Week 3 assignment

6.1 Business and Professional Communication

Almost everyone is employed at some sort of job during their lifetime. It may be a part- time summer job between school semesters, a volunteer position with a charity or nonprofi t organization, or a full- time career. Considering the various types of jobs available to you, how would you respond if someone asked you, “Why do you work?” Many people would say, “I work because I have to,” or, “I work to pay the bills.” Although these are our primary reasons for working, and ar e certainly important, most of us derive additional, important benefits from our work. The nonmonetary rewards from our jobs fall into two main categories: self-fulfillment— the feelings of competence, recognition, and personal reward from knowing a job and doing it well—and social interaction— the feeling of being part of a team and having social relationships with coworkers. We main tain these business relationships through communication, which we also use to seek and sh are information, make decisions, coordinate and complete tasks, and influence and motivat e others in business and professional contexts (Myers, Seibold, & Park, 2011).

Business and professional communication (BPC) is a broad communication context that inc ludes all of the different forms of messages exchanged in the workplace or in a professional setting. This definition can include written and oral communication, both verbal and nonve rbal, and can also take place in digital or mediated contexts. Additionally, BPC encompasses the gathering and dissemination of information that is relevant to that particular business setting, as well as the promotion of a specific product, service, or organization. Advertising, public relations, marketing, crisis and reputation management, human resources, event pla nning, and corporate communications are all areas of BPC, and BPC in all of these specific a reas involves how coworkers or members of a professional organization relate interperson ally. Communication in these professional settings is not solely about the work that we do. We al so communicate with our colleagues at work because we like them. We build interpersonal relationships with them that we wish to maintain, and we give and receive social support fr om them. In fact, the interpersonal component of our business and professional relationshi ps is vital. For example, a study examining the demands of work found that support from pe ers in the workplace buffered employees from the negative health effects of job stress and s train, which then reduced employee mortality (Shirom, Toker, Alkaly, Jacobson, & Balicer, 2 011). Arie Shirom and colleagues also found that this colleague support, which involved im mediate coworkers being friendly and helpful with solving problems, reduced symptoms of depression and anxiety (Shirom et al., 2011). This also includes employees who telecommu te— that is, employees who work from a remote location, usually from home or a different office . Telecommuters perceive greater support from their superiors than those who work full- time in an office setting, which then contributes to them reaching their work goals and feeli ng more engaged with their work (Masuda, Holschlag, & Nicklin, 2017). Thus, our interpers onal relationships in the workplace can positively impact our health and our productivity i n multiple important ways, and this chapter focuses on this and other interpersonal aspects of BPC.

The Importance of Interpersonal Communication in the Workplace

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2018), Americans spend an average of 8.6 hour s working during a typical workday. This significant time devoted to working drives home t he importance of competent communication in business and professional settings. Interper sonal and written communication skills are some of the most important skills you can devel op to help you achieve your academic and professional goals. In business, government, and other professional fields, people communicate to share information, to persuade others, to reach goals and obtain results, and to form positive relationships with clients and customer s (Picardi, 2001).

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Employers need and want employees who have good communications skills in a range of in terpersonal and group situations.

A number of organizations conduct surveys of employers to determine which skills are imp ortant for employers and find that various forms of communication are consistently rated a s important. For example, each year, the National Association of Colleges and Employers (N ACE) asks employers to rate the importance of 10 skills and qualities on a scale of 1 throug h 5, with 1 representing “not important” and 5 representing “extremely important.” The top three skills are written communication skills, problem- solving skills, and teamwork, abilities that are directly related to interpersonal communicat ion (NACE, 2018). The skills of obtaining and processing information, writing reports, and s elling or influencing others are also an integral part of interpersonal communication in the

workplace. Time and again, employers also report that they value listening, leadership, ma nagement of others, and multicultural awareness and sensitivity (Hansen & Hansen, n.d.).

