What Motivates Volunteers?
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Chapter5.pdf
CHAPTER 5
Maximizing Volunteer Engagement Sarah Jane Rehnborg, CAVS, PhD
Meg Moore, MBA University of Texas at Austin
One of the most distinctive features of the nonprofit sector is its voluntary nature.Nonprofits do not coerce people to work within the sector nor do they possess the right to mandate the use of their services (Frumkin, 2002). For nonprofit organiza- tions, “free choice is the coin of the realm. Donors give because they choose to do so. Volunteers work of their own volition” (p. 3).
As an unpaid workforce available to further the goals and to help meet an array of needs in resource-constrained organizations, volunteers represent one of the criti- cal competitive advantages of the nonprofit sector. And while public-sector (and, to a much lesser degree, even private-sector) organizations also utilize volunteers, un- paid workers proliferate in the nonprofit sector, where an estimated 80% of organiza- tions report the use of volunteers in service capacities (Hager, 2004).
Despite the idiosyncrasies of volunteer involvement, remarkably few organiza- tions possess the knowledge to maximize this advantage. Equally few nonprofit de- cision makers understand the basic constructs of volunteer engagement. Likewise, many in top leadership positions do not know what they might expect from an engaged volunteer workforce, nor are they aware of the critical importance of an infrastructure designed to facilitate and support community engagement.
With intentional planning and vision setting, effective volunteer management can maximize volunteer participation; manage diverse volunteer interests and resources; facilitate productive relations among staff, volunteers, and clients; protect organiza- tions against volunteer-related liabilities; and ensure voluntary labor connects with organizations’ strategic goals. To reach this goal, organizations must begin by ac- knowledging the diversity of roles and motivations in their volunteer workforce.
Today’s volunteers offer nearly unlimited potential to the agency that is willing to move beyond traditional conceptions of volunteer roles. Several efforts have been made to segment the volunteer population. One is the distinction between policy and service volunteers discussed by Jeffrey Brudney in Chapter 3. In this context, policy volunteers serve as strategic advisors to a nonprofit, while service volunteers are
103 Connors, T. D. (Ed.). (2011). The volunteer management handbook : Leadership strategies for success. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. Created from ashford-ebooks on 2022-04-12 22:59:50.
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rv e d .
engaged in the tactical work of the organization. Such segmentation provides a helpful start in refining a definition of volunteers as a group, but still lacks sufficient granularity.
In Chapter 11, Nancy Macduff discusses “episodic” volunteers in contrast to con- tinuous service volunteers and emphasizes that episodic volunteers do not evaporate at the end of their service: Many provide specialized skills on an annual basis. The master of ceremonies for the annual gala, for example, might play that role for decades as his or her only interaction with an organization. The episodic nature of the work does not lessen the value of the involvement or the volunteer’s commit- ment to the organization’s mission. Alternatively, an episodic volunteer may offer many hours of service in a short time frame, such as a student’s internship over spring break. While these services are time-limited, they still provide valuable re- sources to nonprofits and should be recognized for the valued investment they are.
These distinctions begin to segment volunteers into categories of similar ser- vices. To manage volunteers effectively, nonprofit leaders need to examine the pat- terns found in these groups of volunteers at a more detailed level. What types of volunteers are most successful with different tasks? How should the work of various volunteers be recognized to reflect their contributions to the organization? What draws these populations of volunteers to their work? How can a nonprofit sustain long-term engagement with a diverse array of volunteers?
To define these groups further, the Volunteer Champions Initiative formulated The Volunteer Involvement FrameworkTM (see Exhibit 5.1). The Framework takes a broader view of volunteer engagement, considering both the needs of the organiza- tion and trends in present-day volunteerism. This perspective correlates the work that needs to be done in an organization with the management strategies needed to support that work and combines it with the volunteers’ particular interests, mo- tives, levels of commitment, and time availability. The Framework provides a start- ing point for examining the organization’s current levels of involvement and creates a blueprint for planning for more extensive community input.
Understanding Volunteer Motivations and Trends
Volunteerism is multifaceted. Not only do people serve for a multitude of reasons, today’s volunteers serve in a variety of ways and with various expectations for the return on their investment of energy and time. Additionally, not all people who serve without expectation of remuneration gravitate to the term “volunteer.” Students may talk about internships or community service requirements. Teachers may seek service-learning opportunities in area nonprofits. Men tend to describe their service by the functions they perform (coach, trustee), while women have historically been more connected to the term “volunteer.” Theological interpretations of service vary. Some religiously motivated volunteers feel called to serve, while others say they are compelled to live out their faith, and still others seek to promote social justice through service. Professional associations may talk about public interest work or pro bono opportunities. The very act of expanding the vocabulary associated with volunteer work opens up new ideas for envisioning service.
Research on volunteerism provides interesting insights. Volunteering in 2009 was at a 30-year high, with a large annual increase over 2008. The bulk of this
104 Maximizing Volunteer Engagement
Connors, T. D. (Ed.). (2011). The volunteer management handbook : Leadership strategies for success. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. Created from ashford-ebooks on 2022-04-12 22:59:50.
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2 0 1 1 . Jo
h n W
ile y
& S
o n s,
I n co
rp o ra
te d . A
ll ri g h ts
r e se
rv e d .
EX H IB IT 5. 1
T h e V o lu n te e r In v o lv e m e n t F ra m e w o rk : O v e rv ie w
o f T y p e s o f V o lu n te e rs
C O N N E C T IO
N T O
S E R V IC E !
A ffi li at io n F o cu
s S k il l F o cu
s
TIMEFORSERVICE!
Sh o rt T e rm
E p is o d ic
E x a m p le s o f S e rv ic e
C o rp o ra te
d ay s o f se rv ic e w it h w o rk
te am
s W e e k e n d h o u se -b u il d b y a lo ca l se rv ic e cl u b
P ar k cl e an
-u p e v e n t o r tr ai lm
ai n te n an
ce W o rk
cr e w
fo r an
n u al e v e n t
T ra it s o f V o lu n te e rs
St ro n g se n se
o f co
n n e ct io n to
th e ca u se , w o rk
g ro u p ,c lu b ,o
r o rg an
iz at io n .
G e n e ra ll y e x p e ct s a w e ll -o rg an
iz e d e v e n t
(m at e ri al s an
d in st ru ct io n s im
m e d ia te ly
av ai la b le to
p e rf o rm
ta sk ,e tc .) .
