Psychology SOC Assignment Chp 5

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Chapter 5 Outline - Mooney-2 LECTURE OUTLINE I. THE GLOBAL CONTEXT: FAMILY FORMS AND NORMS AROUND THE WORLD A. Definitions of family 1. Census definition: A group of two or more persons related by blood, marriage, or adoption 2. Sociological definition: a kinship system of all relatives living together or recognized as a social unit. a. This broader definition recognizes foster families, unmarried same-sex and opposite-sex couples and families, and any relationships that function and feel like a family. B. Monogamy and polygamy 1. Monogamy: a marriage between two partners 2. Serial monogamy: a succession of marriages in which a person has more than one spouse over a lifetime but is legally married to only one person at a time 3. Polygamy: a form of marriage in which one person may have two or more spouses a. The most common form of polygamy, polygyny, involves one husband having more than one wife. b. A less common form of polygamy is polyandry—the concurrent marriage of one woman to two or more men. c. In the U.S., polygamy is illegal and often referred to as bigamy—the criminal offense of marrying one person while still legally married to another. d. Polygamous marriages do exist in the United States among some fundamentalist i. Mormon splinter groups and some immigrant groups; polygamy is also practiced in other parts of the world. C. Arranged marriages 1. Where parents or other third party arrange a marriage D. Division of power in the family 1. Roles of women and men in families vary across societies.

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a. Some societies expect wives to be subservient to husbands (e.g., sub-Saharan Africa). b. In Western industrialized countries, marriages tend to be more egalitarian, which means spouses are viewed as equal partners. E. Social norms relating to childbearing 1. Social norms concerning childbearing also vary widely throughout the world. a. Compared to less developed societies where social expectations for women to have children are strong, in developed countries with high levels of gender equality, social norms concerning childbearing are more flexible; women may view having children as optional—as a personal choice. 2. Norms about out-of-wedlock childbirth also vary. a. 4 in 10 of all U.S. births are to unmarried women, a proportion lower than some western countries (e.g., Norway, Sweden) and higher than others (e.g., Germany, Italy). F. Same sex relationships 1. Norms and policies concerning same-sex intimate relationships vary around the world a. Some countries punish homosexuality by imprisonment or even death. b. Some countries and U.S. states grant same-sex couples the legal right to marry. c. Some countries and U.S. states grant same-sex couple’s legal rights and protections that are more limited than marriage.

II. CONTEMPORARY U.S. FAMILIES: PATTERNS, TRENDS, AND VARIATIONS A. Increased singlehood and older age at first marriage 1. U.S. adults are staying single longer: from 1980 to 2012, the median age at first marriage increased from 22 to 26.6 for women and 24.7 to 29 for men. 2. Today, 17.5% of adults age 40-44 have never been married—the highest figures in U.S. history. B. Increased heterosexual and same-sex cohabitation 1. The percent of people who cohabited before marriage more than doubled from 1980 to 2000, from 16% - 41%. 2. Children are increasingly living in two-parent families that do not have legal recognition, which could result in denial of Social Security benefits, health care insurance, and more. a. Some states, cities, counties and employers allow unmarried couples to apply for

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domestic partner designation, which grants some legal entitlements, such as health insurance and inheritance rights that have been traditionally reserved for married couples. C. A new family form: Living apart together 1. In “commuter marriages” couples live apart in different cities or states due to employment but would generally prefer to live together. 2. In living apart together relationships (LAT), a relatively new type of family form, couples choose to live in separate residences. D. Increased births to unmarried women 1. The percentage of births to unmarried women rose to a historic level in recent years. 2. The highest rates of nonmarital births are among Blacks, Native Americans/Alaskan Natives, and Hispanics. 3. Nonmarital birth has become more socially acceptable: In 2011, 54% said it was “morally acceptable.” E. Increased divorce and blended families 1. The refined divorce rate—number of divorces per 1,000 married women—increased dramatically from 1960 to its peak around 1980. 2. Most divorced individuals remarry and create blended families (stepfamilies) a. More than 4 in 10 U.S. adults have at least one step-relative in their families. F. Increased employment of mothers 1. Employment of married women with children under age 18 rose from 47% in 1975 to 68% in 2012. 2. 59% of married couple families with children have two employed parents. G. Increased three-generation family households 1. In 2011, 1.8% of U. S. children live in three generational households. H. Public attitudes toward changes in family life 1. U.S. adults are sharply divided in their judgments about changes in U.S. families. a. 1/3 of adults say changes make no difference to society or are good. b. 1/3 of adults reject the changing trends c. 1/3 of adults are skeptical of all the changes I. Marital Decline? Or Marital Resiliency?