A similar employer survey asked business executives about the top 10 most important soft skills, or the intangible interpersonal qualities and personal attributes that job seekers nee d, in addition to the hard skills, or the technical knowledge and expertise required for a par ticular job (Robles, 2012). Three of the 10 most important soft skills directly involve interp ersonal communication skills: communication (ranked second), interpersonal skills (fifth), and teamwork skills (ninth; Robles, 2012). Indeed.com, a popular job website, also includes effective communication skills, teamwork, and conflict resolution in its list of most sought- after soft skills to list on a cover letter or resume (n.d.). Though employers consistently rate communication as an important skill, job seekers, espe cially millennials (those born between 1981 and 1996), may not be doing an effective job p resenting such skills to prospective employers. A survey conducted by an online career net work, Beyond.com (2013), polled 6,000 job seekers and veteran human resource (HR) prof essionals, finding a substantial difference between how millennials view themselves as emp loyee prospects and how HR professionals perceive such candidates. Though 66% of the mi llennials rated themselves as team players, only 22% of HR professionals agreed that the m illennials would work well in a team (Beyond.com, 2013). In addition, 65% of the millennial s felt that their interpersonal communication skills were strong, but only 14% of the HR pr ofessionals agreed with this assessment. On a positive note, 86% of HR professionals viewe d millennials as tech-savvy, while 39% viewed them as fun-loving. These perceptual differences may be discouraging for job seekers, but one way to overcom e such hurdles is to learn more about interpersonal communication, which can give job see kers an important advantage because they will know how to better communicate who they are and what skills they can offer employers. The simple fact is that employers need and wa nt people who have good communication skills and are competent communicators in a vari ety of ways.

Workplace Communication Behaviors

Research on BPC aims to identify and understand the types of communication that occur in the workplace. A study by Joann Keyton and her colleagues (2013) pinpointed four routine forms of workplace communication that can help evaluate employee effectiveness. The rese archers sought to determine which communication behaviors individuals use frequently in the workplace and how these messages are evaluated by coworkers (Keyton et al., 2013). T his study defined workplace communication behaviors as social behaviors that employees e ngage in with coworkers, which then create connections between individual employees an d the larger organization. Workplace communication behaviors

• serve important functions, • are undertaken to accomplish goals, • are interactive because they involve other individuals, • are learnable, and • are observable.

Keyton and colleagues (2013) argue that it is important to identify these behaviors because they are relevant to how organizations evaluate employee performance, competence, and s kill.

To identify these behaviors in the workplace, Keyton and colleagues (2013) conducted two studies. The first study helped researchers generate a list of workplace behaviors that were communicative in nature. The second study then allowed researchers to organize the list of behaviors into broader categories and examine each category in relation to effectiveness— an employee’s perceived ability in that particular area— and communication competence. Four broad workplace communication behavior categorie s emerged from Keyton and colleagues’ analysis (2013):

• information sharing: task- related behaviors such as explaining, solving problems, giving feedback and advice, and ask ing and answering questions

• relational maintenance: interpersonal relationship- focused actions such as creating relationships, engaging in small talk, and being humorous

• expressing negative emotion: complaints or frustrations about work or the workplace • organizing: administrative-

type behaviors such as scheduling and planning, personnel management, and problem solvi ng There are elements of each of these four categories in the scenario described at the beginni ng of the chapter. Patrick and Dominique share information about the policies of the firm w here they work, and each also expresses negative emotions about their boss, Suzanne. Suza nne is organizing as she attempts to understand the friendship between her two employees and its possible influence on their coworkers and the organization. Throughout the scenari o, Patrick, Dominique, and Suzanne are also independently attempting to maintain workpla ce relationships by trying to work through the situation (though it might be more construct ive if they communicated and worked through concerns as a team).

In Keyton and colleagues’ research, engaging in information sharing, maintaining relations hips, and organizing were perceived by participants as appropriate and effective workplace communication behaviors (2013). Further, although information sharing and maintaining relationships are often viewed by researchers as important factors in workplace communic ation processes, organization behaviors and the expression of negative emotion are import ant additional behaviors that help communication scholars understand how individuals in business and professional settings communicate.

6.2 How Interpersonal Communication Can Enhance Professional Succe

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Though BPC tends to focus on how colleagues communicate with one another about busine ss and professional matters, interpersonal messages and relationships among colleagues ar

e also important aspects of BPC and are integral to workplace success. As we have seen, soc ial support from our colleagues helps buffer against negative health effects that stem from work (Birmingham & Holt- Lunstad, 2018) and contributes to productivity and other constructive workplace outcome s (Wagner et al., 2015); also, employers recognize and seek out the value of interpersonal c ommunication when hiring new employees. The next sections explore additional ways that interpersonal communication can enhance your success at work and your career advancem ent.

Professionalism

The term professional is applied to occupations or activities related to work or careers that require certain skills, competence, or character. The related concept of professionalism refe rs to the principles of behavior and communication that are appropriate and effective in the se more formal settings. Professionalism is an important soft skill in the workplace (Robles, 2012). The Center for Professional Excellence (CPE), which conducts an annual survey on professionalism in the workplace, reported in 2015 (the last year the survey was conducte d) that HR professionals and managers designate a number of components of professionali sm, including being focused, punctual/attentive, humble, diligent, and having communicati on skills. Many of these components are directly related to verbal and nonverbal communic ation skills necessary to communicate with others in business and professional settings. Ho wever, these skills are lacking in recent graduates: The most recent annual NACE survey (2 018) found that 89.4% of students felt they were proficient in professionalism/work ethic but that only 42.5% of employers agreed. The communication skills discussed thus far in this text apply to professional settings just a s much as they do to other environments. However, the context of a professional environm ent, such as the college classroom or the workplace, imposes some specific requirements o n the ways that individuals communicate. Some of the most important requirements for co nveying professionalism are outlined in the following sections. Many of the elements are ce ntral in business and professional settings but are important in our personal lives as well.