M ay
b e u si n g se rv ic e o p p o rt u n it y to
in v e st ig at e a
p ar ti cu
la r o rg an
iz at io n .
M ay
b e p ar t o f a se rv ic e g ro u p o r m e e ti n g se rv ic e
re q u ir e m e n ts o f a sc h o o l, w o rk p la ce , o r cl u b .
M ay
h av e u n re al is ti c/ n ai v e e x p e ct at io n s ab
o u t th e
ab il it y to
im p ac t cl ie n ts o r lo n g -t e rm
w o rk
o f
th e o rg an
iz at io n .
M ay
p re fe r to
id e n ti fy
w it h th e ir se rv ic e cl u b o r
co m p an
y ra th e r th an
th e n o n p ro fi t b e in g
se rv e d .
E x a m p le s o f S e rv ic e
A o n e -t im
e au
d it o f an
o rg an
iz at io n ’s fi n an
ce s
b y a p ro fe ss io n al ac co
u n ta n t
A sp o rt s cl u b te a ch
in g a y o u th
g ro u p a
p a rt ic u la r sk il l a n d h o st in g y o u th
fo r an
e v e n t
A p e rs o n o p e n in g h is /h e r h o m e fo r a fu n d ra is e r
A st u d e n t co
m p le ti n g a d e g re e re q u ir e m e n t.
T ra it s o f V o lu n te e r
Se e k s a se rv ic e o p p o rt u n it y ta il o re d sp e ci fi ca ll y to
e n g ag e th e v o lu n te e r’ s u n iq u e sk il l, ta le n t, o r
re so u rc e s.
M a y b e a n y a g e , a lt h o u g h sl ig h tl y m o re
li k e ly
to b e ad
u lt s w it h h ig h e r le v e ls
o f sk il ls /
e d u ca ti o n .
L ik e ly
e x p e ct s m u tu a li ty , i. e ., a p e e r- to -p e e r
re la ti o n sh ip
w it h in
th e o rg a n iz a ti o n
(a cc o u n ta n t to
tr e a su re r; e v e n t h o st
to E D ;
e tc .)
M ay
se e k to
n e g o ti at e ti m in g o f se rv ic e .
A p p re ci at e s re co
g n it io n th at is ta il o re d to
th e
u n iq u e d e m an
d s o f th e p o si ti o n .
M ay
p re fe r to
th in k o f se lf n o t as
a “v o lu n te e r” b u t
an in te rn ,p
ro b o n o co
n su lt an
t, e tc .
(c o n ti n u ed
)
105 Connors, T. D. (Ed.). (2011). The volunteer management handbook : Leadership strategies for success. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. Created from ashford-ebooks on 2022-04-12 22:59:50.
C o p yr
ig h t ©
2 0 1 1 . Jo
h n W
ile y
& S
o n s,
I n co
rp o ra
te d . A
ll ri g h ts
r e se
rv e d .
EX H IB IT 5. 1
(C o n ti n u ed
)
C O N N E C T IO
N T O
S E R V IC E !
A ffi li at io n F o cu
s S k il l F o cu
s TIMEFORSERVICE!
Lo n g T e rm
O n g o in g
E x a m p le s o f S e rv ic e
Y o u th
m e n to r
T ro o p le ad
e r
Su n d ay
Sc h o o lt e ac h e r
E n v ir o n m e n ta l su st ai n ab
il it y ad
v o ca te
H o sp ic e v is it o r
P ar k h o st o r d o ce n t
T h ri ft st o re
m an
ag e r
A u x il ia ry
m e m b e r o r tr u st e e
T ra it s o f V o lu n te e rs
C o m m it te d to
th e g ro u p o r o rg an
iz at io n an
d th e
ca u se
o r m is si o n it re p re se n ts .
O ft e n w il li n g to
p e rf o rm
an y ty p e o f w o rk
fo r th e
ca u se ,f ro m
st u ffi n g e n v e lo p e s to
h ig h ly
so p h is ti ca te d se rv ic e d e li v e ry .
M ay
n e e d sp e ci al iz e d tr ai n in g to
p re p ar e fo r th e
se rv ic e o p p o rt u n it y (e .g ., li te ra cy
tu to ri n g ,e tc .)
M ay
fe e l a sp e ci al af fi n it y to
th e o rg an
iz at io n
b e ca u se
o f p as t b e n e fi t, fa m il y co
n n e ct io n ,o
r o th e r p e rs o n al al le g ia n ce .
M ay
b e an
y ag e ,a lt h o u g h ag e m ay
se g m e n t ty p e
o f ca u se
m o st li k e ly ch
am p io n e d .
M ay
b e id e o lo g ic al ly m o ti v at e d (r e li g io u s,
p o li ti ca l, e n v ir o n m e n ta l, e tc .) to
ch am
p io n a
ca u se
o r is su e .
A p p re ci at e s re g u la r re co
g n it io n ,b
o th
fo rm
al an
d in fo rm
al .
O ft e n u se s p e rs o n al p ro n o u n s to
ta lk
ab o u t
o rg an
iz at io n (m
e ,w
e ,u
s, o u r)
In ad
d it io n to
st ro n g m o ti v at io n s fo r se rv ic e ,m
ay w e ll b e k e y d o n o r
E x a m p le s o f S e rv ic e
P ro
b o n o le g al co
u n se l
N o -c o st m e d ic al se rv ic e b y a p h y si ci an
, E M T ,
n u rs e ,c o u n se lo r, e tc .
V o lu n te e r fi re
fi g h ti n g
Lo an
e d e x e cu
ti v e
B o ar d m e m b e r
T ra it s o f V o lu n te e rs
S im
il a r to
th e q u a d ra n t to
th e le ft in
co m m it m e n t.
G e n e ra ll y p re fe rs
to co
n tr ib u te
th ro u g h sk il ls
an d tr ai n in g th e y b ri n g to
th e ca u se
o r
o rg an
iz at io n .
M a y e le ct
to co
n tr ib u te
ta le n ts
th ro u g h
sp e ci al iz e d se rv ic e o r m a y co
n tr ib u te
th e ir
ti m e th ro u g h p o li cy
a n d le a d e rs h ip
ro le s
su ch
as b o ar d g o v e rn a n ce , v is io n in g , e tc .
O ft e n e x p e ct s v o lu n te e r m a n a g e m e n t th a t
re fl e ct s th e cu
lt u ra l n o rm
s o f th e g iv e n
sp e ci al ty
o r sk il l.