1/22/24, 11:46 AM Chapter 5 Outline - Mooney-2: (Spring 2024) SOC 268 (1XYW) - Social Problems

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1. The marital decline perspective a. Personal happiness has become more important than marital commitment and family obligations. b. Decline in lifelong marriage and increase in single-parent families contribute to a variety of social problems, (e.g., poverty, delinquency, violence, community erosion, and substance abuse). 2. The marital resiliency perspective a. Poverty, unemployment, poorly funded schools, discrimination, and lack of basic services (e.g., health insurance, child care) represent more serious threats to child and adult wellbeing than does the decline in married two-parent families. b. Views on divorce Family Problems Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Res e rved. 4 i. Many marriages in the past were troubled, but because divorce was not socially acceptable, these problematic marriages remained intact. ii. Rather than view divorce as a sign of the decline of marriage, divorce provides a second chance at happiness for adults and an escape from dysfunctional and aversive home environments for many children.

III. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF FAMILY PROBLEMS A. Structural-Functionalist Perspective 1. The family is a social institution that performs important functions for society, including producing new members, regulating sexual activity, socializing the young, providing physical and emotional care for family members. 2. Traditional gender roles contribute to family functioning a. Women perform the expressive role of managing the household and caring emotionally for family members. b. Men perform the instrumental role of earning income and making major decisions. 3. High rates of divorce and single-parenthood constitute a “breakdown” of the family resulting from rapid social change. a. Breakdown of the family is a primary social problem that leads to such secondary social

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problems as crime, poverty, and substance abuse. 4. Examines how changes in other social institutions contribute to family problems (e.g., economy). B. Conflict and Feminist Perspectives 1. Conflict theory focuses on the impact of capitalism, social class, and power on marriages and families. 2. Feminist theory focuses on how gender inequalities influence/are influenced by marriages and families. a. Feminists are critical of patriarchy—the traditional male domination of families. 3. Conflict and feminist perspectives overlap in views on how industrialization and capitalism have contributed to gender inequality. a. Factory production during industrialization resulted in men leaving home to earn incomes and women staying home to do unpaid child care and domestic work—what Engels calls “domestic slavery of the wife.” b. Today most wives leave home to earn income, but still do the bulk of unpaid domestic labor and are more likely than men to compromise occupational achievement for child care and other domestic responsibilities. 4. Economic factors influence norms regarding monogamy. a. A double standard grants men more tolerance for being nonmonogamous in societies where monogamy is expected. b. Engels argues monogamy arose from husbands’ concentration of wealth and need to verify relationship to children. 5. Unequal distribution of power among women and men and the historical view of women as property of men contribute to wife battering. 6. Today, gender relations within society at large are more egalitarian, but male domination persists. 7. Social programs and policies that affect families are largely shaped by powerful and wealthy segments of society; corporations and businesses are in conflict with family needs. C. Symbolic-Interactionist Perspective 1. Point to the effects of interaction on one’s self-concept, especially of children.

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a. The “looking-glass self”: individuals form a self-concept based on how others interact with them. b. Family members are significant others who affect self-concept; can be positive or negative. 2. Concerned with how labels affect meaning and behavior. a. For example, “visitation rights” (implying visitor status) minimizes the importance of the noncustodial parent’s role; “parenting plan” or “time-sharing arrangement” might mitigate this. 3. Useful in understanding dynamics of domestic violence and abuse. a. Some abusers and victims define intimate partner violence as an expression of love. b. Emotional abuse using negative labels (“stupid”, “whore”, “bad”) affect the self-concept of abuse victims, convincing them they deserve the abuse.

