What would happen if you did not fit into the environment?

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PART 2 Individual Behaviors and Processes in Organizations

CHAPTER 4

Individual Values, Perceptions, and Reactions

Ricky W. Griffin/Jean M. Phillips/Stanley M. Gully, Organizational Behavior: Managing People and Organizations, Thirteenth Edition. © 2017 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Chapter Learning Objectives After studying this chapter you should be able to:

Discuss how attitudes are formed, describe the meaning of cognitive dissonance, and identify and describe three important work-related attitudes.

Describe the role and importance of values and emotions in organizational behavior.

Describe basic perceptual processes and how perception affects fairness, justice, and trust in organizations.

Discuss the nature of stress, identify the basic causes and consequences of stress, and describe how stress can be managed.

Ricky W. Griffin/Jean M. Phillips/Stanley M. Gully, Organizational Behavior: Managing People and Organizations, Twelfth Edition. © 2017 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Attitudes in Organizations (1 of 4)

Attitudes

A person’s complexes of beliefs and feelings about specific ideas, situations, or other people

Structural components of attitudes

Cognition: the knowledge a person presumes to have about something

Affect: a person’s feelings toward something

Intention: component of an attitude that guides a person’s behavior

Attitude Formation

Figure 4.1

Attitudes are generally formed around a sequence of cognition, affect, and behavioral intention. That is, we come to know something that we believe to be true (cognition). This knowledge triggers a feeling (affect). Cognition and affect then together influence how we intend to behave in the future.

Attitudes in Organizations (2 of 4)

Cognitive dissonance

An incompatibility or conflict between behavior and an attitude or between two different attitudes

How to reduce cognitive dissonance?

Change the conflicting attitude

Change the conflicting behavior

Reason that one of the conflicting attitudes or behaviors is not important in this context

Seek additional information to better reason that the benefits of one of the conflicting attitudes or behaviors outweigh the costs of the other

Recognize that attitudes can change

Attitudes in Organizations (3 of 4)

Key work-related attitudes

Job satisfaction	Reflects our attitudes and feelings about our jobs
Organizational commitment	Reflects the degree to which an employee identifies with the organization and its goals and wants to stay with the organization
Employee engagement	Heightened emotional and intellectual connection that an employee has for his/ her job, organization, manager, or coworkers that, in turn, influences him/her to apply additional discretionary effort to his/her work

Attitudes in Organizations (4 of 4)

Types of organizational commitment

Affective commitment	Positive emotional attachment to the organization and strong identification with its values, and its goals; employees want to stay with the organization
Normative commitment	A feeling of moral or ethical obligation to the organization; employees stay because they believe it would be wrong to leave
Continuance commitment	Staying with the organization because of perceived high economic and/or social costs; employees stay because they feel they have to

Influences on Job Satisfaction

Figure 4.2

Job satisfaction is one of the most important job-related attitudes in organizations. It reflects both our attitudes and our feelings about our job. Job satisfaction is strongly influenced by our personality, values, other attitudes, and the work itself.

Table 4.1 Top Three Worldwide Drivers of Employee Attraction, Retention, and Engagement for Different Age Groups

Top Drivers of Attraction for 18- to 24-Year-Olds	Top Drivers of Retention for 18- to 24-Year-Olds	Top Drivers of Engagement for 18- to 24-Year-Olds
Career advancement opportunities	Have excellent career advancement opportunities	Organization develops leaders at all levels
Competitive base pay	Work in an environment where new ideas are encouraged	Organization quickly resolves customer concerns
Learning and development opportunities	Satisfaction with the organization’s business decisions	Senior management is sincerely interested in employee well-being
Top Drivers of Attraction for 45- to 54-Year-Olds	Top Drivers of Retention for 45- to 54-Year-Olds	Top Drivers of Engagement for 45- to 54-Year-Olds
Competitive base pay	Organization’s reputation as a great place to work	Senior management is sincerely interested in employee well-being
Challenging work	Satisfaction with the organization’s people decisions	Improved my skills and capabilities over the last year
Convenient work location	Understand potential career track within the organization	The organization’s reputation for social responsibility

Source: Based on information provided in Exhibits 14, 15, and 16 of Towers Perrin Global Workforce Study—Global Report at http://www.towersperrin.com/tp/getwebcachedoc?webc=HRS/USA/2008/200803/GWS_Global_Report20072008_31208.pdf.