O ft e n co
m b in e s th e ir ta le n t w it h d e d ic at io n to
th e
ca u se ,a lt h o u g h th e ta le n t b ro u g h t to
th e ca u se
m ay
su p e rs e d e an
al le g ia n ce
to th e m is si o n .
M ay
h av e h is to ri ca lt ie s to
th e o rg an
iz at io n o r
ca u se
an d /o r m ay
h av e a fa m il y m e m b e r
(o r se lf ) w h o h as
b e n e fi te d fr o m
th e se rv ic e s
o f o rg an
iz at io n .
E x p e ct s st af f su p p o rt , as si st an
ce w it h re so u rc e s
n e ce ss ar y to
th e jo b , an
d re co
g n it io n fo r w o rk
p e rf o rm
e d .
106 Connors, T. D. (Ed.). (2011). The volunteer management handbook : Leadership strategies for success. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. Created from ashford-ebooks on 2022-04-12 22:59:50.
C o p yr
ig h t ©
2 0 1 1 . Jo
h n W
ile y
& S
o n s,
I n co
rp o ra
te d . A
ll ri g h ts
r e se
rv e d .
EX H IB IT 5. 2
T h e V o lu n te e r In v o lv e m e n t F ra m e w o rk : C o n si d e ra ti o n s fo r M an
ag in g V o lu n te e rs
C O N N E C T IO
N T O
S E R V IC E !
A ffi li at io n F o cu
s S k il l F o cu
s
TIMEFORSERVICE!
Sh o rt T e rm
E p is o d ic
N e ce ss a ry
V o lu n te e r M a n a g e r T ra it s
G o o d p ro je ct le ad
e r w it h so li d p la n n in g an
d p ro je ct -m
an ag e m e n t sk il ls ,a tt e n ti o n to
d e ta il
St ro n g in te rp e rs o n al sk il ls :d
ip lo m at ic , fl e x ib le ,
an d ac ce ss ib le
Sh o u ld
b e a g o o d sp o k e sp e rs o n fo r th e ca u se :
k n o w le d g e ab
le an
d p as si o n at e
H as
ti m e to
in te rf ac e w it h g ro u p li ai so n s
O th e r C o n si d e ra ti o n s
C o ll e ct co
n ta ct in fo rm
at io n o n v o lu n te e rs to
fo ll o w
u p w it h o th e r se rv ic e an
d g iv in g
o p p o rt u n it ie s
C o n si d e r ro ta ti n g m an
ag e m e n t ta sk
am o n g
e x is ti n g st af f m e m b e rs w h o m e e t q u al ifi ca ti o n s
(b u t b e su re
at le as t o n e p e rs o n is m ai n ta in in g
o v e rs ig h t, ce n tr al iz e d re co
rd s)
B u d g e t ad
e q u at e fu n d s fo r p ro je ct -r e la te d
re so u rc e s in cl u d in g re fr e sh m e n ts fo r w o rk
g ro u p s an
d p o ss ib le re co
g n it io n m e m o ra b il ia
N e ce ss a ry
V o lu n te e r M a n a g e r T ra it s
St ro n g h u m an
re so u rc e s sk il ls ,r e sp e ct fo r
v o lu n te e r an
d jo b -s cu
lp ti n g e x p e rt is e
M a rk e ti n g sk il ls
to le a d ta rg e te d re cr u it m e n t
e ff o rt ; sh o u ld
b e a b le
to te ll th e
o rg an
iz at io n ’s st o ry
an d to
re la te
th e
sp e ci fi c ta sk
to y o u r m is si o n
F le x ib le , w it h w ill in g n e ss
to ad
ap t a p ro je ct
to vo
lu n te er ’s e x p ec ta ti o n s an
d ti m e co n st ra in ts
O p e n an
d av ai la b le fo r fo ll o w -u p an
d ab
le to
m o n it o r p ro g re ss
co ll ab
o ra ti v e ly
O th e r C o n si d e ra ti o n s
T h e se
v o lu n te e rs e x p e ct to
b e tr e at e d as
re sp e ct e d e q u al s, n o t as
su b o rd in at e s
N o n p ro fi t sh o u ld
b e o p e n to
sh ar in g re le v a n t
in fo rm
at io n a s th e v o lu n te e r g a in s
k n o w le d g e o f th e a g e n cy , e a rn s tr u st , an
d p re p ar e s fo r th e ta sk
(c o n ti n u ed
)
107 Connors, T. D. (Ed.). (2011). The volunteer management handbook : Leadership strategies for success. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. Created from ashford-ebooks on 2022-04-12 22:59:50.
C o p yr
ig h t ©
2 0 1 1 . Jo
h n W
ile y
& S
o n s,
I n co
rp o ra
te d . A
ll ri g h ts
r e se
rv e d .
EX H IB IT 5. 2
(C o n ti n u ed
)
C O N N E C T IO
N T O
S E R V IC E !
A ffi li at io n F o cu
s S k il l F o cu
s
TIMEFORSERVICE!
Lo n g T e rm
O n g o in g
N e ce ss a ry
V o lu n te e r M a n a g e r T ra it s
H as
si g n ifi ca n t ti m e to
d e v o te
to v o lu n te e rs
Is k n o w le d g e ab
le ab
o u t o v e ra ll o rg an
iz at io n an
d it s fu tu re
d ir e ct io n
H as
st ro n g in te rp e rs o n al an
d o rg an
iz at io n al sk il ls
an d g e n u in e ly li k e s p e o p le
C o n ti n u it y o f le ad
e rs h ip
an d in st it u ti o n al h is to ry
h e lp fu l
O th e r C o n si d e ra ti o n s
T h e se
v o lu n te e rs re q u ir e a co
m p re h e n si v e
v o lu n te e r in fr as tr u ct u re
(e .g ., d e d ic at e d st af f
p e rs o n w it h n o t le ss
th an
2 0 h o u rs p e r w e e k
d e d ic at e d to
w o rk in g w it h v o lu n te e rs )
B u d g e t to
co v e r n e ce ss ar y p ro g ra m
e x p e n se s
(e .g ., v o lu n te e r e x p e n se
re im
b u rs e m e n t,
re g u la r re co
g n it io n , e tc .)
