and interventions.
Crisis Theory and Crisis Intervention
Generalist social workers are often required to provide crisis intervention services. A crisis is a situation in which a person’s normal coping mechanisms are inadequate or are not working. The person becomes immobilized by feelings of helplessness, confusion, anxiety, depression, and anger. Crisis intervention , which is based on crisis theory, is a short-term model of social work practice that is designed to assist victims and survivors to return to their precrisis level of functioning. The number of practitioners specializing in crisis intervention has been growing over the past 25 years (Myer, Lewis, & James, 2013). Crisis intervention is a primary social work intervention and is provided in almost every social work setting.
According to Roberts (2005), a crisis is “an acute disruption of psychological homeostasis in which one’s usual coping mechanisms fail and there exists evidence of distress and functional impairment” (p. 778). Overcoming the crisis is perceived as part of the maturation process and as necessary to developing healthy self-esteem. Crisis theorists focus on reactions to and consequences of such catastrophic or traumatic crises as war, rape, natural disaster, and workplace and school violence (Ell, 1996). Chapter 14 provides more detail on these areas of social work practice.
The critical components of effective crisis intervention include assistance that is provided as quickly as possible, brief treatment periods with a focus on practical information and tangible support, the goal of reducing symptoms, and efforts to mobilize the client’s social support networks (Ell, 1996). In some cases, clients may have to be referred for longer-term psychosocial or clinical treatment. For example, a client diagnosed with PTSD as a result of the crisis may need both medication and long-term therapy.
Mindfulness-Based Theories and Therapies
A growing development in theory and therapeutic approaches can be found in the practice of mindfulness. Mindfulness is the process of bringing one’s attention to what is happening internally and externally in the current moment. Mindfulness can be developed through practicing meditation and other approaches that encourage people to be actively present and to observe their thoughts and feelings during daily activities. Mindfulness practice encourages noting thoughts and emotions without judging them as good or bad. The theory suggests that being fully aware in the present allows people to reduce regret and guilt about the past and decrease worry about the future. Mindfulness-based approaches have increasingly been employed to treat depression, anxiety, PTSD, social phobias, and addiction (Khoury et al., 2013).
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) combines cognitive therapy described above, with mindfulness practice, often through the use of meditation. People learn about the relationship between their thoughts and their feelings and actions, and also learn the skills to be more fully present so they can become aware of their thoughts as they occur. Participants learn to notice and accept their thoughts and feelings without having to judge or react to them. This process can help people become less reactive and less driven by destructive patterns and habits. MBCT is used to treat depression, anxiety, and addiction, as well as other mental and physical health concerns.
The theories we have shared in this section represent only a small sampling of the theories that social workers draw from. The social work curriculum requires students to take courses in human behavior and the social environment that explore theories of individual human behavior, family systems theory, and theories of learning and communication in greater detail.
Generalist Social Work Practice with Individuals and Families
LO 4
Individuals and families are most often the focus of social work intervention. Generalist social workers provide a wide variety of generalist services and interventions. Social workers help make arrangements for home health care, serve as an advocate for a child in the foster care system, assist a victim of crime, or provide crisis intervention on a suicide hotline. Social workers are the direct providers of services to individuals and families in behavioral health agencies, hospitals, schools, domestic violence shelters, child welfare agencies, homeless shelters, day treatment centers for seniors, group homes for people with developmental disabilities, drug abuse treatment centers, hospices, wellness and prevention centers, and countless other social service settings.
ase Management
One of the direct practice roles that a generalist social worker frequently fills when working with individuals is that of case manager. Case management “is a collaborative process of assessment, planning, facilitation and advocacy for options and services to meet an individual’s needs through communication and available resources to promote quality cost-effective outcomes” (CMSA, 2010, p. 6).
Rather than just providing a specific service, such as alcohol counseling, a case manager coordinates a program of services and refers clients to appropriate places where they can receive these services. The case manager also follows up with the client, ensuring both continuity and coordination of the services that are provided. Over time, a case manager can develop a good rapport with, and a deeper knowledge of, the client and his or her concerns. With this understanding, the case manager can serve as an advocate for the client while providing linkages with other service providers.
One of the key provisions of case management is to view the client from the person-in-environment and strengths perspective. The case manager is uniquely positioned to follow the individual’s needs in the context of his or her home, work, and community environments and help to facilitate linkages across those systems. Case management strategies include outreach and engagement, assessment of strengths and needs, planning for service or treatment, linkages to resources and referrals, service delivery monitoring, and evaluation of outcomes (NASW, 2013). The components of case management fit social work well, making it a significant part of our practice.
Here, we use a case example with an individual to help demonstrate the dynamic and interactive processes used in case management: engagement, assessment, intervention, and evaluation.
Case Example
Michael is a 38-year-old, gay, white male. Although HIV positive for years, he had been fairly healthy. However, over the past year, he has developed more health problems and is now HIV symptomatic. Michael had been employed as a retail store manager, but frequent absences this past year made him take a position in the store as an hourly clerk, and his employer no longer paid for his health insurance coverage. At first Michael used his savings to pay the portion of the premiums previously paid by his employer, but his savings were exhausted. His health is deteriorating. When he was hospitalized with pneumonia, one of the nurses recommended support services. In the past, Michael preferred to rely on himself, his friends, and his family, but he realizes that he needs additional help. Thus, Michael has come to the HIV/AIDS Social Service Center.