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We often use informal language when we have a familiar relationship with someone, but fo rmal language should be used in academic and professional settings.

Formal Language

Formal language is more careful, articulate, and mannered than everyday speech. It is used to express serious thought and is clear, accurate, and not overly emotional. As we noted in Chapter 4 when discussing verbal communication, formal language is the standard and app ropriate form of communication in the academic world, in most professional settings, with clients and customers, in professional and technical writing, and in public speaking situatio ns. Formal language avoids idioms, popular slang, biased language, and verbal fillers such a s “like.” Recall from Chapter 4 that biased language includes racist, sexist, ablest, and homo phobic language, so it is wise to consider how others might prefer to be described and be cu lturally sensitive when selecting terms that others may find demeaning. In these ways, usin g formal language conveys professionalism and the principle of taking responsibility for ho w you communicate that we introduced in Chapter 1.

If we have established a familiar relationship with someone, we often use slang expressions in our conversations, e- mails, and texts, and we worry less about using correct punctuation, grammar, and sentenc e structure. It can be argued that everyday conversations, social network posts, text messag es, and personal e- mails have conditioned us to respond quickly and briefly to messages via both mediated an

d face-to- face channels. Specifically, Larry Rosen and his colleagues (2010) found that individuals wi th some or no college education who used more brief language in their electronic interactio ns (called textisms) also created formal writing that was of lower quality. This was also the c ase for individuals with some college education who sent more text and instant messages. A s a result of using more of these textisms, when we must deliver an oral presentation at wo rk or send a well-written letter or e- mail to a customer, we may be unsure how best to proceed. Failing to recognize the necessi ty of a more formal communication style in a professional setting is a significant mistake th at people make in the classroom and workplace. However, formal communication matters: Poor verbal skills during an interview, including incorrect grammar, often have negative consequences for job candidates (CPE, 2012) and c an leave a bad impression on coworkers or clients. So, it is wise to write (e.g., use grammar and spell checks, avoid casual language, etc.) and speak (e.g., use mutually- recognized jargon instead of slang, do not speak in hashtags or abbreviations, etc.) in class and at work more formally than you communicate via text and on social media. In sum, it is a good idea to treat education and work environments as formal language environments in which you put your best professional foot forward.

Integrity

Plagiarizing, lying, cheating, missing deadlines, and not doing what you say you will do are behaviors that demonstrate a lack of integrity. Crucial for both personal and professional s uccess, integrity involves behaving and communicating honestly and ethically, being true to your word, and honoring your commitments. Having integrity reflects two of our compete nt interpersonal communication principles: taking responsibility for your communication b ehavior and respecting others and yourself. Business executives rank integrity as the most i mportant soft skill in the workplace (Robles, 2012), and Indeed.com (n.d.) lists integrity as a n important soft skill that employers seek in job candidates. Lack of integrity affects your re putation and undermines others’ trust in you and thus negatively affects your professionali sm. It is extremely difficult to restore trust in a relationship once it is broken. Plagiarism, for example, is an important example of an integrity violation. You commit plagi arism when you present someone else’s words or ideas as if they are your own. In other wo rds, you must give the original source of an idea the proper credit, or you are being dishone st and unethical by presenting someone else’s work— be it their writing, data, thoughts, or even answers on an exam— as if you did the work yourself. Plagiarizing can range from buying someone else’s paper on the Internet and submitting it with your name on it to using your own paper in multiple co urses without informing your instructors. Allowing someone to copy your exam answers is also plagiarism, as is not participating in a group project but taking credit for the final prod uct.

We tend to think of plagiarism as just an academic integrity violation, but many of these exa mples can extend to the business world as well. For example, what if you worked really har d on an idea that you had for a new product idea at your company, but your colleague, who you had confided in about your idea early on, presented it to your boss first as their own? Y

ou would likely feel betrayed, angry, and even violated. That is how someone else might fee l if they discovered that another person was presenting their hard work as their own witho ut it being properly credited to them.