IV. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH DIVORCE A. Prevalence: The U.S. has highest divorce rate among Western nations; 40% of first marriages end in divorce and 60% of those involve children. B. Social Causes of Divorce 1. Changing function of marriage: Before the Industrial Revolution, family was a unit of economic production and consumption largely organized around producing, socializing, and educating children; today marriage is viewed as private pact that meets spouses’ psychological needs. 2. Increased economic autonomy of women: Before 1940, most wives were not employed outside the home whereas today about 2/3 of married women are in the labor force. a. A wife who can support herself economically is more likely to leave an unhappy marriage. b. An unhappy husband is also more likely to leave a marriage if his wife is self-sufficient and can contribute to the support of the children. 3. Increased work demands and economic stress and the stress of balancing work and family roles also impact divorce. a. Workers are putting in longer hours, often working overtime or taking second jobs yet struggling to earn enough money to pay for rising housing, health care, and child-care

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costs; financial stress can cause marital problems. 4. Dissatisfaction with marital division of labor a. Many employed parents (particularly mothers) come home to work a “second shift”—the work involved in caring for children and household chores; perceptions of unfairness can lead to marital tension and resentment. 5. Liberalized divorce laws a. Before 1970, the law required couples to prove one spouse was at fault and had committed an act as grounds for divorce—adultery, cruelty, or desertion. b. No-fault divorce laws, which permit divorce based on the claim of “irreconcilable differences” and are recognized in all 50 states, has contributed to the U.S. divorce rate by making divorce easier to obtain. 6. Increased individualism a. U.S. society is characterized by individualism—the tendency to focus on one’s individual self-interest rather than the interests of one’s family and community. b. Familism—the view that the family unit is more important than individual interest—is prevalent among Asian Americans and Mexican Americans, which helps explain the lower divorce rate among these groups than among whites and African Americans. 7. Weak Social Ties a. Moving from place to place weakens social ties and increases chances for divorce. 8. Increased life expectancy a. More marriages end in divorce because people live longer today than in the past: “till death do us part” involves a longer commitment than it once did. C. Consequences of Divorce 1. Physical and mental health consequences a. Divorced individuals, compared to married individuals, have more health problems and higher risk of mortality. i. Divorced individuals experience lower levels of psychological well-being, including more unhappiness, depression, anxiety, and poorer self-concepts. ii. Both divorced and never-married individuals are, on average, more distressed than married people because unmarried people are more likely to have low social

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attachment, low emotional support, and increased economic hardship. b. There are also studies in which divorced individuals report higher levels of autonomy and personal growth than married individuals. i. Many divorced mothers report improvements in career opportunities, social lives, and happiness after divorce; some report more self-confidence. ii. Some divorced men report more interpersonal skills and greater self-disclosure. 2. Economic consequences a. Compared to married individuals, divorced individuals have a lower standard of living, have less wealth, and experience greater economic hardship, and this difference is considerably greater for women than men. i. Following divorce, there tends to be a dramatic drop in women’s income and a slight drop in men’s income. 3. Effects on children and young adults a. Negative effects i. Parental divorce is often accompanied by a variety of stressors, such as continuing conflict between parents, decline in standard of living, moving/changing schools, separation from the noncustodial parent, and parental remarriage. ii. Children with divorced parents score lower on measures of academic success, psychological adjustment, self-concept, social competence, and long-term health; they also have higher levels of aggressive behavior and depression. iii. Many negative effects of divorce are related to economic hardship associated with divorce. b. Current research findings suggest that most children from divorced families are resilient, do not suffer from serious psychological problems, and develop into well-adjusted adults. c. Divorce can also have positive consequences for children and young adults. i. In highly conflictual marriages, divorce may improve emotional well-being of children relative to staying in a conflicted home environment. ii. More than half of young adults in one study reported positive outcomes for their parents and themselves. 4. Effects on father-child relationships

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a. Children who live with their mothers may suffer from a damaged relationship with their nonresidential father, especially if he becomes disengaged from their lives. b. However, more than half of participants in one study felt their relationships with their fathers improved after divorce; children may benefit from more quality time with fathers after divorce and many fathers play a more active role. c. The mother’s attitude towards the father’s continued contact with the child affects the father-child relationship as mothers can serve as gatekeepers. 5. Parental alienation d. Some children of divorce suffer from parental alienation syndrome (PAS): an emotional and psychological disturbance in which children engage in exaggerated and unjustified denigration and criticism of a parent; PAS occurs when one parent manipulates the child’s perception of the other parent. i. Long-term effects of PAS can include long-term depression, inability to function, guilt, hostility, alcoholism/drug abuse, and other symptoms of internal distress. e. Some noncustodial fathers discontinue contact with their children as a coping strategy for managing emotional pain.

V. DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AND ABUSE A. Family violence and abuse: In the U.S., people are more likely to be physically assaulted, abused and neglected, sexually assaulted and molested, and killed in their own homes and by other family members than anywhere else or by anyone else. B. Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse 1. Intimate partner violence (IPV) refers to actual or threatened violent crimes, committed against by current or former spouses, boyfriends, or girlfriends. 2. Prevalence and patterns of intimate partner violence a. Globally, 1 in 3 women have been subjected to IPV. b. Four patterns of partner violence have been identified. i. Common couple violence: Occasional violent acts arising from arguments that get “out of hand” and usually do not escalate into serious or life-threatening violence. ii. Intimate terrorism: Violence motivated by a wish to control one’s partner and involves the systemic use of economic subordination, threats, isolation, verbal and

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emotional abuse, and other control tactics; most often committed by men. iii. Violent resistance: Acts of violence that are committed in self-defense; almost exclusively committed by women against men. iv. Mutual violent control: Rare pattern of abuse that could be viewed as two intimate terrorists battling for control. c. Sexual aggression entails sexual interaction that occurs against one’s will through use of physical force, threat of force, pressure, alcohol/drugs, or position of authority. 3. Three types of male perpetrators of intimate partner violence a. The psychopathic abuser-generally violent, impulsive and without remorse b. The hostile/controlling abuser-suspicious and hypersensitive c. The borderline/dependent abuser-unhappy, depressed, prone to emotions that spiral out of control. 4. Effects of intimate partner violence and abuse a. Psychological consequences for victims include depression, anxiety, suicidal thoughts and attempts, low self-esteem, fear of intimacy and trust, and substance abuse. b. Battering interferes with women’s employment; abusers may prohibit partners from working, deliberately undermine women’s employment, and cause repeated job absences, impairs the victim’s ability to concentrate, and lowers their self-esteem and aspirations. c. Abuse is a factor in many divorces, which can cause economic decline and homelessness. d. Children who witness domestic violence are at risk for emotional, behavioral, and academic problems and future violence in their own relationships. 5. Why do some adults stay in abusive relationships? a. Adult victims are commonly blamed for tolerating abusive relationships rather than leaving the relationship when abuse begins. b. Victims stay for compelling reasons, including love, emotional dependency, commitment to the relationship, hope that things will get better, the view that violence is legitimate because they “deserve” it, guilt, fear, and economic dependency. c. Victims also stay because abuse occurs in cycles: the cycle of abuse involves a violent or abusive episode followed by a makeup period when the abuser expresses sorrow and asks for forgiveness and “one more chance.”

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C. Child Abuse 1. Child abuse refers to the physical or mental injury, sexual abuse, negligent treatment or maltreatment of a child under age 18 by a person who is responsible for child’s welfare.

2. The most common form of child maltreatment is neglect—failure to provide adequate attention and supervision, food and nutrition, hygiene, medical care, and a safe and clean living environment. 3. Highest rates of victimization are age birth to one year and children with disabilities; and some minority children. 4. Perpetrators are most often parents of the victim. 5. Effects of child abuse a. Physical injuries sustained by child abuse cause pain, disfigurement, scarring, physical disability, and death. i. An estimated 1,570 U.S. children died of abuse or neglect in 2011. ii. Shaken baby syndrome—where a caretaker shakes the baby to the point of causing brain or retinal hemorrhage—most often occurs when a baby younger than 6 months will not stop crying. b. Child abuse is associated with depression, low academic achievement, smoking, obesity, teen pregnancy, alcohol and drug use, sexually transmitted diseases, low self-esteem, aggressive behavior, juvenile delinquency, adult criminality, suicide, and adult victimization. D. Elder, Parent, Sibling, and Pet Abuse 1. Elder abuse includes physical, psychological, and financial abuse, and neglect. a. The most common form of elder abuse is neglect—failure to provide health and hygiene needs, such as clean clothes, doctor visits, medication, and adequate nutrition; unreasonable confinement, isolation, lack of supervision, and abandonment. b. Older women are far more likely than older men to suffer from abuse/neglect. c. Most cases of elder abuse occur in a domestic setting. d. The most likely perpetrators are adult children, followed by other family members and spouses/intimate partners. 2. Parent Abuse: Some parents are victimized by their children’s violence, ranging from hitting,