Engagement and Assessment
EP 8
Michael’s social worker, Gwen, uses empathy (see Box 6.3 ) and other interpersonal skills in the initial engagement process to establish a relationship with Michael. Gwen begins by listening to Michael’s story and asking questions to elicit information about Michael’s concerns and challenges. Once Gwen has put Michael at ease and determines that he is currently not in a state of crisis, she reassures him and tells him that she will be able to assist him.
Box 6.3
More About…Empathy
EP 2.1.10(a)
Empathy is one of the most powerful and effective skills a social worker can develop, use, and model for clients. Empathy is a multidimensional construct that includes both “bottom-up” and “top-down” components (Decety & Jackson, 2004). The bottom-up part of empathy is the automatic or unconscious affective process that allows us to recognize another’s emotional state. The top-down part of empathy is the conscious cognitive processes that enable us not only to explain and predict our own behaviors but the behaviors of others as well.
There are four definable components of empathy, one bottom up and three top down, that correlate with brain activity observed in four isolable neural networks (Decety & Moriguchi, 2007, p. 4). They are as follows:
Affective Sharing
This refers to the subjective “reflection” of another person’s observable experience (e.g., feeling amused when someone else laughs, or sad upon seeing another’s grief). This is based on automatic neural mirroring, and the “shared representations” such as facial expressions or activities associated with feeling. This is the bottom-up component of empathy.
Self-Awareness
Mirroring alone can be so powerful that it effectively erases the perceived boundary between self and other. Self-awareness implies that the empathic person clearly differentiates between his or her experience and that of the person being observed.
Perspective-Taking
This refers to the cognitive ability to learn about the situations affecting others and to effectively imagine what it would be like to experience the world from the other’s position. It requires abstract thought, calculation, and applied knowledge.
Emotion Regulation
This refers to the empathic person’s ability to “turn down the volume” of his or her own feelings as they arise from mirroring another’s experience. Inability to regulate emotion can result in overwhelm and burnout for individuals in helping or caretaking social roles.
All four neural networks must be activated for a social worker to have a complete experience of empathy for a client. If any of the components is missing or inhibited, social workers may have a partial reaction (e.g., wincing when someone else feels pain) but not a truly empathic response (e.g., reacting to the “empathic wince” as a personally uncomfortable experience, but failing to extend enough attention to imagine what the other person is subjectively experiencing). We now know that our minds are hardwired to provide an inner simulation of our clients’ feelings, thoughts, and experiences.
Source: Excerpt from Gerdes, Segal, Jackson, & Mullins (2011).
EP 6b
Gwen will draw from the theoretical framework we discussed earlier to inform her assessment and intervention plan. She begins the assessment process by identifying Michael’s medical, psychosocial, behavioral, and spiritual needs. The most important assessment task that Gwen must complete to be successful is recognizing Michael’s needs and concerns and communicating her cognitive understanding of them to him (Tsang, Bogo, & Lee, 2010). Gwen happens to be African American. The most critical factor in effectively addressing and overcoming cross-cultural differences between a worker and a client in the engagement process is the worker’s ability to achieve emotional attunement with the client or demonstrate empathy (Tsang et al., 2010).
The assessment process makes use of the skills needed to conduct effective interviews, engage the client in the helping process, and analyze the information collected. Often, the assessment process involves bringing the initial information to a clinical team or supervisor for further assessment. In their next session, Gwen shares her assessment with Michael, and they discuss it. Together they decide on a set of goals:
· (1)
Apply for Medicaid in order to cover his medical expenses;
· (2)
find a clinical social worker to help treat Michael’s depression;
· (3)
investigate low-income housing options;
· (4)
apply for Social Security disability insurance and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) for financial assistance; and
· (5)
build Michael’s support network (he currently relies mainly on his sister, who lives nearby).
Intervention
EP 7c
During the intervention phase, Gwen will help Michael achieve his goals by negotiating, mediating, and advocating for Michael with the referral agencies and resources. In addition, the HIV/AIDS social service center offers some direct services for Michael, including a support group for HIV-positive clients. Delivery of services or intervention can take place through information and referral (I&R) , the creation of network linkages , and the provision of direct services. Social workers play active roles in all three areas of service delivery.
Information and Referral In Gwen’s position as a case manager, she often provides services through I&R. The overall goal of information and referral is to enhance a client’s access to service by improving awareness and knowledge of services and reducing barriers to them. Often, social services are specialized or are offered as parts of larger systems, and are thus difficult to locate. Without specialized knowledge, and particularly when they are in crisis, clients are sometimes at a loss to identify needed services.
For example, suppose one of your parents is suddenly hospitalized for emergency heart surgery. Although the hospital and medical staff handle the immediate medical emergency and in-hospital care following surgery, what will you do about after-hospital care? Do you know how to find home health care if your parent is not ready to care for him- or herself? What if the recovery period is long, and physical therapy is needed? Can you find an intermediary care facility if your parent needs more care than can be provided at home? A medical social worker can help you cope with the emergency and can provide information on services and refer you to agencies and specialists.
Social workers also help people overcome barriers or obstacles to receiving services. Some social workers are bilingual and can work with people whose first language is not English. Social workers can arrange for transportation to medical appointments or for a child with a disability to attend a special school. Some barriers to service can be physical or legal. For example, agency services may be available only during the day, and people who work may have trouble accessing them. Social workers can lobby for extended evening hours or make special arrangements for after-hour interventions. A school may refuse requested accessibility services for a child with a disability, an infraction of a legal right to access. A social worker can advocate for services and ensure that the student’s legal right is upheld.