N e ce ss a ry
V o lu n te e r M a n a g e r T ra it s
U su al ly th e m an
ag e m e n t p e rs o n m o st cl o se ly
al ig n e d w it h v o lu n te e r’ s (o r v o lu n te e r
co m m it te e ’s ) sk il la re a m u st o v e rs e e w o rk
O th e r C o n si d e ra ti o n s
A s w it h q u ad
ra n t o n th e le ft ,d
e d ic at e
co n si d e ra b le in fr as tr u ct u re
to su p p o rt th e se
e ff o rt s (i n cl u d in g n e ce ss ar y ti m e an
d at te n ti o n o f e x e cu
ti v e d ir e ct o r an
d /o r b o ar d
m e m b e rs )
A ll o ca te
ti m e fo r p e rs o n al st af f in te ra ct io n s
w it h sk il le d v o lu n te e rs to
su p p o rt th e ir
e ff o rt s an
d to
le ar n fr o m
th e ir o b se rv at io n s
M e ch
an is m s to
k e e p v o lu n te e rs in
th e
o rg an
iz at io n al in fo rm
at io n al lo o p an
d re so u rc e s to
e n su re
an ap
p ro p ri at e w o rk
st at io n ,e x p e n se
re im
b u rs e m e n t, an
d re co
g n it io n ar e cr it ic al
108 Connors, T. D. (Ed.). (2011). The volunteer management handbook : Leadership strategies for success. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. Created from ashford-ebooks on 2022-04-12 22:59:50.
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ig h t ©
2 0 1 1 . Jo
h n W
ile y
& S
o n s,
I n co
rp o ra
te d . A
ll ri g h ts
r e se
rv e d .
increase was in women between 45 and 54 years of age who are married and employed. Together with other volunteers, they constitute a workforce numbering more than 63 million. Volunteering increases with higher employment rates, and is lower in areas with higher poverty rates.
Some researchers find even higher levels of engagement. For example, accord- ing to Independent Sector (2001), when all volunteer involvement is accounted for— not only in charitable organizations but also in religious groups, schools, communi- ties, and informal neighborhood groups—the total unpaid labor contribution climbs even higher. Estimates of the value of volunteer labor suggest the United States bene- fits from the equivalent of $239 billion of unpaid staff time or the equivalent of a full- time workforce of 7.2 million employees (Wing, Pollak, & Blackwood, 2008). (For specific information about volunteering in your community, Volunteering in America offers excellent state- and city-level data at its interactive Web site: www.Volunteer- ingInAmerica.gov).
Volunteers continue to be more well educated, more likely to have families, and more socially connected than the population as a whole. They also have distinct inter- ests and needs. For example:
& Episodic volunteer opportunities. Those with limited time but an interest in doing service on a temporary basis are being drawn to events such as daylong house- builds with Habitat for Humanity, community park trail maintenance days, or spe- cial vacations featuring “voluntourism” away from home.
& Service linked to the private sector. Corporations and business groups, working to bolster their community involvement, do so by participating in programs to “adopt a” school or stretch of highway, complete a “day of service,” create tech- nological brain trusts for nonprofits in need, or encourage employees to join self- guided “hands-on” service opportunities, often facilitated by a local volunteer center or United Way.
& Youth and student service. Students competing to build their resumes and enhance their college applications are motivated to help their communities, fre- quently spending long hours in unpaid internships, engaging in service-learning or participating in service clubs and youth groups.
& Opportunities for those who have left the labor force. The most educated group of retirees in history—as well as the growing number of adults having children later in life, who may have left the workforce temporarily but seek to apply their knowledge in giving back—are increasingly available to devote their skills, time, and resources to volunteering.
& Virtual volunteer work. While we generally think of volunteering done in person and on-site, today’s technologically inclined volunteers also find ways to contrib- ute service via the Internet. These virtual volunteers, like persons appearing at the office, may be willing to perform a one-time service (e.g., revise an organization’s Web site) or to sign on for an extended time commitment, such as serving as an online mentor.
From all these trends emerges a picture of a national community of volunteers poised to provide talent, labor, and opportunity to any organizational leader savvy enough to capture this workforce and capitalize on that which drives their service.
Understanding Volunteer Motivations and Trends 109
Connors, T. D. (Ed.). (2011). The volunteer management handbook : Leadership strategies for success. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. Created from ashford-ebooks on 2022-04-12 22:59:50.
C o p yr
ig h t ©
2 0 1 1 . Jo
h n W
ile y
& S
o n s,
I n co
rp o ra
te d . A
ll ri g h ts
r e se
rv e d .
Understanding the changing face of volunteers in America as well as the top motiva- tions for volunteering provides an essential foundation for applying the Volunteer In- volvement Framework strategically to maximize volunteer contributions.
The Volunteer Involvement Framework
The Volunteer Involvement Framework captures contemporary themes in volunteer engagement and organizes this information for prioritizing and decision-making pur- poses. The tool—developed with assistance from nonprofit leaders—enables execu- tive-level decision makers to identify their current volunteer-engagement practices, examine additional service possibilities, and identify appropriate staffing and other management considerations. The Framework guides agency leaders as they set orga- nizational direction, providing a useful visual schematic that helps organize strategic thinking about volunteer engagement. In short, the Framework examines the full range of options available for creating a volunteer-engagement system tailored to meet the unique needs of nonprofit organizations.
The Framework is a simple two-by-two matrix. The horizontal “connection” col- umns distinguish between the two predominant orientations of volunteers currently in the marketplace. The first of these is the “affiliation-oriented” volunteer. This person gravitates to a service opportunity in order to associate him- or herself—with the cause or the mission or purpose of the organization, or with the group or network of friends engaged in the service. For these volunteers, the orientation to the type of nonprofit, or the friends or colleagues with whom they will serve, is of greater sig- nificance than the type of work being done. By contrast, the “skill-oriented” volunteer, represented in the rightmost column, is a person who is more likely to express an interest in or a connection with the type of work performed as a volunteer. This person views the skills that he or she brings to service as paramount and wants to offer this specialized expertise to the organization.
The vertical “time” dimension of the matrix captures the person’s availability for service. The top row represents a short-term service commitment. “Short term” may indicate a short stint of service (volunteering that occurs over a determined number of hours in one day or weekend), or it may suggest a specific, time-limited focus, where the volunteer signs on for a specific project that is limited in nature (although the proj- ect may occur on an annual or some other recurring basis). This volunteer is fre- quently called an episodic volunteer. The bottom row of the framework represents the person who agrees to serve on a regular, ongoing basis, potentially making a long-term service commitment.