Values and Emotions in Organizations (1 of 4)

Values

Ways of behaving or end-states that are desirable to a person or to a group

Types of values

Terminal: reflect long-term life goals such as prosperity, happiness, secure family, and a sense of accomplishment

Instrumental: preferred means of achieving terminal values or preferred ways of behaving

Intrinsic: relate to the work itself

Extrinsic: relate to the outcomes of doing work

Values and Emotions in Organizations (2 of 4)

Conflicts among values

Intrapersonal: Conflict between the instrumental value of ambition and the terminal value of happiness

Interpersonal: Occurs when two different people hold conflicting values

Individual-organization: When an employee’s values conflict with those of the organization

Values and Emotions in Organizations (3 of 4)

Values differ around the world—leads to different managerial behaviors

Two major dimensions

Traditional versus secular-rational values: reflects the contrast between societies in which religion is very important and those in which it is not

Survival versus self-expression values: reflects the contrast between societies that emphasize economic and physical security and those that emphasize subjective well-being, self-expression, and quality of life, giving high priority to environmental protection, diversity tolerance, and participation in decision making

How Values Differ around the World

Figure 4.3

Values differ around the world. One useful way to understand differences in values is in terms of secular/rational values and survival/self-expression values. This figure illustrates how different regions of the world reflect these two sets of values.

Source: Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. (2005). Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy (p. 64). New York: Cambridge University Press. Based on the World Values Surveys, see http://www.worldvaluessurvey.Org.

Values and Emotions in Organizations (4 of 4)

The role of emotions in behavior

Emotions

Intense, short-term physiological, behavioral, and psychological reactions to a specific object, person, or event that prepare us to respond to it

Moods

Short-term emotional states that are not directed toward anything in particular

Affectivity

The tendency to experience a particular mood or to react to things with certain emotions

The Role of Emotions in Behavior

Affect and Mood in organizations

Positive affect	Reflects a combination of high energy and positive evaluation characterized by emotions like elation
Negative affect	Comprises feelings of being upset, fearful, and distressed

Figure 4.4

Positive and Negative Affect

Affect can vary anywhere along a continuum ranging from positive affect to negative affect. As illustrated here, it is also possible to fall in between these extremes and reflect neither positive nor negative affect.

Source: Thompson, E. R., Development and Validation of an Internationally Reliable Short-Form of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38(2), 227–242. © 2007 by SAGE Publications. Reprinted by Permission of SAGE Publications.

Perception in Organizations (1 of 5)

Perception

The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the environment

Basic perceptual processes

Selective perception: screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs

Stereotyping: categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute

Perception in Organizations (2 of 5)

Perception errors

Categorization	The tendency to put things into groups and then exaggerate the similarities within and the differences among the groups
Halo effect	Forming a general impression of something or someone based on a single (usually good) characteristic
Contrast effect	Evaluating someone by comparing them with recently encountered people
Projection	Seeing one’s own characteristics in others
First impression bias	The inability to let go of first impressions, particularly negative ones
Self-fulfilling prophecies	Treating people the way we categorize them and having them react accordingly

Perception in Organizations (3 of 5)

Attribution

The way we explain the causes of our own as well as other people’s behaviors and achievements, and understand why people do what they do

Are they due to the individual because of internal factors such as effort and ability?

Or are they due to the environment because of external factors such as luck, resources, and other people?

Perception in Organizations (4 of 5)

Three rules to evaluate whether to assign an internal or an external attribution

Consistency: Has the person regularly behaved this way or experienced this outcome in the past?

Distinctiveness: Does the person act the same way or receive similar outcomes in different types of situations?

Consensus: Would others behave similarly in the same situation or receive the same outcome?

