ORG 6499 -4
Cultural systems such as national cultures and subcultures attempt (consciously and unconsciously) to instill unity within their membershipand to differentiate the group from the outside world. As a result, almost all cultures develop a sense of how different they are from“others” (Stearns, 2000)—an awareness that can often create sharp “us” and “them” distinctions or opposition between the dominantculture and those outside it.
Additionally, within any culture, some groups of individuals are favored or enjoy higher social class status, while others are disadvantagedand often disparaged. Thus, inequities exist within the structure of the society itself, and members of some groups may not be able to fullyparticipate in the culture. What types of inequities and exclusions exist in societies? How and why do these inequities develop? Whatprocesses, elements, and social constructs within a society influence how members reflect on or respond to human diversity? These aresome of the questions this chapter explores.
This text previously discussed how immigrants adopt the customs, values, and attitudes of their new society and, over time, becomeassimilated into the new culture. However, for their own reasons or for reasons beyond their control, some do not assimilate. Those whofail to assimilate often do not have the same opportunities and advantages enjoyed by those who do; the outsiders do not fully participatein the culture (Zellentin, Hinsch, & Wingert, 2012). Because of dress, language, accent, or customs, they are still viewed as different.Immigrants and the homeless are examples of such excluded populations.
When people immigrate to a new society and have needs, values, and attitudes that differ from those of the majority population, does thehost society have any responsibility to try to accommodate immigrants’ needs, values, and attitudes?
Proponents of assimilation would say that a host country has no responsibility whatsoever to make cultural changes to accommodatenewcomers. “If they don’t like it here, they can go back where they came from,” goes the argument. Yet the United States in particular pridesitself on being a nation of immigrants. Many social practices in American culture have continually undergone change as a result of theimmigration of different groups of people into this country. For example, ethnic restaurants abound in large and small cities around thecountry and are frequented by people of varying nationalities. Public documents are routinely printed in several different languages inaddition to English; Americans of all backgrounds routinely participate in Chinese New Year and St. Patrick’s Day celebrations.
Many people, however, see these social practices as inconsequential when compared to what they consider to be various ways in whichminority groups are oppressed and systematically excluded from mainstream American culture. The sections that follow examine some ofthese views.
Oppression
Historically, the term oppression has described unjust treatment by a powerful person or government. Such treatment might includepersecution, abuse, domination, brutality, or tyranny, such as the oppression of slaves in the United States prior to the Civil War. Morerecently, however, the term has been used to denote widespread or systemic social inequity by those who wield power in a hierarchicalsocial system that grants one group (e.g., racial, gender, or socioeconomic) greater access to resources (social, economic, political, cultural,and psychological) relative to other groups (Case & Hunter, 2012). Such oppression, say some researchers, creates a minority groupexperience in which people feel marginalized. Marginalization, also often referred to as social exclusion, relegates people to the marginsor fringes of mainstream society and places them at a social disadvantage.
Oppression, say some researchers, also has the potential to limit individuals in the social, political, and economic domains of their lives,while taking a psychological toll on them by creating a sense of demoralization, lowered self-esteem, and decreased quality of life (Matthews& Adams, 2009). Oppression can be accompanied by discrimination—actions, practices, traditions, policies, or laws that deny humanrights or social participation to categories of people based on their actual or perceived membership in a certain group.
Discrimination
Broadly defined, the term discrimination refers to discernment—the ability to recognize and understand the differences and finedistinctions between one thing and another. However, in the latter part of the 1800s, the word acquired a meaning related to the unfair orprejudicial treatment of or behavior toward a person or minority group. As its definition above suggests, discrimination can take multipleforms. It can refer to unequal treatment by one person; a community-wide ostracizing of certain people in specific neighborhoods; apervasive attitude demonstrated by unfair treatment in employment, housing, or education; or a societal prejudice that is reflected inregulations or legislation that affect groups of people.