In the sample Framework in Exhibit 5.1, each quadrant contains examples of voluntary service that typify that area of volunteer experience, followed by a syn- opsis of the more common traits and motivations for service. Despite the bounda- ries to be discussed, it is worth noting that the Framework’s four quadrants are not mutually exclusive and that the distinctions between them are fluid, flexible, and permeable. A volunteer may elect to serve in all four ways over a lifetime. Like- wise, an agency or organization will want to examine opportunities for service that fall within each quadrant, thereby providing a maximum level of flexibility when recruiting volunteers.
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In the remainder of this chapter, the Framework serves as a basis for conceptual- izing a sustainable volunteer engagement program in four stages:
1. Understanding volunteer motivations and trends. Looking at the research on who volunteers are and what drives them
2. Creating a vision for volunteer engagement. Thinking broadly about the four quadrants and how to plan for them
3. Maximizing your investment in volunteers. Management/personnel strategies and a process for moving from vision to reality
4. Minimizing challenges and embracing opportunities. Advice and resources that address executive directors’ top concerns about volunteer engagement
This chapter and its references contain resources to assist with further develop- ment of a specific community-engagement program, including online tools and assessments. Additionally, Exhibit 5.4 (at the end of the chapter), which contains a worksheet for notes on an organization’s particular use of and/or plans for volunteers, allows for customization of The Volunteer Involvement Framework to meet an organi- zation’s needs.
Developing a Vision for Volunteer Engagement
Identifying who volunteers is only one step of a larger process—a process that, in fact, does not begin with recruiting volunteers. Instead, the process begins with an internal assessment and analysis of your organization. Giving forethought to how and where volunteers fit within your organization’s larger mission, and how a vision for volunteer engagement fits with other strategic goals, creates a solid foundation for success. What follows is a template for planning or for reassessing your volunteer-engagement strategy.1
Step 1: Begin with an Open Mind
An important precursor to vision setting is an examination of biases. Nonprofit leaders sometimes get stuck in modes of thinking that limit the possibilities of volunteers within their organizations. A key ground rule for guiding your analysis is to remember that there are no tasks volunteers cannot do. A person with the requisite skills, abilities, licenses, training, and time can perform any job. Medical personnel volunteer their time at clinics performing all the duties ascribed by their training; attorneys perform pro bono work on a regular basis; trained community members serve as firefighters, auxiliary police, and poll workers without pay; some nonprofits are run by full-time, nonsalaried executive directors. The list is endless. While it is certainly true that few people have this level of extended
1 For a more detailed accounting of executive leadership in volunteerism, see S. J. Ellis, From the Top Down: The Executive Role in Volunteer Program Success (Philadelphia, PA: Energize, Inc., 1996), which served as a key source in the development of this chapter.
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time to contribute, the fact is that a person may do any job, and perform equally to those with a salary, on a volunteer basis—provided an organization’s leader- ship is open to such limitless possibilities.
Likewise, people from all walks of life volunteer. Overlooking any segment of the community unnecessarily closes a door to possible volunteers. Keep in mind that some of the nation’s most active volunteers include senior citizens, not to men- tion the contributions of people with disabilities, people with limited incomes, par- ents of young children, and even children themselves—any of whom may be willing to serve in a variety of capacities, from hands-on frontline assistance to policy devel- opment and board service. When it comes to working with young volunteers, child labor laws do not preclude young people from volunteering (Ellis, Weisbord, & Noyes, 2003), so nonprofits frequently engage even elementary students in age-ap- propriate endeavors on behalf of organizations. Research tells us that young people, particularly those who volunteer with members of their family, become lifelong vol- unteers (Musick & Wilson, 2008; Rehnborg, Fallon, & Hinerfeld, 2002). Thus, engag- ing families and youth can help provide a vital community resource for years to come.
Step 2: Include Staff and Board in the Process
Comprehensive community-engagement initiatives benefit greatly from the input and active planning of key stakeholders and staff. One of the best ways to prevent resistance to volunteers is to include staff and board members in the planning pro- cess from the beginning. Including staff in the planning process enables employ- ees to explore the nuances of service and helps to prepare them to expand their reach through volunteers. And board members, themselves volunteers, may fail to see the connection between their type of governance or policy volunteering and the more direct-service opportunities offered to other volunteers. The planning process acts an exercise in staff/board development, leading these key stakehold- ers to begin thinking strategically about volunteers, to articulate a shared language around community engagement, and to explore how volunteers fit within the orga- nization’s core values and mission. Thus, engagement becomes not just about the community outside of the organization but also an exercise in building internal community.
Step 3: Take Stock
Because volunteer engagement does not exist in a vacuum, plans for community in- volvement should be integrated within the existing strategic plan for your organiza- tion’s future direction. The most important question to ask when contemplating a community-engagement initiative is: What is the work that must be done to achieve the mission and goals of our organization? Asking this question ensures that volunteer opportunities fit within the overall objectives of the organization and the plan for mov- ing forward. Additionally, the question benefits volunteers, who surely care whether their time and talents make a difference. Volunteers thrive when they can see that the work they perform is central to the organization: work that impacts the organization’s bottom line—its mission.
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Step 4: Move from Vision to Logistical Reality
Practice wisdom tells us that there are four keys to making a plan or system operational:
1. A vision that guides the plan 2. Clear targets for progress (i.e., goals and objectives for action) 3. A qualified person responsible for overseeing the plan 4. The allocation of financial resources to support the plan
The vision for the plan emerged through your planning process. In examining opportunities for community engagement, the planning committee identified ideas that fit the needs and concerns of the organization. Look back at that stage of de- velopment and see if any underlying themes or ideas emerged that guided your decision making. Capturing those concerns succinctly and framing them into a guiding vision or philosophy is important. This guiding vision should be devel- oped into a strategy or mission statement for community engagement, or some other brief document that is circulated and made widely available. This document will provide direction and serve as a touchstone when important decisions need to be made.
From that statement of vision, a set of clear goals to achieve should flow naturally. By creating measurable statements of intent, including short-term objectives and long- term anticipated outcomes, the planning committee will define the nature of the work to be accomplished. This exercise of refining priorities and goals will present an op- portunity for staff and board to weigh in with a reality check: Where will the resources come from to support these objectives? Who will shepherd the civic-engagement ini- tiative through its various stages?