In Michael’s case, Gwen made several referrals in addition to providing information. She referred Michael to his local public assistance office so that he could apply for financial aid, and she made a preliminary determination of whether he was eligible for health insurance through the Affordable Care Act and for disability services. On the basis of his employment history, she referred him to the local Social Security office to apply for disability insurance coverage. She directed him to a group home where he could pay much lower rent and receive support with daily living. All these efforts are examples of I&R.
Network Linkages Knowledge about the breadth of services is a critical component of providing network linkages. People may receive services from multiple social service systems. The social worker can act as the link between the systems.
For example, children’s problems often require the involvement of many social service systems. Consider a child who is caught vandalizing school property by security personnel. A police officer may be called, possibly leading to involvement of the juvenile justice system. The child may be assessed as having severe emotional disturbances, and then the community mental health agency becomes involved. A school social worker may also be involved, as the child is a student at the school. In this case, three systems—juvenile justice, school, and mental health—are all involved with one child. Social workers are trained to work in and with multiple systems. This training helps them ensure that there is neither a duplication of services nor a gap in service.
Gwen began the process of network linkage for Michael. She called a staff person at one of the agencies to which she referred him; she recommended that he see a social worker with specialized skills in treating depression. The network linkages will continue as Michael progresses in the social service system at the HIV/AIDS Social Service Center. The final stage of the intervention process is for Gwen to help Michael transition to the services he needs and eventually end the services he is receiving from Gwen. This will occur only after Gwen has helped Michael resolve his problems or concerns, and he can return for services in the future if his circumstances change.
Monitoring and Evaluation
EP 7a
It is critical for Gwen to monitor and analyze her interventions with Michael. According to the NASW Code of Ethics (2008) Ethical Standard 5.02, Gwen has an ethical responsibility to evaluate her own practice, determine the effectiveness of her interventions, and use her findings to improve her practice. In Michael’s case, Gwen completed an interview before the end of service. They discussed each goal and whether Michael thought the goal had been accomplished.
Family Intervention
Generalist family social workers typically intervene with families in their homes or communities and focus their interventions on concrete needs and improving daily living. Social workers generally come into contact with families in one of two ways. Often, families become involved in treatment as an outgrowth of an individual’s course of intervention. For example, Michael’s sister became involved in his treatment plan and was a key factor in helping him develop a wider network of social support. She also began to attend a support group for families who have members with a chronic illness. This helped her to cope with Michael’s situation by setting appropriate boundaries and preventing caregiver burnout. In another example, a woman who is seeing a social worker to help address an alcohol abuse problem may agree with the worker that including her family would be beneficial.
Social workers also become engaged with families as the primary focus of their intervention. Many aspects of society can have a negative impact on families. This can mean that the family unit needs assistance. Homelessness, substance abuse, poverty, child abuse and neglect, as well as the general stresses of daily life, can put a lot of pressure on families. Social workers can provide family therapy, teach parenting skills, assist families in finding housing, and help family members find job. All of these interventions support families and help them stay together. Family intervention may also be needed for families of our military personnel. Landon, our civilian “military” social worker, helps families adjust when service members are absent and when they return home from Iraq and Afghanistan. Family roles often change when one member is away for an extended period of time, and families need a safe environment to discuss individual change and growth and how that impacts the family.
To effectively work with a family, a social work practitioner needs knowledge and skills drawn from individual and group interventions (see Box 6.4 ). Unlike formal groups, which are discussed in the next section , families are natural groups with lifetime relationships that are structured through legal, biological, or intimate bonds. The purpose of family social work is to focus on the family as the unit of service in order to help improve the health and well-being of all family members.
Box 6.4
From the Field
Using Multiple Practice Skills
Mary Palacios , MSW, PhD
I had been working in a private, not-for-profit child welfare agency for two years, when I decided to pursue a PhD in social work. In order to put myself through school, I took a position as a crisis intervention counselor with a private for-profit agency in my university town. The agency had a contract with Child Protective Services (CPS) in a southern state to provide intensive family preservation services (IFPS) in rural areas of the state. The primary goals of IFPS services are to protect children by maintaining and strengthening family bonds, stabilize crisis situations, increase the skills of the parents, help families connect with needed resources, and prevent unnecessary out-of-home placements. I would receive a referral from the agency director, and then I would have six weeks to work with the family in their home. I was expected to visit them at least twice a week, and sometimes as many as three or four times a week, depending on the situation.
The very first case I received would require me to draw on all of my knowledge and practice experience to help the family achieve a positive outcome. The family had been referred due to an allegation of sexual abuse. My first goal was to assess whether the children were in a dangerous situation; that is, whether they needed to be removed from the home or whether the situation was safe enough to proceed with in-home services. CPS had already made the determination that there was no evidence of sexual abuse; however, they believed the family was in crisis primarily because of the allegation but also because they had limited resources. The family consisted of a grandfather, a grandmother, and three biological granddaughters. The three girls were 8, 10, and 11 years old. One of the girls was developmentally delayed. She was mildly retarded and had physical problems as well. The grandparents were in their late sixties. The girls had been living with their grandparents for two years. They were removed from their biological mother’s home because she had a substance abuse problem and had been neglecting the girls. The family was referred to our agency because the biological mother alleged that her father was sexually molesting the girls “the same way he had molested me when I was young.”
I interviewed each girl. Then I interviewed the grandparents one at a time. I also interviewed the court-appointed guardian ad litem for the girls and the girls’ biological mother. The girls and their grandparents all denied that any sexual abuse had occurred, and they denied that there was any ongoing sexual abuse. The guardian ad litem believed the girls were living in a chaotic situation, but she did not see any evidence of sexual abuse. The grandparents alleged that their biological daughter had made the sexual abuse claim to seek revenge and to disrupt their family. They believed she was still struggling with a crack addiction.