For example, some Muslims have pointed to U.S. legislation, such as the 2001 Patriot Act and travel restrictions implemented through theTransportation Security Administration (TSA), as the impetus for increased discrimination toward them (Ghaffari & Çiftçi, 2010).
After the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States, many Muslims felt stigmatized because of their religion and/orethnicity. The word stigma derives from a 16th-century word meaning “to mark with a brand,” and it refers to singling out someone or agroup and condemning them or their behavior as wrong or disgraceful. This stigmatization often becomes a rationale for various forms ofdiscrimination.
On a 2007 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center, a majority of Muslim Americans surveyed said it has become more difficult to bea Muslim in the United States since the September 11 attacks. Many Muslims believe that the government “singles out” Muslims forincreased surveillance and monitoring, and they also report hate crimes, harassment, and other forms of discrimination against them dueto their ethnic and cultural identity and to misconceptions regarding the religion of Islam (Ghaffari & Çiftçi, 2010).
In 2010 the Council on American–Islamic Relations estimated that approximately 7 million Muslims lived in the United States. Approximately65% to 75% of these people are immigrants, and they belong to a diverse population that originated from 80 different countries aroundthe world and whose members have different traditions, practices, languages, and cultural and ethnic backgrounds.
The Muslim population varies widely in its religious affiliation and how its members observe and practice their religion. A study conductedby the Pew Research Center in 2007 titled “Muslim Americans: Middle Class and Mostly Mainstream” surveyed the identities of the MuslimAmerican community and found that about half of the Muslim immigrant population and their children identify as Sunni Muslims, 22% donot identify as a member of any particular sect, and 16% identify as Shia (Shiite) Muslims.
Regardless of religious affiliation, overall, a third of Muslim Americans interviewed in the 2007 Pew survey reported that they experiencedat least one of these hostile acts in the previous 12 months: being called offensive names, being singled out by law enforcement, or beingphysically threatened or assaulted.
The example of discrimination against Muslims is not unique to the United States, and discrimination is not restricted to one religious group,nationality, skin color, or appearance. Discrimination exists in many forms throughout the world.
Structural Inequities
History is replete with stories of discrimination against individuals and entire groups of people. This discrimination is not always sanctionedby the primary culture, and it is not always obvious. But it can be reinforced, perpetuated, and even implicitly condoned when it existswithin the structures and systems of the society itself.
When discrimination exists within social, political, and economic institutions or other structures within a society, structural inequities arerooted in the societal system. They can be found, for example, in policies that give preference to immigrants from one country over another,in university admission practices that privilege the children of alumni or other special classes of applicants, and in laws that deny votingrights to persons based on race or sex. These structural inequities exclude some groups from full participation in the culture, relegatingthem to an inferior status in the society.
Structural inequities can also be more subtle than explicit laws allowing or prohibiting actions by certain groups. They can take the form ofsystemic cultural inequalities. These could include the underrepresentation of minorities in positions of social, economic, and politicalinfluence; unlawful practices within communities such as exploitation of immigrants or other minority populations in low-wage or“sweatshop” employment; lack of input from marginalized groups with regard to political decisions; or silent rejection or subtle forms ofexclusion from participation in the social structure.
In the 2009 book More than Just Race: Being Black and Poor in the Inner City, Harvard professor William Julius Wilson explores the structuraland cultural forces that contribute to racial inequality in American inner cities. He explains that when people share similar place-basedcircumstances such as living together in a poor, segregated neighborhood, they participate in social networks and a particular way ofunderstanding social life and cultural scripts that guide their behavior. Thus, he argues, when they act according to their culture, “they arefollowing inclinations developed from their exposure to the particular traditions, practices, and beliefs among those who live and interact inthe same physical and social environment” (Wilson, 2009, p. 4). These practices and beliefs are not the same as those of people whose livingcircumstances are different.