Selecting a point person to drive the volunteer-engagement effort is critical, ensuring it becomes someone’s responsibility to move your plan to action. This person will need to be someone who enjoys full support and assistance as this new venture takes shape. Additionally, the person must be given the time to undertake the work. Effective community engagement programs—even small efforts—take time. To be ef- fective in this role, your point person either must be engaged to take on this effort or must be relieved of other duties so that he or she can invest the time necessary to achieve the important end results.
Finally, your action plan should include a budget, inclusive of not only the dollars but other costs to your organization of working with volunteers. These may include staff time, facilities, supplies, and equipment required to facilitate involvement. Weigh how your nonprofit will accommodate the fact that increased numbers of volunteers equates to increased numbers of people in your organization—people who take up space, often need to use computers, may want to drink coffee, and will want to park their cars. Such creature comforts alone will not attract volunteers to your nonprofit, but the absence of them can assuredly lead to poor volunteer retention. Also select appropriate lines of communication, set up databases, and determine appropriate screening procedures. Touching on these types of logistics with the planning team before embarking on a new volunteer recruitment initiative can save numerous head- aches down the road.
Developing a Vision for Volunteer Engagement 113
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Step 5: Benchmark Others’ Successes with Volunteers
Where model program for volunteers exist, it is worth exploring opportunities for rep- lication in systems, approaches, training, and more. Consider looking for examples of volunteer engagement from similar nonprofits, particularly those that have achieved successes with volunteers. Such benchmarking could set up opportunities for collabo- ration while also preventing the organization from reinventing the wheel if an existing template fits the agency’s needs.
Additionally, staff will seek a template for volunteer engagement. It may be neces- sary to dedicate some professional development and training time to this topic, or staff simply may look to the executive team to model effective volunteer involvement. Leadership should model commitment to the plan. Staff will perceive not only what working with volunteers may require of them (investments of time, certain behavioral modifications, etc.) but also the potential payoffs for taking work with volunteers seriously.
Step 6: Decide How You Will Measure Success
Setting up metrics to evaluate the success of community-engagement efforts can prove complex, but several tools exist to provide support. These metrics can help an organization determine whether the anticipated outcomes of the volunteer-engage- ment initiative were met and provide the data that will make the case for continued support for your efforts to board members, funders, and other stakeholders.
& Quantitative measures
Databases can be programmed to track not only the number of volunteers and their hours spent in service but also whether their service correlates with other important outcomes. (For example: Are they raising the public profile of the organization? Are they donating, attending events, or becoming members in ad- dition to giving their time? Has the agency been able to serve more clients or provide more effective or comprehensive service because of volunteers? Has volunteers’ service secured matching cash contributions from their employers contingent on hours of service? Have they referred others to the nonprofit? Have they increased their service over time or begun serving in new capacities, perhaps making the shift from episodic volunteers to ongoing volunteers, or adding new skills within the time they give? Have they opened doors with fun- ders or other potential donors?) Such metrics can become part of the agency dashboard, referred to regularly in staff meetings, board discussions, and an- nual reports.
& Financial measures
Another quantitative approach is to determine the organization’s return on invest- ment by placing a value on volunteers’ time. Several methods for this exist (e.g., comparing the work to its average wage in the marketplace, accounting for the opportunity cost of volunteers’ time, etc.). Resources for conducting volunteer valuation can be found online at The RGK Center’s research center www.rgkcen- ter.org/research/past, including an article, “Placing a Value on Volunteer Time” (2005), that outlines several tools available to nonprofit leaders.
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& Qualitative measures
Scheduling exit interviews or after-action reports with volunteers who have com- pleted a significant project or service commitment provides precious information. Meet with staff supervisors or board members engaged in the action to process the outcomes, and think about surveying your volunteers periodically or holding casual focus groups to garner their input. Report volunteer involvement successes and highlight accomplishments in the organizational newsletter, reports to fun- ders, Web site content, and elsewhere, and clip press reports about the agency, watching for the presence of volunteers. Community involvement often helps to garner positive attention in the community and provides positive public relations for your nonprofit.
Managing the Volunteer Investment
Just as thoughtful, careful planning is necessary for any level of volunteer involve- ment, so, too, are resources to do the job, including funds and staff time. Numerous studies have found that—“free” labor, notwithstanding—the old adage you get what you pay for applies to volunteer programs (Adalpe et al., 2006; Grantmaker Forum on Community and National Service, 2003; Hager, 2004; Rehnborg et al., 2002). The bot- tom line is this: The more energy and resources nonprofits expend in community- engagement initiatives, the greater their return on the investment.
The level and extent of a volunteer-engagement initiative determines the staff- ing complement. Utilizing The Volunteer Involvement Framework grid shown in Exhibit 5.2, we examine the traits of each quadrant and the resultant management recommendations. Keep in mind that volunteer-engagement initiatives that span the grid will require greater levels of management resources.
A Question of Management and Staffing
Making the decision to hire a new person on either a full- or part-time basis is always complex and requires careful analysis. Because volunteers generally work for no pay, many nonprofits initially assume that the leadership of the program can also be secured without a paycheck. In her excellent treatment of the subject of when to pay for help and when to engage volunteers for a task, Ellis (1996) notes that, while volunteers’ qualifications can be equal to or beyond that of staff in every way, providing a paycheck serves four critical functions: “Offering a salary gives the agency a predetermined number of work hours per week, the right to dictate the employee’s work schedule, a certain amount of control over the nature and priorities of the work to be done, and continuity” (p. 12). Thus, handling a significant workforce of volunteers (and especially if those volunteers serve over a long period of time and perform highly skilled work) likely requires the sort of availability and commitment that an organization usually finds in a paid staff member.
Once the commitment has been made to hire for the position, some executive directors look to fill a volunteer manager opening from within the ranks of existing volunteers. The underlying assumption—that someone committed to serving your nonprofit would welcome the opportunity to come on board in exchange for a
Managing the Volunteer Investment 115
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paycheck—sometimes misunderstands the challenges inherent in moving from being a volunteer to managing other volunteers. Having a clear job description and laying out the necessary skills and aptitudes of the job is essential. An excellent resource on volunteer management, which includes sample job descriptions for the position, can be found on Idealist.org in its Volunteer Management Resource Center section. See www.idealist.org/info/VolunteerMgmt
Position justification is a concern frequently raised by executive directors. Histori- cally, most nonprofit organizations emerged from the work of a committed group of volunteers who championed a cause. As the work grew, the founding board sought funds to hire a leader for the organization, a person with the time and the expertise needed to take the group to its next level of functioning: the executive director. The same rationale applies to the position of volunteer manager. Investing time and re- sources in a talented volunteer manager will yield valuable returns.