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kicking and biting to being pushed down the stairs and using a weapon to inflict serious injury or even kill a parent. a. More violence is directed against mothers than against fathers, and sons tend to be more violent towards parents than are daughters. b. In most cases of children being violent towards their parents, parents had been violent toward the children. 3. Sibling abuse is the most frequent form of aggression in American families. a. 30% of children 2 to 17 had been physically abused by a sibling b. most common form of sibling abuse is emotional abuse. c. Sexual abuse also occurs in sibling relationships. 4. Pet Abuse a. Abusers often threaten to hurt pets to control their victims. E. Factors Contributing to Domestic Violence and Abuse 1. Individual and Family Factors: History of family violence, drug and alcohol abuse, and poverty are all related to intimate partner and family violence. 2. Gender Inequality and Gender Socialization a. The view of women and children as property helps explain family violence, marital rape and father-daughter incest. b. Traditional gender roles teach men to be aggressive and dominant and women to be submissive to their male partner’s control. 3. Acceptance of corporal punishment a. Corporal punishment is the intentional infliction of pain intended to change or control behavior. b. Many mental health professionals and children development specialists argue that it is ineffective and damaging to children. c. More than 94% of parents of toddlers reported using corporal punishment. 4. Inaccessible or unaffordable community services a. Many cases of child and elder abuse and neglect are linked to inaccessible or unaffordable health care, day care, elder care, and respite care facilities.

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VI. STRATEGIES FOR ACTION: STRENGTHENING FAMILIES A. Expanding the Definition of Family 1. Domestic partnership designation grants some legal entitlements such as health insurance’ benefits and inheritance rights traditionally reserved for married couples. B. Relationship Literacy Education and the Healthy Marriage Initiative 1. Includes voluntary, community-based programs to teach youth, young adults, cohabiting couples, and engaged and married couples the skills and values to form and maintain healthy relationships. 2. Health Marriage Initiative (HMI) provides federal funds to support research and programs to encourage healthy marriages and promote involved and responsible fatherhood. C. Workplace and Economic Supports 1. The most important divorce-prevention may be measures that maximize employment and earnings. 2. Supports such as job training, employment assistance, and flexible workplace policies that decrease work-family conflict, affordable child care, and economic support, such as the earned income tax credit. 3. Policy makers also need to examine policies that penalize poor couples for marrying (e.g., loss of Medicaid benefits, food stamps, etc.). D. Reduce Unplanned Nonmarital Childbearing E. Covenant Marriage 1. In 1996, Louisiana became the first state to offer covenant marriage, which permit divorce only under conditions of fault or after a two-year separation and require premarital counseling. F. Strategies to Strengthen Families during and after Divorce 1. It is the post-divorce conflict between parents and not the divorce itself that is traumatic for children. a. Children exposed to high levels of parental conflict are at risk for anxiety, depression, and disruptive behavior; are more likely to be abusive toward romantic partners; are more likely to divorce and suffer maladjustment in adulthood. 3. Forgiveness can promote positive and cooperative co-parenting after divorce. 4. Divorce mediation is where divorcing couples meet with a neutral third party, a mediator,

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who helps them resolve issues of property division, child support, child custody, and spousal support in a way that minimizes conflict and encourages cooperation. 4. Divorce education programs emphasize the importance of cooperative co-parenting for the well-being of children. G. Domestic Violence and Abuse Prevention Strategies 1. Abuse-prevention strategies include public education and media campaigns that convey criminal nature of domestic violence and offer ways to prevent abuse. 2. Parent education to teach parents realistic expectations about child behavior and methods of child discipline that do not involve corporal punishment is another strategy. 3. Period of PURPLE Crying program H. Help for Adult Abuse Victims I. Help for Child Abuse/Neglect Victims J. Legal Action against Abusers

VII. UNDERSTANDING FAMILY PROBLEMS A. Family Problems are felt by the entire society

1. Families can be functional in a variety of forms as long as institutional supports are in place which provides care for children. 2. Strengthening marriage is important, but not as the only pathway to a legitimate family form.