How do we ensure that we are not committing plagiarism? In academic settings, every univ ersity has an academic integrity policy that you can familiarize yourself with. Course syllabi also frequently spell out what plagiarism is, and your course instructor is always happy to discuss how to avoid plagiarizing before you begin working on a project or when a paper is still in draft form. In the workplace, be clear about which contributions were made by whic h team members in a group project, and be careful who you share a “big idea” with if it may be proprietary later. Always try to put ideas in writing (even e- mail) early on to establish their provenance.

Respect for Others

As we mentioned in Chapter 1, respect is one of the principles of competent interpersonal c ommunication. Respect for others is also imperative for success in your personal and profe ssional life. Be considerate of others by using respectful language, being polite, and being e ncouraging. Someone who is respectful also appreciates diversity, values differences amon g coworkers, avoids biased language and attitudes, and calls people by the terms and name s that they prefer to be called. Additionally, communicating with respect will aid you in achi eving your goals—including those in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, for example— as well as in building and maintaining positive relationships with coworkers and classmate s that render it easier to complete school- and work-related goals.

Over the past few decades, language in professional settings has evolved to replace sexist a nd other biased terms with more inclusive language (see examples in Table 6.1). Using mor e inclusive language demonstrates respect for others, which reflects professionalism.

Table 6.1: Replacing sexist or biased language with inclusive terms

Sexist or biased term Inclusive term

businessman business owner, business executive, or businessperson

cancer victim; AIDS victim cancer patient; person with AIDS

chairman chairperson or chair

confined to a wheelchair uses a wheelchair

Congressman Congressperson

Eskimo Inuit or Aleut

fireman firefighter

freshman first-year student

Indian (when referring to U.S. indigenous peoples) Native American or specific tribe

policeman police officer

man or mankind people, humanity, or the human race

man hours working hours

man-made manufactured, machine-made, synthetic

manpower personnel or workforce

Negro or colored African American or Black

old people or elderly senior citizen, mature adult, older adult

Oriental Asian, Asian American, or specific country of origin

postman or mailman postal worker or mail carrier

steward or stewardess flight attendant

suffers from diabetes has diabetes

to man to operate, to staff, to cover

waiter or waitress server

Collaboration

It is common in classrooms and in the workplace to form work groups, project teams, task f orces, committees, and other groups to accomplish tasks. Success in team efforts requires g ood interpersonal communication skills and the ability to collaborate, or to work cooperati vely with others to accomplish goals. In order for a professional team to successfully produ ce a desired outcome, their communication encounters must involve planning, delegating, a nd collaborating in a way that is shared and agreed upon by the group. Thus, being collabor ative is a final integral component of professionalism.

Professional Reputation

The verbal and nonverbal messages that you use in the workplace or the classroom can affe ct your reputation. Emily Bennington and Skip Lineberg (2010), authors of Effective Immedi ately: How to Fit In, Stand Out, and Move Up at Your First Real Job, state that in many instan ces, people’s professional reputations are not destroyed by one or two major errors. Instea d, their reputations are chipped away over time by continual communication mistakes. You r professional reputation refers to how much professionalism your clients and colleagues p erceive you to have. Some specific mistakes can negatively impact your professional reputa tion, including e- mail errors and communication in meetings. These mistakes are discussed in the following sections.

E-Mail Errors

Professional reputations are frequently harmed by the errors people make with e- mail messages. Everyone makes an occasional mistake, but consistent errors in punctuatio

n, grammar, spelling, and sentence structure create negative impressions among people wh o read your e- mails, as these errors can be signs of poor judgment, lack of care, sloppiness, or laziness. Se nding personal messages such as jokes or chain letters, using biased or offensive language, and including abbreviations that may not be understood by others are other common e- mail problems that can affect an employee’s professional reputation. Sending inappropriate messages on work computers can be harmful to your career as well; they are usually a viol ation of organizational policies.

Misunderstandings are also frequent in e- mail because the tone of the communication is often difficult to determine. The short, infor mal style of many e- mail messages can be interpreted by a recipient as terse or rude. It is best to carefully proof read each e- mail that you send to your professional recipients and ensure that its content is clear and e asily understood. E- mails are also more efficient and more likely to be understood when the sender provides a clear, descriptive title for their content and starts a new e- mail chain when the topic has changed. Such small e-mail- related actions can go a long way in moving all parties on the e- mail chain toward achieving shared meaning, one of our competent interpersonal communi cation principles from Chapter 1.