Minimizing Challenges, Embracing Opportunities
Few volunteer leaders will openly cast aspersions on the dedication of volunteers or the virtues of community involvement, yet benign acceptance can also mask serious reserva- tions, if not outright hostility, toward volunteers. This section of the chapter addresses some of the more common issues in volunteer engagement, presenting some of the chal- lenges and opportunities inherent in community-engagement activities.
The opportunities, challenges, and liability considerations for service projects within each of the quadrants are captured in the Framework shown in Exhibit 5.3. Although the concerns vary by the dimensions of the quadrant, a few considerations are universal.
Liability
In today’s litigious society, nonprofit organizations need to be careful, thoughtful, and thorough in any project they undertake, ensuring proper consideration of risk manage- ment and liability. Although a thorough risk-assessment analysis is beyond the scope of this chapter, nonprofits would be well advised to exercise for volunteers the same cau- tion advocated for client care and general staff protection for positions of equal respon- sibility. A well-managed program should include up-to-date records and well- documented personnel files, noting all trainings attended and reference checks con- ducted, as well as the results of these reference checks. In addition, a comprehensive community-engagement program should include a policies and procedures document that outlines regulations pertaining to volunteer/client contact within and outside of the work setting; expectations for uses of personal vehicles and levels of personal insur- ance required if client transportation is anticipated; procedures on how to handle inju- ries received during the course of service; and any other guidelines that would be instituted for staff serving in similar positions. A comprehensive orientation to volunteer work provides an opportunity to share this information with volunteers.
Insurance is available for volunteers operating within the regulations of a formal organization. The low cost of this coverage suggests the relative safety of such under- takings; nonetheless, an exploration of available options is important. For an example
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EX H IB IT 5. 3
T h e V o lu n te e r In v o lv e m e n t F ra m e w o rk : W e ig h in g O p p o rt u n it ie s, C h al le n g e s, an
d R is k s
C O N N E C T IO
N T O
S E R V IC E !
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s
TIMEFORSERVICE!
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as e fo r ad
v o ca cy , fu n d ra is in g ,
o r v o lu n te e r re cr u it m e n t
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(c o n ti n u ed
)
117 Connors, T. D. (Ed.). (2011). The volunteer management handbook : Leadership strategies for success. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. Created from ashford-ebooks on 2022-04-12 22:59:50.
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(C o n ti n u ed
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s TIMEFORSERVICE!
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b e g iv e n v o ic e in
o rg an
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in fo rm
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o n p ro g re ss
o n k e y o b je ct iv e s
L ia b il it y
C h e ck
re q u ir e m e n ts fo r ap
p ro p ri at e
b ac k g ro u n d ch
e ck s; sh o u ld
b e p e rf o rm
e d if
v o lu n te e r w o rk s w it h v u ln e ra b le cl ie n ts .
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ca rr y so m e fo rm
o f li ab
il it y p o li cy
M ay
n e e d to
o ff e r m il e ag e o r o th e r fo rm
s o f
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b u rs e m e n t
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e r e ag e r to
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iz at io n ’s
w o rk
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m e e t ag e n cy ’s n e e d s
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th e co
m m u n it y ,l ik e ly to
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ti v e d ir e ct o r
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d o ffi ce rs ’
in su ra n ce
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of such coverage, see www.cimaworld.com/htdocs/volunteers.cfm. Intermediary organizations for nonprofits and large nation organizations with numerous affiliates fre- quently offer support and information about liability and risk management as it pertains to volunteer involvement. Another particularly useful resource for nonprofit organiza- tions is the Nonprofit Risk Management Center, based in Leesburg, VA, which offers a host of references and useful articles (nonprofitrisk.org/library/articles/insur- ance052004.shtml).
While precautions and risk assessment are wise, overestimating the risk associ- ated with volunteers can create undue burdens. It is generally unnecessary to do crim- inal background checks—or even reference checks—for most volunteers participating in one-time group events or in positions unrelated to contact with vulner- able clients. Allow the complexity of the assigned task to dictate risk-management measures, and drop any that add unnecessary bureaucracy and obstacles to service. As always, however, check with legal counsel or insurance provider to determine the right line of action for the organization.
Record Keeping
Effective nonprofit management includes accounting for and supporting the agency’s volunteers. Each volunteer’s involvement serving the organization should be a matter of record. Set up the organization’s database and paperwork so that records of volun- teer involvement not only capture the information to protect against liability but also to provide needed data to evaluate the success of the program. (For support in devel- oping record-keeping systems, see Ellis & Noyes, 2003.)
Data recorded about volunteers’ service will depend not only on the requirements of the organization but also those of the volunteer and the agency’s stakeholders. For example, a student fulfilling an educational requirement (service-learning or course re- quirement) or volunteering to meet licensure requirements for a particular profession will require certain documentation of involvement in the organization. Additionally, in- surance carriers may require particular data-keeping practices to cover a volunteer in the event of injury. Funders may accept volunteer service as part of a match requirement and sometimes have their own reporting requirements on volunteer involvement.
Dismissal
While it is true that occasionally volunteers do not work out, such problems are fortunately rare. A well-managed program is the best prevention from contentious volunteer relationships. When volunteers have well-developed position descriptions; have been capably screened, oriented, and trained for the position they will fulfill; and are given adequate staff support and recognition, programs generally run smoothly. However, it is true that, once in a while, a volunteer may need to be dismissed. (Yes, volunteers can be fired!)
As with staff, this situation is never pleasant, in spite of its periodic necessity. Some excellent online resources provide detailed information about the process of dismissing volunteers (McCurley, 1993; Rehnborg, 1995). They are available online at:
www.serviceleader.org/new/managers/2005/07/000270.php www.casanet.org/program-management/volunteer-manage/fire.htm
Minimizing Challenges, Embracing Opportunities 119
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Problem volunteers should not be tolerated, nor should the specter of this prob- lem deter leaders from involving volunteers. Many situations where volunteers stray from expected protocol are motivated more by ignorance than intent. In the process of gathering the information that appears in this chapter, an executive director told of a situation where her nonprofit organization accidentally “inherited” the problem vol- unteer of a sister agency. When the aberrant behaviors commenced at the new agency, the executive director brought the volunteer in to discuss the situation. The genuinely shocked volunteer had mistakenly assumed that her behavior was what was expected, and she was mortified to learn that she had been such a cause for con- cern. The woman grew to become one of the new agency’s most critical supporters and strongest workers—not its greatest nemesis. Yes, volunteers can be dismissed, but volunteers also deserve the courtesy of attention and redirection before drastic measures are taken.
