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Unit Lesson

Philosophical Theories: Related to Ethical Decision-Making

Many theorists have concluded that several decision-making models exist that focus on consistent norms and have derived from society and individual impressions. The textbook cites several sources that are prominent in this field, and lists some of the well-known founders of these theories. Participants that develop topics of

public policy, such as social equity, education, conflict resolution, or human rights, may base their decisionmaking on the beliefs related to certain philosophies.

Utilitarianism: Approach Based on Consequences

Based on consequences, an action may be right or wrong. Jeremy Bentham and John Steward Mills derived this theory that was completely based on reason. The authors did not want their theory based on religion or particular societal level of norms. More so, Utilitarianism wanted everyone to have access to a thinking mind and is based off an idea of utility or usefulness. An abbreviated summary of Bentham and Mills theory can be summarized as “the greatest good, for the greatest number or population.” We can assume that “good” means happiness or pleasure for most people. Another concept closely related to this outcome is efficacy, which implies the “least desired input for greatest desired output.” Business and government usually take this strategy for different reasons – mainly associated with resources. If one thinks about successful business and government practices, the decision-making effort outcomes generally result in products and services that work best, cost least, and last the longest. The consumer mindset also uses this simple and natural buying process for decision-making. The successful business leader uses this variable for short and long-term investment decisions, and the public manager focuses on successful public services, which utilizes public funding in a prudent and wise fashion. Another public example is the government buying process where services and products are purchased though a competitive vetting process where needs, values, and timely delivery are critical components of the purchasing decision model. Efficacy also applies to students who compare colleges that provide the best benefits for the best dollar value, student teacher ratio, or finding where friends attend. Utilitarianism is the ideal ethical theory for democracy because the majority decides what is best. Subjecting topics to a vote means that the strongest side will win.

Deontology: Decisions Based on Principles

Principled public administrators use the deontology theory. The principles or rules referenced could derive from the organization itself. These types of rules (or laws) could also be interpreted as obligatory, thus public managers have to know how to apply these sets of principles to actual scenarios. Immanuel Kant, an 18th century German Philosopher, provided a foundation for deontology that states, “one should act only as if one were legislating a universal law for everyone to follow in a preferred world.” Two overriding principles that Kant focuses on are that mankind should not lie, and as a means to an end - individuals should not be influenced unequally. Another well-known philosopher, John Rawls (1985) wrote, “Justice is Fairness.” In his writings, he stated that there are two overriding principles that should provide justification for rational calculations. Rawls summarized the following:

· First Principle: Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberty compatible with a similar system of liberty for all.

· Second Principle: Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged. (p. 223)

Ontology: The Study of Being

The term, being, pertains to the public administrator’s decision-making properties or references of physical objects, classes of human beings, properties or relations to objects, space and or time, or events. The study of ontology pertains to groups and their relations with similar entities. What concepts should public managers use when making ethical decisions based on ontology? The answer references and includes the state of affairs or relationships with the properties previously stated.

Epistemology: The Study of Knowledge

The method or process that is used for research is defined from two distinct parameters. The first parameter is positivism, meaning the purpose of research is performed for scientific explanation. The technique utilizes deductive logic (from previously known facts) and empirical observations; thus, predicting human patterns. The second parameter is interpretivism, where qualitative research is primarily used. The primary research tools are observed by a participant’s experiences and interactions with social systems and usually not generalized to a population. Together, both research and decision-making processes that encompass epistemology are not curtailed by drawn boundaries. It is important to understand that public administrators may or may not use boundaries to interpret and make decisions based on constructed limitations. In the real

world, these limitations can be called reason or common experience. Examples may include political or religious beliefs. Should the public administrator view these attitudes as restraints?

Approaches to decision-making focus on several variables that are committed to successful utility. These include:

· obligations/duty (public servant fiduciary trust),

· virtue (honesty and integrity),

· principles (rights of individuals), and

· benefits to society (best for community).

The conclusions and examinations of decision-making theories are not reviewed to confuse or muddy the waters of administrating, but should broaden the perspectives and self-awareness of ethical theories. One theory over another is certainly never the ultimate answer when making public decisions. The hope is that the administrator can gleam different ways of providing possible resolutions after reviewing the pros and cons.

Thus, benefiting all stakeholders by promoting the very best alternatives.