Based on the initial evidence, I made the determination that it was best for the girls to remain in their grandparents’ home while the family received IFPS services.
However, I was still gravely concerned because of several red flags that I identified in the family dynamic. Because the grandmother was the primary financial provider, the grandfather was the primary caregiver for the children (he did not work). Despite the fact that the grandmother worked, she had several serious health problems, including severe back pain that caused her to remain in her bedroom, lying down most of the time when she was home. The grandfather slept on the couch at night so as not to disturb the sleep of his wife, and vice versa. Therefore, the grandfather had ample opportunity to be alone with the girls, and he and his wife, based on their own account, had stopped all sexual relations between them two years earlier because of her ill health. The girls all had serious self-esteem issues. The oldest girl was self-mutilating, using whatever sharp objects she could find. The developmentally delayed daughter had some inappropriate sexual behaviors in public and occasionally made sexually inappropriate comments. Despite these red flags, I viewed the grandparents as very gregarious personalities who were openly and appropriately affectionate with their granddaughters. They were very likeable people. The trailer they lived in was always a mess, and it was clear that the family was barely making it from month to month, even with the extra support from the state, but the family had many “stories” to explain why they “had never been able to catch a break.”
The family was aligned against the biological mother. The girls claimed they hated their mother and didn’t want to see her. The grandparents never had a kind word to say about their daughter. I made a classic mistake in the first three weeks of my work with the family. Instead of maintaining a neutral position, I was surprised that without even being aware of it, I had begun to “align” with the family position that they were “victims” of the biological mother and other parties and circumstances as well. Looking back, and writing this now, it is embarrassing that at the time I did not realize what I was doing. I was so eager to help the family—and I did by referring the girls for individual therapy and by helping them to identify resources (i.e., food stamps, clothing, etc.) that eased the stress on the family—that I allowed myself to become the family’s advocate rather than their IFPS counselor. Social workers often assume the role of advocate; however, in a family system as chaotic as this one was, it was more appropriate and most important for me to remain objective and stay focused on whether this was a safe situation for the girls.
When my six weeks expired, I approached my supervisor about a six-week extension. We were occasionally allowed to extend our services if we could document that the family was still in crisis and the children were still at risk. The extension was necessary because I had allowed myself to be “hooked” into the family story very early on—that they were all victims—for many different reasons. I did not empower the girls or the family during the first three weeks of service. I also soon discovered that some of the things the family had been telling me were not verifiable, and in some cases were flat out false. My supervisor agreed to give me six more weeks to work with the family and determine whether the girls could remain in the home. It was very difficult to switch from an “advocate” role in which the family viewed me as “being on their side” back to the objective IFPS counselor role. It confused the family that I was now asking them more tough questions instead of just listening to their many stories about how “evil” the biological mother was and how so many of their problems could be attributed to her actions.
Eventually, I recommended that the girls be placed in a foster home. Although there was no physical evidence of sexual abuse, the chaotic family situation was contributing to the girls’ low self-esteem and self-destructive behaviors. The girls continued to maintain that they were never sexually abused by their grandfather, but several years later I discovered that the girls had in fact admitted that two of them had been sexually abused by him. I was relieved to know that I had recommended they be removed from the situation and grateful that I had learned a very important lesson: when working with family systems, my role was to remain objective, professional, and empathetic. My role was not to be their “friend,” which ultimately only reinforced and validated their victim mentality and their rationalizations for the chaos in their lives. Working with a family system is very different from working with an individual client because the dynamics are much more complex. I found the work of IFPS very challenging and rewarding, and I am grateful that, although I made mistakes, I was able to “right the ship” and stay on course. The ultimate lesson for me was that when dealing with chaotic family systems, it is critical to remain in the role of an outside observer; otherwise, you may be “sucked in” to the family dynamic without even realizing that it is happening.
Ethical Challenges in Working with Individuals and Families
In working with individuals and families, the social work practitioner is faced with numerous ethical challenges. The NASW Code of Ethics requires social workers to follow procedures to guarantee confidentiality, ensure informed consent, and provide services that are helpful and do no harm. Sometimes those requirements are difficult to meet. For example, what if a client confides that she is planning to commit suicide? Do you keep that between you and the client and not warn others? Or what if a client confides that he is aware of a child who has been physically abused? If you are confident of the veracity, you are required to report such knowledge to protect the child.
When social workers guarantee confidentiality, they do so with some limits, and those limits are to safeguard the client and other people. A social worker is required by legal decree to divulge information in a court of law. Although confidentiality is part of social workers’ conduct, it has limits, and clients need to understand these limits.
Rural social workers have a particular set of challenges around confidentiality and managing dual relationships. A social worker is more likely to have chance encounters in a rural area or small town. At times, it may feel like one is never “off duty.” Galambos, Watt, Anderson, and Danis (2006, p. 3) offer some suggestions for how to manage these challenges:
1. Have a detailed and open discussion about confidentiality and client–worker dual relationships in rural areas. For example, what happens if the social worker frequents a client-owned restaurant?
2. Use genograms and eco-maps to identify mutual friends and social systems. Then discuss how to manage the overlapping relationships and systems. For example, what if the social worker and the client go to the same church? The social worker should initiate an open discussion about chance encounters there. And the worker must reassure the client that he or she will not break confidentiality or privacy by sharing information or mentioning the client’s situation with other people at church.