Self-handicapping

When people create obstacles for themselves that make success less likely

The Attribution Process

Figure 4.5

The attribution process involves observing behavior and then attributing causes to it. Observed behaviors are interpreted in terms of their consensus, their consistency, and their distinctiveness. Based on these interpretations, behavior is attributed to either internal or external causes.

Perception in Organizations (5 of 5)

Perceptions and fairness, justice, and trust

Organizational fairness—Employees’ perceptions of organizational events, policies, and practices as being fair or not fair

Distributive fairness—Perceived fairness of the outcome received, including resources distributions, promotions, hiring and layoff decisions, and raises

Procedural fairness—Addresses the fairness of the procedures used to generate the outcome

Interactional fairness—Whether the amount of information about the decision and process was adequate, perceived fairness of interpersonal treatment and explanations received during the decision-making process

Trust—The expectation that another person will not act to take advantage of us, regardless of our ability to monitor or control them.

Stress in Organizations (1 of 6)

Stress

A person’s adaptive response to a stimulus that places excessive psychological or physical demands on that person

The stress process (Selye)

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Identifies three stages of response to a stressor: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

Sources of stress

Eustress: pleasurable stress that accompanies positive events

Distress: unpleasant stress accompanies negative events

The General Adaptation System

Figure 4.6

The general adaptation syndrome (GAS) perspective describes three stages of the stress process. The initial stage is called alarm. As illustrated here, a person’s resistance often dips slightly below the normal level during this stage. Next comes actual resistance to the stressor, usually leading to an increase above the person’s normal level of resistance. Finally, in stage 3, exhaustion may set in, and the person’s resistance declines sharply below normal levels.

Stress in Organizations (2 of 6)

Common causes of stress

Organizational stressors: various factors in the workplace that can cause stress

Task demands—Associated with the specific job a person performs

Physical demands—Associated with the job’s physical setting and requirements

Role demands—Associated with the expected behaviors of a particular position in a group or organization

Interpersonal demands—Group pressures, leadership, interpersonal conflicts

Life stressors: life changes or traumas

Causes and Consequences of Stress

Figure 4.7

The causes and consequences of stress are related in complex ways. As shown here, most common causes of stress can be classified as either organizational stressors or life stressors. Similarly, common consequences include individual and organizational consequences, as well as burnout.

Reference: Adapted from James C. Quick and Jonathan D. Quick, Organizational Stress and Preventive Management (McGraw-Hill, 1984) pgs. 19, 44, and 76. Used by permission of James C. Quick.

Workload, Stress, and Performance

Figure 4.8

Too much stress is clearly undesirable, but too little stress can also lead to unexpected problems. For example, too little stress may result in boredom and apathy and be accompanied by low performance. And although too much stress can cause tension, anxiety, and low performance, for most people there is an optimal level of stress that results in high energy, motivation, and performance.

Stress in Organizations (3 of 6)

Consequences of Stress

Individual consequences

Behavioral consequences

Psychological consequences

Medical consequence

Organizational consequences

Burnout

A general feeling of exhaustion that develops when an individual simultaneously experiences too much pressure and has too few sources of satisfaction

Stress in Organizations (4 of 6)

Managing and Controlling Stress

Individual Coping Strategies

Exercise

relaxation.

to develop and maintain support groups.

Stress in Organizations (5 of 6)

Organizational coping strategies

Institutional programs

Properly designed jobs and work schedules

Fostering a healthy work culture

Supervision—keep workloads reasonable

Collateral programs

Organizational programs specifically created to help employees deal with stress

Stress management, health promotion, employee fitness programs, career development

Stress in Organizations (6 of 6)

Work-life balance

Fundamental work-life relationships

work-life relationships

Interrelationships between a person’s work life and personal life

Balancing work-life linkages

Importance of long-term versus short-term perspectives

Balance needs of both wage earners in double-income families

Accept that there’s a work-life integration

Organizational Behavior in Action

After reading the chapter:

If your boss was not sure it would be worth the investment to change the company’s hiring practices to include an evaluation of applicants’ attitudes, what would you tell him or her?

Do you think that it would be easy to influence a subordinate’s attitudes, values, or emotions? Why? Which would have the largest influence on the employee’s behavior? Why?