Communication in Meetings

When you communicate in workplace meetings, you must be sensitive to the organizational culture, or how an organization’s mission, values, and attitudes are translated into commu nication policies and practices (Eisenberg & Riley, 2001). Similar to societal cultures, work place cultures dictate what an organization’s workers perceive as appropriate, normal, and accepted. In your next meeting, observe the practices of the other participants using what y ou have learned thus far in this course as a guide. For example, how is the power distance b etween managers and subordinates communicated? Do managers sit at the head of the tabl e to emphasize the distance, or do they mix in at different spots with subordinates to flatten out the power distance? When beginning at an organization, it is wise to seek answers to th ese questions. In meetings, follow cultural norms, know when it is prudent to speak up or t o remain silent, and know how much information to share. When the meeting leader asks, “ That’s about it. Any questions?”, it might be an invitation to ask about anything you did not understand. However, it might also be a ritual to end the meeting, and no response is expec ted or appreciated, depending on your organization’s culture. Knowing these cues and how to respond to them comes with observation and experience. New employees are often ambitious or eager to make an impression and may think that the y will be judged negatively if they sit through a meeting without saying anything. To be usef ul, however, contributions in meetings need to be thoughtful and relevant and have a stron g foundation (Wolgemuth, 2010). When you are in a meeting, be attentive and ask question s when critical issues need clarification, but be wary of interjecting unless you have someth ing important to add. In a new work environment, analyze the responses of others to deter

mine the type of response that is effective and appropriate in each situation. Some organiza tions encourage open and honest dialogue about issues; others do not. Knowing the expect ations of your workplace will help you assess how to behave in meetings.

Interrupting others, embarrassing them, or focusing on issues that are relevant just to you i n a meeting can also negatively affect your professional reputation. It is crucial to support y our boss and coworkers in public settings. Make sure your loyalty is thoughtful and deliber ate, however, not just blind allegiance (Wolgemuth, 2010).

Job Satisfaction

Our professional success not only depends on how professional we are to others, but on ho w we feel about our jobs. One way to assess your perception of your job is via job satisfacti on, which is your personal evaluation of how much you enjoy and are content with your em ployment situation (Wheeless, Wheeless, & Howard, 1984). Any number of factors can cont ribute to how satisfied you are with your job, including the number of hours you work, the amount of money you make, and the number and type of job responsibilities you have. In a ddition, research has found that a major component of job satisfaction is the BPC in which y ou take part, including both verbal and nonverbal messages. We explore how some of these messages are related to job satisfaction in the next sections.

Verbal Messages

What is said in business and professional settings can increase or decrease an employee’s j ob satisfaction. In general, organizations that stress open communication and that are willi ng to share information have more satisfied employees. In addition, communication betwee n superiors and subordinates is one major verbal communication contributor to subordinat es’ job satisfaction. For example, Teven (2007) found that when supervisors used positive o r prosocial messages— such as being friendly and showing that they like their subordinates— to convey their power, subordinates were more satisfied than when antisocial power mess ages, such as those that control or punish the subordinate, were employed.

Conflict is also an influential element in the workplace (De Dreu, van Dierendonck, & Dijkst ra, 2004). For example, unresolved conflict and how it is expressed has an impact on the or ganizational climate (Hample & Allen, 2012) and is a major reason that employees leave th eir jobs (Chen, Zhao, Liu, & Wu, 2012). The following lists specific research findings about e mployee job satisfaction.

• Job satisfaction is higher in companies that encourage employees to cooperate and collabor ate in conflict situations (Choi, 2013).

• Job satisfaction is lower in businesses where conflict is dealt with via active confrontation ( Choi, 2013).

• Compromising when in conflict is positively related to job satisfaction (Chen et al., 2012). • Constructive conflict cultures may reduce employee burnout, making employees more satis

fied with their jobs (Choi, 2013).

• Employees are less satisfied with their jobs in destructive conflict cultures, which may incr ease employee burnout (Choi, 2013).

• Employees with close friends at work have 50% higher job satisfaction (Rath, 2006). • Teamwork (as opposed to just collaboration or cooperation) promotes decreased turnover

and burnout in health and social care workers (Kaiser, Patras, & Martinussen, 2018). Based on these findings, how we verbally engage in conflict with our colleagues— using positive, constructive messages versus negative, destructive ones— is associated with job satisfaction.

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Nonverbal immediacy and chronemics are two specific nonverbal communication concepts related to job satisfaction.

Nonverbal Messages

In addition to verbal communication, a variety of nonverbal messages have been associated with job satisfaction. Nonverbal immediacy involves a collection of specific nonverbal mes sages such as eye contact and smiling that together increase your feelings of closeness with another person. We tend to be drawn to those who use nonverbal immediacy, and this can contribute to job satisfaction. For example, Teven (2007) found that when superiors comm unicated higher nonverbal immediacy to their subordinates, the job satisfaction of subordi nates increased. Superiors who are viewed as nonverbally immediate by subordinates are a lso seen as trustworthy, caring, and competent (Lybarger, Rancer, & Lin, 2017).