3. Conduct periodic evaluations of how the dual relationships and privacy issues are being handled.
One of the strongest criticisms of individual practice is that it strives to change the individual rather than the social environment. Critics argue that it provides symptom relief and does not solve social problems. For example, should a social worker try to help a person deal with personal stress that results from poverty or should the social worker try to end poverty? The demands of individual work often take precedence over working to change the environment. Ethically, social workers have a mandate to concern themselves with both (see Box 6.5 ).
Box 6.5
Ethical Practice…Doing Two Things at Once?
According to the Code of Ethics (see Appendix A ), a social worker’s primary goal is to help people in need. The code also tells us that social workers are supposed to “challenge social injustice.” Can you describe ways in which you would primarily work with individual clients but at the same time address social problems and challenge social injustice? Can you do both?
EP 1c
Ethical good conduct is also the foundation of being aware of one’s own practice limitations. In this section, we have briefly described numerous modes of intervention that require extensive training. Insight-oriented therapies rely on sophisticated understandings of psychology and human behavior, and hours of specialized supervised instruction. Although BSW and MSW programs provide quality training and education, additional postgraduate training is essential for advanced clinical interventions. Social workers have an ethical obligation to practice within their abilities and not to try techniques in which they are not fully trained.
Generalist Social Work Practice with Groups
Group membership is part of most people’s lives. Children are socialized early in life to participate in groups. Some groups are informal; others have rules, regulations, and membership criteria.
Social work practice often utilizes groups to provide services and assist people in their day-to-day living. These groups tend to be formal and are created for a specific purpose. Formal groups can provide opportunities for socialization, serve numerous clients simultaneously, and expand insight as people reflect on their interactions with others. Therefore, part of social work training involves understanding the functions and processes of various kinds of groups and learning to work with them.
More often, social workers incorporate group work into their practice, but it is not their main function. For example, Emma, in her role as a rural school social worker, started a group for homeless youths. Emma spends most of her time working with individual students and their families, but once a week she holds a group session in the county seat. The group’s purpose is twofold:
1. Socialization: Emma helps participants learn interpersonal and social skills and behavior patterns that will help them function effectively in the community. Socialization groups can also help reduce social isolation by bringing people together for a shared purpose. This is particularly important in a rural area, where homeless youths are especially isolated. Emma uses informal recreation to help with skill-building. While the youth are playing basketball or volleyball, she guides them through interactions with one another, mediates differences and conflicts, and encourages cooperation.
2. Support and Counseling: The underlying goal of the group is to help homeless youths to support one another and to help participants overcome the problems of daily living. Emma’s participants discuss their feelings about their families and the impact of their upbringing on their current lives; they also share ideas about how to find resources. The youths’ lives begin to improve because of their insights and the empowering experiences they share. It is important to emphasize that Emma’s group is not a therapeutic group. She is not a clinical social worker, and she is not trained or licensed to facilitate group therapy.
3. The Unique Challenges of Rural Social Work
4. Rural areas face the same problems as large urban areas, including drugs, gang activity, racism, and homelessness. However, most rural areas do not have adequate resources to address these problems, and require social workers to have a wide range of knowledge and skills to fill multiple roles (Humble, Lewis, Scott, & Herzog, 2013). Emma works in a rural county in the Southeast. The largest town in the county has a population of 5,000; fewer than 10,000 people live inside the county lines. The people in this county are more politically and religiously conservative than the average American, and they highly value self-sufficiency and privacy (Edwards, Torgerson, & Sattem, 2009). These values can lead to criticism of homeless youths, but they can also inspire people to reach out to the youth, especially if the problem is seen as a “small” and manageable one. Emma will need to educate the people in the county about youth homelessness and provide members of the town with opportunities to help.
5. The homeless youth group meets once a week in the county seat because that is where most of the state services are located. For example, if they want to apply for Medicaid or other government assistance, they must do it in the county seat. Transportation is a major problem for these youth because there is no bus. Emma transports some of the youths to the weekly group sessions in the school district’s van. Emma has to be creative generating incentives to motivate the youths to come to the group meetings. She has arranged for some of the families in the town to prepare home-cooked meals; she provides support and advocacy services for those youths who want to apply for government assistance when they are in town. Emma has also arranged for the small church in town to collect clothes, blankets, and shoes that she can make available to the youths when they come to meetings.
6. Emma evaluates her practice in two ways. One is to keep track of the number of youths who come each week and how many she is able to help find temporary housing. The other is to work with the youth to set goals for themselves, and then together they determine whether those goals have been met. As many of these youths have left home because of their parent’s drug use, Emma knows that the parents need services as well. However, she is already overwhelmed with her school caseload, so she is not able to provide services to the parents.
7. Other Types of Groupwork
8. Support Games
9. LO 5
10. Support groups are typically used with people who are in crisis and need help facing it. There are crisis support groups for people surviving the death of a spouse or family member, dealing with divorce, and facing a severe illness, just like Michael in the section “Generalist Social Work Practice with Individuals and Families.” For example, although parents who have lost a child may benefit from individual treatment for grief and depression, they may also find solace and comfort among others who understand their feelings from firsthand experience. Such a support group can be an excellent resource for parents trying to find ways to manage the crisis. Other examples of this type of group include children discussing feelings about their parents’ divorces, and members of the trangender community who come together to discuss how their experiences of discrimination and exclusion have shaped their lives.