Volunteer/Staff Ratios
There are no specific rules that determine a standard volunteer/staff ratio or that trigger when a volunteer manager needs to go from a half-time to a full-time position. Like- wise, volunteer hours are not a good proxy to develop equations translating part-time volunteer positions to full-time-equivalent standards for supervision formulas. Working with eight volunteers each giving five hours of service weekly (40 hours of total service per week) is significantly more time intensive from a supervision standpoint than working with a single individual providing an equal amount of time.
We do know however, that more intensive volunteer expectations require greater staff support and closer supervision. For example, the Court Appointed Special Advo- cate program standards specify 1 supervisor to 30 volunteers (National CASA Associa- tion, 2006). For supervision purposes, the San Francisco Recreation and Park Department Volunteer Policy Guide (n.d.) recommends one gardener to 15 volun- teers. Neither number however, indicates the staffing complement of the volunteer office that recruits and prepares these people for service. Each organization must examine its own goals, activities, and workload in volunteer engagement and decide accordingly about volunteer management staffing. Benchmarking with other pro- grams in similar areas of service may provide insight about appropriate staffing levels and expectations.
Volunteer/Staff Relations
Almost any new or changed undertaking naturally is met with resistance. Dramatically ramping up a community engagement program may cause staff to raise concerns about already overwhelming workloads, job security, the qualifications of the volun- teers, the timing of the decision, or roles that community members may assume. Fol- lowing the steps outlined in this chapter will address many of these issues. The next pointers may also help.
& Form a committee of staff and other stakeholders to assist with planning and im- plementation of the community engagement initiative. A willingness to listen carefully to the demands of existing personnel will go a long way in developing
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their receptivity to the new venture. Consider if all of their concerns are founded, but certainly those that are need to be addressed during the planning process.
& Help staff members consider the service they have performed, and relate their experiences as volunteers to their work as staff who will now interact with volun- teers. No one wants their time wasted, nor are we eager to be treated poorly. Personalizing the volunteer experience helps staff to regard the new workforce positively.
& Orient staff to expectations. Not only should staff members be expected to work within the guidelines of appropriate expectations, but they also should be rewarded for doing so. When recognizing volunteers, thank the staff who sup- ported them too. Connect merit raises and other bonuses to this expectation, as with other job requirements.
& Inform staff about the expectations and reality of the volunteer workforce. The vast majority of people offering to serve are eager to help—they are not there to take jobs or to assume 40-hour-a-week responsibilities. Provide staff members with an update on who is volunteering as well as how they can become valued members of your organization’s team.
For additional resources on this topic, check out www.energizeinc.com/art/subj/ emp.html.
Conclusion
Organizations benefit from expanding their conceptualization of volunteering to examine the complex interplay between the needs and goals of the organization or cause being served and the concerns and expectations of the people potentially deliv- ering service. Organized on the dual axes of time and connection to service, The Vol- unteer Involvement Framework highlights the complexity as well as the richness of volunteers as a resource.
Using the Framework, one can envision relations with a diverse array of potential volunteers: people who share the same broad goal—to make a difference—but see it from a number of distinct individual perspectives. As dem- onstrated here, making a difference can occur when one serves a cause one be- lieves in, offers a valued skill, and/or acts as part of a network that holds some personal significance.
Responding to volunteers’ specialized perspectives not only leads to more mean- ingful experiences for the volunteer but also creates opportunities for you, as a non- profit leader. Capitalizing on volunteer resources, even those generated through short-term contacts such as “days of caring” events, can later lead to a cadre of com- munity supporters: people who know about the organization, value its services, and may support the mission in an ongoing way. Even brief encounters can build mailing lists, tell a story, recruit more volunteers, and meet new contacts in key organizations for collaboration. However, none of this will occur without consciously segmenting volunteer contacts, planning for effective volunteer engagement, providing resources to ensure positive volunteer involvement, and targeting volunteer audiences to build support for the organization.
Conclusion 121
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Consider the options the Framework presents when planning for volunteer engagement, noting not only the opportunities for volunteer support but also the various management expectations associated with service in each of the four quadrants. Also, capture sufficient information about community participants to understand all of the ways in which they might be available and willing to sup- port the organization.
No framework, regardless of how thoroughly conceptualized, is a substitute for getting to know the unique needs and concerns of your particular individual volun- teers. A highly skilled, powerful business executive may want nothing more than to plant flowers that beautify an urban area or volunteer with his dog, visiting seniors in a nursing home. Likewise, an arborist may relish the opportunity to create a database for your organization and use a skill set only marginally connected to her workplace. The wants and needs of volunteers vary over time. Respecting the time and service interest of volunteers turns community members into partners jointly committed to an organization’s success.
Worksheet: Assessing Current Patterns of Volunteer Engagement
Utilize the grid in Exhibit 5.4 first to capture the ways in which volunteers are currently engaged (remember to include the board of directors). Next, fill in the grid with ideas for how volunteers might engage in the organization’s future work.
EXHIBIT 5.4 The Volunteer Involvement Framework Worksheet
CONNECTION TO SERVICE ! Affiliation Focus Skill Focus
T IM
E F O R SE
R V IC E !
Short Term
Ongoing
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Also, assess the effectiveness of your current situation. Where are volunteers most helpful? How are they managed and supported? How effectively does staff work with volunteers?
References
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Ellis, S. J. (1996). From the top down: The executive role in volunteer program success. Philadelphia, PA: Energize, Inc.
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McCurley, S. (1993, January/February). How to fire a volunteer and live to tell about it. Retrieved from www.casanet.org/program-management/volunteer-manage/fire. htm
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National CASA Association. (2006, May). National CASA Association standards and quality assurance system for local CASA/GAL member programs: Executive summary—What every judge needs to know. Retrieved from www.casafor children.org/site/c.mtJSJ7MPIsE/b.5552449/k.349D/National_CASA_Association_ Standards.htm
Placing a value on volunteer time. (2005, Fall). Investigator, 2, 1–3. Retrieved from www.utexas.edu/lbj/rgk/investigator/issue4
Rehnborg, S. J. (1995, July). A few pointers on the unpleasant topic of firing volun- teers. Retrieved from www.serviceleader.org/new/managers/2005/07/000270. php
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