Time, or chronemics, is another nonverbal message that is related to job satisfaction. Dawn a Ballard and David Seibold (2006) found that multiple elements of time predicted employe e job satisfaction. Specifically, individuals with more of a future time focus, where future de velopments and long- term goals were emphasized, and employees with higher punctuality experienced greater j ob satisfaction. In contrast, employees who were expected to keep a faster pace were less s atisfied with their jobs. Together, time orientations combine to help employees feel as if the y are capable of meeting the demands of their jobs, thus contributing to their job satisfactio n (Ballard & Seibold, 2006). Ballard and Seibold (2004) also note that organizational memb ers create norms for time through their interactions with one another. How flexible, fast- paced, formally scheduled, and precise time is perceived as being in a particular workplace is typically determined by the cultural norms of the organization. To maintain positive relat ionships at work, it is important to understand the cultural norms related to time as well as the meaning assigned to time by your boss and close coworkers.

6.3 Types of Workplace Relationships

Americans work an average of 35 to 40 hours per week, so forming personal relationships with work colleagues is inevitable; in turn, these workplace relationships can contribute to an organization’s effectiveness. We examine different categories of workplace relationships in this section.

Formal Relationships

The primary relationship in business and professional settings is the formal relationship, w hich involves the many associations and networks that are designed and dictated by the bu siness or organization. The formal relationships in a business setting should be clear to eve ry employee, whether there are three employees or 300,000. Formal relationships allow e mployees to know who they need to communicate with to accomplish a particular task and who is responsible for which other employees. These relationships are defined by each em ployee’s job title or position and can be depicted visually in an organizational flowchart. Th e interactions that occur in formal relationships are what keep an organization going; they could be considered the lifeblood of an organization. These formal relationships can be further broken down according to the power differential s between each employee, or whether the work- related communication is vertical (downward and upward) or horizontal (lateral) in nature . In a business or professional context, vertical formal communication occurs between indiv iduals at different power levels. When a business’s CEO sends an e- mail to all of her employees about a new company policy or when a professor talks to a stu dent about a grade, vertical communication is happening. Vertical formal communication c an be broken down further based on who initiates the interaction. When a superior begins an interaction with a subordinate (someone lower in the company hierarchy), this is an exa mple of vertical downward communication. This type of communication could occur in the scenario at the beginning of the chapter if Suzanne initiated a conversation with Patrick an d Dominique about their workplace friendship. Conversely, when a subordinate starts com municating with a superior, they engage in a vertical upward communication interaction. In

the scenario, for example, Patrick and Dominique could communicate their concerns direct ly to Suzanne. Horizontal formal communication, in contrast, takes place between employees at identical or similar levels in a business or professional context. Two students talking to each other a bout a class assignment or a group of salespeople discussing their monthly quotas are exam ples of horizontal formal communication. Work interactions between Patrick and Dominiqu e also constitute horizontal communication because they are both lawyers at the same firm at a similar hierarchical level. Whether there is a power differential dictated by the organiz ational structure determines whether formal communication is vertical or horizontal. Both types of formal communication can also occur simultaneously, such as in a classroom settin g or a meeting where superiors and subordinates are both present. Employees need to seek and share information. Thus, formal communication in business an d professional settings helps employees accomplish the professional tasks that a business n eeds to exist and thrive. The importance of formal BPC also goes beyond such tasks. In one study, employees’ satisfaction with how much they interacted with their superior strongly predicted their commitment to the organization (Postmes, Tanis, & de Wit, 2001). In other words, vertical, formal relationships, such as those between superiors and subordinates, st rongly contributed to how much the subordinates identified with, felt involved in, and were emotionally attached to their organization. In addition, verbal formal communication was a better predictor of employees’ organizational commitment than horizontal, informal wor kplace interactions (Postmes et al., 2001). Thus, formal relationships are not only importan t for accomplishing the tasks that comprise one’s job description, but they also influence e mployees’ attachment to and involvement with the organization.

Informal Relationships

As opposed to the formal relationships defined by a company or organization, informal rela tionships are relationships based on shared interests, mutual regard, and friendship. Infor mal relationships occur between employees in a business and professional setting, but such interactions have little to do with the company. Nonetheless, informal communication bet ween colleagues is important. Forging interpersonal relations and being familiar with other employees in the workplace helps coworkers feel comfortable, allows them to feel they hav e the social and emotional support of others, and creates a general sense of community (My ers et al., 2011). It is for these reasons that Patrick and Dominique have a close informal fri endship. These informal relationships are enjoyable for those involved and can also benefit the com pany in a number of ways. For example, informal relationships can increase employees’ enj oyment of work and solidify their place in the organization, reducing the likelihood of empl oyee turnover (Myers et al., 2011). Further, employees who feel more familiar with one ano ther are more willing to engage in communication related to the company, including proble m solving, discussions, and decision making (Myers & Oetzel, 2003). Despite these benefits, some communication issues can arise that make these informal relationships problematic; a few of these are described below.