11. Support groups are increasingly being offered via the Internet (Lawlor & Kirakowski, 2014). Improving technology is allowing people to meet with others, share their experiences, develop connections, and receive support online. Online groups have several benefits not offered by in-person groups. People may experience shame about something occurring in their lives. An online group allows for anonymity that may help some overcome their fear of sharing something they see as shameful. Mobility or transportation issues may keep people from attending in-person groups. Technology can help them to attend from home.
12. Self-Help Groups
13. Self-help groups have become popular over the past several decades. Their goal is to bring together people who share a specific need, problem, or concern to provide social and emotional support. Guidance in behavior is also a goal of self-help groups. Alcoholics Anonymous, founded in 1935, is one of the best-known self-help efforts. All members of the group identify themselves as recovering alcoholics, and participants take turns in leadership roles and act as mentors to one another.
14. The guiding principle of these groups is that participants share a personal involvement in the concern and usually eschew professional leadership in favor of lay leadership. Social workers need to be aware of the services available through self-help groups in order to refer clients to them.
15. Social Action Groups
16. Group social action is often used to achieve social change when unacceptable societal conditions have been neglected or inadequately addressed by agencies of authority, such as the government (Brueggemann, 2014). Social action groups, also referred to as grassroots efforts, are often used by community organizers. Therefore, the roles of group worker and community organizer intersect in social change groups.
17. Social change groups bring people together so that participants can become empowered and realize that they can change their environments, and so that people can gain the power needed to change their communities. Although the organizer is active in maintaining the group, he or she works behind the scenes. The members make decisions, speak publicly, choose strategies, and chair meetings. The organizer serves as a facilitator of the group process, helping to ensure that the members can achieve the goal of social change through their own efforts and empowerment (see Box 6.6)
18. Box 6.6
19. What Do You Think?
20. What kind of problems or concerns would you rather discuss in a group than individually with a social worker? Why? Are there types of groups that feel more useful to you? Which ones, and why? When and under what circumstances might you refer a friend to participate in a group?
21. Ethical Challenges in Working with Groups
22. Confidentiality is the biggest ethical challenge in working with groups. To what extent are people free to discuss information shared during sessions outside the group? If one of the purposes of the group is for members to share intimate feelings and past experiences, how should that information be handled by participants? When groups meet in public settings, as when a support group for recovering drug users meets in a community center where recreation groups also meet, it is difficult to guarantee confidentiality.
23. Group workers have an obligation to discuss confidentiality with group members and to help the group define what should remain confidential (Pollio, Brower, & Galinsky, 2000). Although the social worker leading a group can never guarantee that each group member will abide by the rules set by the group, it is the social worker’s ethical responsibility to ensure that the group discusses confidentiality and develops guidelines.
25.
26. EP 1a
27. Safety is critical for group success. Participants need to know that they are free to share sensitive and personal information without having to deal with negative responses to their feelings. This requires cultural sensitivity. At the same time, participants should not be allowed to share feelings that express prejudice or are hurtful to another member. Group workers cannot always ensure appropriate sharing, but setting rules of conduct with the group from the beginning and providing guidelines to create a safe environment are important.
28. Community Practice
29. The term community practice encompasses a number of different methods, all of which are focused on creating change in the social environment. These methods include organizing, planning, development, and change (Gamble & Weil, 2010). Community organizing is the process of bringing people together to work for needed change. Community planning involves collecting data, analyzing a situation, and developing strategies to move from a problem to a solution. Community development is the process of helping individuals improve the conditions of their lives by increased involvement in the social and economic conditions of their communities. Community change is the desired outcome, whether it means adding needed services, shifting the balance of power from the haves to the have-nots, reducing isolation, or developing and implementing more effective policies. Community practitioners are involved in recruiting community members, identifying community strengths and problems, planning change efforts, developing strategies and tactics needed to carry out change efforts, supporting and encouraging group members, raising needed resources, and evaluating their efforts.
31. Although most social work practitioners concentrate on interventions with individuals and small groups, the problems that social workers confront cannot be adequately addressed by this type of work alone. To begin to solve the immense problems that confront us, such as poverty, homelessness, oppression, hunger, child abuse, and domestic violence, to name just a few, social workers must engage community members in social change efforts. Without this step, the problems society faces will continue to worsen, and the suffering of social work clients will continue to increase. Consider the reasons for organizing, as described in Box 6.7. By focusing on changing the social environment, community practice brings hope to those who are locked out of the mainstream of society and thus works toward ensuring social justice.
32. Box 6.7
33. More about…The Goals of Organizing
34. Somewhere in the Deep South, on the road that runs from New Orleans to Atlanta, an 80-year-old woman is living alone in a shack by the roadside. If you are driving along that road, you can sometimes see her going painfully along in the long grass beside the highway. She is looking for the drink bottles the motorists throw out the windows of their cars as they go past at 70 miles an hour. Tomorrow a child will come by her shack to collect the bottles and bring them to the grocery downtown and will bring the 5 cents a bottle she gets back to the old woman to buy food.
35. Or if you were walking the dirt streets of a town not far from there, you might have seen a child playing in the road. He is throwing his toy into the air, chasing it, picking it up, and throwing it again. You come closer. It is a dead bird.
36. Make no mistake. Organizing is not just about strategies, about analyses, about tactics. Organizing is about people, about the old woman with her drink bottles and the child with his dead bird. Organizing is about the “welfare cheats,” the “deadbeats,” the “punks”—everyone else this society locks out and shuts in.
37. What would she or he say, that famous poor person the “leaders” of this country so often talk about, and so rarely talk with, if given the chance to speak?