Inappropriate Topics

Many of us spend as much time at work as we do with our families or loved ones. We often become so comfortable with coworkers that we sometimes forget we must maintain profes sionalism in our interactions with them. Personal disputes in the workplace can make it diff icult for people to work together to achieve organizational goals. To keep these disputes to a minimum, it is best to avoid discussing topics that deal with personal and moral values. T he top three topics to steer clear of are sex, politics, and religion.

Charles Purdy, senior editor of job site Monster.com and author of the book Urban Etiquette : Marvelous Manners for the Modern Metropolis (2004), states that “if you make gender differ ences an issue at work, or if you let water-cooler discussion head toward a sex- related topic, you do so at great peril” (p. 84). Some people may be comfortable discussing t opics of a sexual nature; however, many people are not. Discussing such topics may offend some people, cause them to be uncomfortable, or create an environment that they feel is off ensive or hostile. Your comments might also be considered sexual harassment, which is aga inst the law. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission defines sexual harassme nt as “unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical harassment of a sexual nature” (n. d., para. 1). However, behaviors that constitute harassme nt do not need to be explicitly or blatantly sexual: Teasing someone because of their gender or making an offhand comment about a coworker’s body type can also count. Related to Ch apter 1, in cases of harassment, it doesn’t matter what a person’s intended meaning is; it m atters what the recipient’s received meaning is. Thus, it may just be safer to err on the side of safety and avoid making jokes or comments related to gender, sex, sexuality, and bodies. Politics and religion are also emotional issues for most people. A survey by the American Ps ychological Association (APA, 2016), conducted during the 2016 presidential election camp aign, revealed that 20% of employees avoided a colleague due to their political views. Furth er, 27% of Americans in the survey reported at least one negative outcome related to politi cal discussions at work, including engaging in conflict, feeling isolated, or being less produc tive (APA, 2016). Likewise, inappropriate jokes that use biased language have no place at w ork; not only can they be offensive to many people, they can also violate company policies a nd create a hostile work environment, which can have legal ramifications for you and your company. Laughing and telling elaborate stories about your weekend escapades, bodily fun ctions, and other personal issues also detracts from your professional image and reputation . The safest course is to keep your conversations to neutral topics. Resist the temptation to make negative comments about political figures or issues, to complain about your job, and t o speak negatively about anything or anyone.

Workplace Networks

It is a mistake to ignore your manager’s or supervisor’s point of view on an issue, but it is al so a mistake to continually agree with him or her. Always siding with the boss can cause tro uble for you with your coworkers. You were hired to be a contributor to a team effort, and y our success depends as much on your associations with your coworkers as it does on your r elationship with your boss. Roy Cohen, executive coach and author of the book The Wall Str eet Professional’s Survival Guide, reminds us of the importance of good working relations wi th coworkers. It is important, he states, not to be a lone ranger. Make sure to be an integral part of the team and to socialize with your colleagues at office functions (Cohen, 2010).

As we have discussed throughout this chapter, it is also important in professional settings t o pay attention to the informal communication networks that exist in every organization. T he grapevine is one of these informal networks; the term refers to the way information is p assed from person to person in an organization through casual conversations rather than vi a formal channels. The grapevine is an important way to find out what is happening throug hout the organization, and you should ensure that you are a part of that conversation path way. But not everything you hear via the grapevine is true. Gossip, which is not necessarily accurate or appropriate information, is often transmitted via the grapevine. However, this i nformal network can still serve as an early warning system about possible changes or issue s and gives you an opportunity to check the information to determine if it is accurate. Other informal networks might be the Friday night happy hour, the chatty group text, the c ompany softball team, and similar voluntary events or interactions that encourage employe es to come together outside of the office. A great deal of information and relationship buildi ng occurs during these events, and it is important to participate in these opportunities and to socialize with people throughout your organization when possible. If you have high com munication apprehension, which we discussed in Chapter 5, you may be less likely to desire to socialize with coworkers (McCroskey, 1976). Thus, it is important to utilize the strategie s discussed in Chapter 5 to do your best to make a good impression and maintain positive r elationships with your coworkers. Some of these strategies include developing communicat ion confidence, practicing your communication skills, and asking others for help.

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A coworker who organizes happy hours and birthday celebrations for colleagues is central i n an office's friendship network.