38. That I needed a home, and you gave me food stamps.
39. That I needed a job, and you got me on welfare.
40. That my family was sick, and you gave us your used clothes.
41. That I needed my pride and dignity as a human being, and you gave me surplus beans.
42. Let us not forget, when we talk of violence, that the death of a young mother in childbirth is violent, that the slow starvation of the mind and body of a child is violent. Let us not forget that hunger is violent, that pain is violent, that oppression is violent, that early death is violent. And that death of hope is the most violent of all.
43. The organizer brings hope to the people.
44. Source: Kahn (1994).
45. Roles
46. LO 6
47. Social work practitioners take on a variety of roles when working with communities. These roles include community organizer, community planner, advocate, researcher/evaluator, fundraiser, and trainer/teacher.
48. Community organizers bring people in a community together to work toward some type of social change. They work with existing groups or help form new groups that utilize the strengths or assets of community members to create needed change.
50. Social workers at all levels of practice are involved in advocacy . Advocacy means pleading the cause of another or, put more simply, speaking up and supporting what one believes in. At the community level, social workers are generally involved in advocating for funds and services with and for community members. They are also involved in legislative advocacy for changes in laws or policies.
51. Conducting research as a community practitioner means facilitating the research or evaluation effort. The researcher involves all those who are affected by the concern, program, or need, using principles of democratic participation. Rather than serving as an outside expert, the community researcher provides guidance to meet the goals of finding information and effecting change. This approach is referred to as action research or critical action research (Stringer, 2007). Through the research process, the subjects of the research are also often participants and are involved in data collection, analysis, and reporting findings. The most vital component of community action research is that the findings lead to community change.
52. Community social workers are often involved in raising money to support community change efforts. They conduct research and write grants to receive money from government sources and private and corporate foundations. Organizing and implementing grassroots fundraising efforts, including raffles, concerts, and sales events, are also common activities at the community practice level.
53. Social workers have skills that can help community members more effectively work together to create change. They are often involved in helping community members learn to recruit, strategize, work with the media, raise resources, and join together in coalitions.
Models of Community Practice
Practitioners can use a number of approaches or models to create community change (Homan, 2011; Gamble & Weil, 2010). A model gives practitioners a framework that guides them in determining how best to approach a situation within a specific community. It provides guidelines about the roles practitioners should take, how power comes into play in the change effort, the target of the change effort, who becomes involved in creating change, and the types of issues that are addressed. The common thread that joins all of the models is that each is aimed at creating community-level change.
Neighborhood and Community Organizing
When people hear the term community practice, they often think of community organizing. Neighborhood and community organizing is the process of bringing members of a geographic community together to create power in numbers. Practitioners organize residents to act on their own behalf, developing local control and empowerment. This type of organizing has an external and an internal focus. The external focus is on accomplishing specific tasks, whereas the internal focus is on helping members build their capacity for future organizing efforts.
Functional Organizing
Functional organizing is similar to neighborhood and community organizing, but the focus is on recruiting people with similar interests or concerns rather than on recruiting people in the same geographic location. The aim is still to bring like-minded people together to shift the balance of power and advocate for needed change. Examples of functional communities include people concerned about the environment, treatment of children; health care for the poor; domestic violence; and discrimination based on race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, class, age, or mental or physical ability.
As in neighborhood and community organizing, the aim in functional organizing is on creating external change and building internal capacity. Organizing efforts focus on advocating for a specific issue or population and are often aimed at policy change, service development, and community education. Practitioner roles include organizer, teacher, advocate, and facilitator.
Community Social and Economic Development
Community social and economic development strives to empower and improve the lives of low-income, marginalized, and oppressed people by bringing residents together to become more involved in the social and economic lives of their communities. The goals of this model include improving education, leadership, and political skills within the community and improving the economic health of a community. The latter is achieved by enlisting the support of government entities, banks, foundations, and developers to invest in the community. This approach differs from other economic development approaches in that the community members are involved in each step of the process. Community members assess their community, determine what its needs are, develop a plan for change, and help with the implementation of the plan.
Community social and economic development efforts focus on housing development, job training, business development, and such support services as child care, education, and transportation. Practitioner roles include planner, teacher, manager, promoter, and negotiator.
Social Planning
Social planning is a rational problem-solving process in which planners look at communities and available resources and create plans to develop, expand, coordinate, and implement services. The social planning process takes place at the local and regional levels. Social planning has traditionally been conducted by outside experts. These experts study the community and make recommendations regarding the changes needed, often with little or no input from community members.
Although planning is still often done in this manner, community groups are increasingly demanding involvement. They are tired of outsiders coming in and telling them what is right for their community. Thus, community groups are gaining access to the planning process nationwide. Social work roles in the social planning process include planner, researcher, manager, proposal writer, and negotiator.
Program Development and Community Liaison
The purpose of program development is the creation of a new service or expansion of an existing service or program to meet community needs. The process involves conducting a needs assessment, planning new services specifically designed to meet community needs, and implementing and evaluating those services. To be effective, the program development process should include input from all those who will be affected by the new program. This includes current clients, potential clients, agency staff, community leaders, and community residents. Practitioner roles include planner, proposal writer, mediator, facilitator, and liaison with the community.
Political and Social Action
The political and social action model focuses on helping citizens gain political power and a voice in the decision-making process. The aim of this model is to increase social justice by pressuring political and corporate leaders to replace harmful policies or practices with ones that benefit disadvantaged and low-income groups. The model attempts to increase participatory democracy by engaging citizens who have traditionally been left out of the process.
Public and elected officials and corporate leaders are often the targets of political and social action campaigns. These include efforts to stop corporations from polluting the air and water in low-income communities, increase funding for education or social services, pressure legislators to support legislation to ensure access to health insurance for all members of society, pass legislation to require stiffer penalties for hate crimes, and elect a legislator who supports progressive causes to replace one who supports policies that harm low-income and marginalized groups. Practitioner roles include advocate, organizer, educator, and researcher.
Coalition Building
Coalitions are formed when separate groups come together to work collectively on an issue of concern. Joining a coalition allows groups to increase their power base and available resources while also maintaining their autonomy. Most groups do not have the number of people or the resources necessary to create large-scale change on an issue. However, when a number of groups join together, their combined membership is large enough and strong enough to influence policy and demand additional resources.
Coalitions usually focus on a single issue and are often time limited. They may join together to support or oppose a specific piece of legislation or to address a common problem. For example, the federal government may propose dramatically reducing funding for environmental protection. Various groups may come together to oppose the funding reduction—environmental groups whose purpose is to protect the environment, public health groups who fear increased pollution will harm citizens, children’s advocates who are concerned about increased asthma risks, and tribal groups who want to protect water flowing through their lands.
Coalitions present a number of interesting challenges to community practitioners. Groups that join together may agree on one issue, yet disagree on many others. There may be tensions over who gets to make decisions, who speaks for the group, how resources are divided, and what direction the coalition should take. Social work practitioners often take on the roles of mediator and negotiator to help keep coalitions together. A practitioner may also act as a spokesperson and teacher.
Whichever approach practitioners decide to use, to be effective in community practice they must have a strong understanding of the population with whom they are working and of their own biases, strengths, and challenges. They must also have good interpersonal and critical thinking skills, and a lot of patience, persistence, and passion.
Ethical Challenges in Working with Communities
LO 7
Community practitioners face a number of unique ethical challenges. Some of the biggest challenges come in the form of the process or product debate. As mentioned earlier, many efforts to create social change focus on both internal capacity building (process goals) and external task accomplishment (product goals). Process goals involve working with group members to help them improve their skills and become increasingly self-sufficient. Achieving these goals takes time, and tension can result from trying to build the capacity of members and also trying to achieve an external goal.
Social work values stress the importance of client self-determination. This suggests the importance of process goals, which help community members develop skills that let them take more control over their lives. Yet communities often have limited time available to address an issue of great concern. For example, a city council is planning to close a neighborhood elementary school that predominantly serves low-income students of color. Residents believe that sending their children to schools elsewhere in the city will be harmful. Action has to be taken quickly, for the city wants to close the school in less than two months. The organizer can put together a protest event and notify the media and the public in a short period of time. This would meet the product goal. Meeting the process goal requires the residents themselves to take on many or all of the tasks so that they will learn skills to increase their self-determination and continue the work in the future. However, because they have not done these tasks before, it will likely take the residents much longer to accomplish them, possibly threatening the product goal.
Community practitioners need to find ways to balance both the process and the product goals of a group. This can be done by addressing process goals as a first priority when a group is formed. Social workers can conduct training sessions to pass on the skills needed to do effective community work, spend time on leadership development, and address internal group conflicts as they arise. If these issues are addressed early and consistently, group members are prepared to take on necessary roles when the need arises.
A second ethical challenge common in community work is the conflict between individual and community rights and responsibilities. Although the community practitioner values the autonomy and rights of an individual resident based on the values of self-determination and freedom, individual autonomy sometimes threatens the rights of others in the community. For example, a resident who likes to collect things has a house and yard filled with belongings that he treasures, but his neighbors see them as junk. Neighbors worry that the house and yard are a fire hazard and that they make the street look less desirable, therefore lowering the property value of their homes.
EP 1c
Differences over whose rights take precedence come up frequently in community practice settings. Practitioners must have strong mediation and negotiation skills to help people reach a compromise in such situations. If compromise cannot be reached, they must also be able to consider the ethical questions involved and critically weigh the two sides against the backdrop of the NASW Code of Ethics. Using the principle of the most good for the most people can be one helpful way to reach a decision in many situations.
The Role of a Global Perspective in Generalist Practice
The Council on Social Work Education emphasizes a global perspective in its Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (CSWE, 2015). In other words, generalist practitioners in the United States can draw on the knowledge and practice of other social workers across international boundaries. Since the earliest days of the profession, this has been true. Jane Addams was inspired by what she saw at Toynbee Hall in England and used their work to guide her in the development of the settlement residence of Hull House in Chicago in the 1800s. Social workers today see clients from all over the world, due to immigration and the United States long serving as a refuge for people fleeing dangerous conditions in their countries of origin.
Interest in the global context of social work practice has grown in recent years. Higher education institutions are under more pressure than ever to increase curricula around global awareness (Sherman, 2016). Schools of social work are allowing students to do fieldwork overseas, sponsoring international study tours, conducting research internationally, and promoting cross-border collaborations (Leggett, 2008). The reality of our global culture is that today’s social worker needs to expand his or her cultural awareness and sensitivity. Generalist practitioners learn about social welfare conditions and oppression in other parts of the world and what those conditions might mean for conditions in the United States. Globalization, the Internet, and social media sites have all succeeded in making the world smaller, helping us realize how we are all connected. The economy in Greece, a relatively tiny country, has an impact on the European Union economy, which in turn has an impact on the United States, and vice versa. The role of government or lack thereof in Somalia has an impact on the security of the United States. Oppression of women, religious, ethnic, and racial minorities around the globe should be of concern to social workers in America. Examples of international social work practice are interspersed throughout the rest of the book.