Why Relationships Are Central to Job Satisfaction

Informal relationships and networks are not only important for your own career advancem ent, they also contribute to your job satisfaction. Research on informal, interpersonal relati onships in business and professional settings has found that a number of factors are associ ated with job satisfaction. One variable is the biological sex of the employee. For example, f or males but not females, there is a strong, positive relationship between having strong frie ndships in the workplace and job satisfaction (Morrison, 2009). Females were also less likel

y to leave their jobs when they had formed strong workplace friendships, which was not th e case for males (Morrison, 2009).

How we maintain workplace friendships is a second concept related to job satisfaction. Rel ationship maintenance, which we discuss in more detail in Chapter 8, is accomplished in w orkplace friendships via a number of specific communication strategies, including being po sitive or upbeat, sharing tasks, managing conflict competently, sharing social networks, bei ng open, giving advice, and assuring coworkers about the friendship (Madlock & Booth- Butterfield, 2012). Over 80% of employees in one study reported that they used positivity, conflict management, and sharing tasks strategies (Madlock & Booth- Butterfield, 2012). Further, each of the relationship maintenance strategies was positively r elated to job satisfaction in this study, with conflict management and positivity being the be st predictors of job satisfaction.

A third way to assess the relationship between informal workplace relationships and job sa tisfaction is by considering the centrality of an employee in a workplace friendship networ k. Network centrality focuses on how much an employee participates in and is connected w ith other individuals in a friendship network (Raile et al., 2008). This concept can be furthe r broken down into the following three related factors (Raile et al., 2008):

• degree, or the extent to which a coworker is connected to other individuals in the network • closeness, or the extent to which a coworker can be in contact or communicate with all othe

r members of the network • betweenness, or the extent to which a coworker mediates or becomes involved in interactio

ns between two other network members The coworker who organizes happy hours and birthday celebrations for the colleagues that she spends time with socially would be considered fairly central to that friendship network . Of the three aspects of network centrality, Amber Raile and her colleagues (2008) found t hat only closeness was positively related to employee job satisfaction at a Korean organizat ion, possibly because closeness reflects an employee’s ability to access organizational resou rces efficiently. Similarly, behaving in ways that benefit one’s colleagues, such as helping so meone who has a particularly heavy workload, is positively related to network centrality in an international Taiwanese bank (Liu & Ipe, 2010).

Workplace norms vary by societal cultures. Geert Hofstede has dedicated his research care er to examining cultural dimensions, which, as we first described in Chapter 3, he first unco vered while analyzing survey data from the global employee pool at IBM. Hofstede found th at while the global data made no sense altogether, there were correlative patterns identifia ble by country. He identified that certain countries (such as China and Venezuela) valued gr eater communicative distance between subordinates and managers, while others (such as S witzerland and the United States) preferred individual goals over organizational goals. Thu s, although these survey respondents worked for the same company, the workplace norms within each country differed. Hofstede warns readers that these overarching cultural patter ns should not be conflated with individual members’ values (Hofstede, 2011).

Challenges of Romantic Workplace Relationships

As we discussed, we often form friendships at work and can forge lasting bonds with peopl e through our professional associations. We may also become romantically attracted to the people at work with whom we interact. From this attraction, a workplace romance might bl ossom. Workplace romances occur “between two members of an organization where sexua l attraction is present, affection is communicated, and both members recognize the relation ship to be something more than just professional and platonic” (Horan & Chory, 2011, p. 56 5).

Unlike non- workplace romantic relationships, workplace romances often involve two employees who must continue to interact with each other and perhaps even depend on each other to compl ete job tasks even after their romance has ended (Pierce, Byrne, & Aguinis, 1996). These ty pes of relationships are quite common: A survey by Careerbuilder.com (2018b) found that 36% of workers had dated someone they worked with, and 31% of these romantic partners went on to marry someone they met in the office.

Workplace romances may be common, but they can also be complicated and problematic. T hey can affect not only the relationship participants but those around them at work. At a mi nimum, the romantic relationship may be a source of gossip among coworkers. Those who were personally told about a coworker’s new workplace romance had more positive percep tions of the relationship than those who found out secondhand, such as through gossip or c atching their coworkers “in the act” (Cowan & Horan, 2014). Workplace romances can also have a negative effect on coworker morale and productivity; specifically, there is less trust, solidarity, and caring and less accurate and honest self- disclosure when interacting with someone who is dating a superior (Horan & Chory, 2009, 2011). Another important issue to consider before you get involved in a workplace romanc e is that many businesses and organizations have rules or policies that discourage, prohibit, or restrict their employees from having a romance with someone who works in the same o rganization or the same unit. It is wise to check your company’s policies and consider your colleagues’ perceptions of you and your potential partner before entering into a relationshi p with someone you work with.