Wilson (2009) identifies two types of structural forces that he calls social acts and social processes. Social acts refer to the behavior ofindividuals within the society, and Wilson includes discrimination in hiring and job promotions, housing, and college admission as well asexclusion from unions, associations, or clubs—when these are the acts of an individual or group exercising power over others.
Wilson (2009) defines social processes as the “machinery” of society: structural or institutional inequities. He includes policies and laws inthis category. These social processes also involve more indirect forms of discrimination such as school tracking, which purports to beacademic but often reproduces traditional segregation, and redlining (drawing boundaries and excluding low-income areas where afinancial institution will not make mortgage loans), which purports to be about sound fiscal policy but in fact excludes Black people fromhome ownership. Wilson believes it is important to understand not only the independent contributions of social structure and culture butalso how they intersect to shape different group outcomes. According to Wilson, those outcomes can result in inequality and prevent fullintegration of some minority groups into mainstream American society.
Exclusion Due to Differing Values
We may assume that the values that guide political decisions in the United States are the basic rights and freedoms found in the nation’sConstitution. While these values might be the underpinnings of government action, government cannot justify and guarantee that thesevalues will be upheld. Government depends on civil society to provide a moral foundation for these values and to demonstrate them insocial practices. These social practices, then, guarantee and protect these values over time.
This chapter previously asked the question, “Does a prevailing social group have any responsibility to try to accommodate the needs, values,and attitudes of those joining it from another group?” If a particular country has no obligation to accommodate immigrants’ needs andvalues, how can people with different conceptions of what is right or wrong be treated equally? And how does society ensure that culturaldifferences do not translate into political disadvantages for members of minority groups?
Some claim that mainstream societies generally tolerate the cultural differences of minority groups but do not consider their views inpolitical debates that involve value judgments such as those regarding abortion legislation or gay marriage. Value judgments are subjectiveassessments about the quality or worth of something, or whether something is good or bad, based on one’s own standards or priorities.Value judgments often implicitly involve issues of whether something should or ought to be done. Because they are subjective, they oftenrefer to an individual’s opinion, which is formed to a certain degree by one’s belief system and one’s culture.
This chapter opened with the statement that all cultures develop a pronounced sense of how different they are from “others.” A society thatcompares itself to another can develop an ethnocentric view: that “we” are superior to “them” or in some way better than “they” are. Theseperceptions of others, particularly those whose values are considered inferior, can lead to prejudice and various other forms of discrimination against nonfavored groups.
Defining bias, generalization, stereotype, prejudice, and profiling can be a challenge. These terms often contradict one another, are usedsynonymously, and may include value judgments—fair and unfair—when applied to a person or situation. Consequently, any study of theseconcepts must develop a shared definition of terms that will enable students to communicate clearly with one another and with scholars inthe diversity field.
The manner in which these terms are commonly used is often different from their meaning in the academic arena and among diversitypractitioners. This text will examine these terms from the standpoint of the literature concerning culture and diversity, which may requireadjusting some preconceived notions of the meaning of each term.
Bias as a Critical Element in Decision Making
In his book The Anatomy of Bias: How Neural Circuits Weigh the Options, neuroscientist Jan Lauwereyns (2010) suggests that the word biasshould be “exonerated, polished, and used properly” (p. 14). For many, the term bias has a negative connotation: a form of evil and asynonym for prejudice that leads to discrimination. In fact, bias is a crucial element in discernment and plays a basic role in decision making.It can be viewed as a preference for or a leaning toward something based on one’s values, beliefs, or experiences. From a scientificperspective, bias is the anticipatory processing of information—a prediction of an outcome on either the positive or negative side ofneutral. As such, it is an important element in weighing options and analyzing the risks and rewards of certain behaviors.
Everyone has biases. Mechanisms of bias are a fundamental element in organizing an individual’s perceptions and are so ingrained inhuman thought that it is possible to encounter them in many different guises and in a wide variety of contexts and situations, as a persontries to anticipate future results (Lauwereyns, 2010). Thoughts are an intrinsic part of human identity, a personal perspective that has beenmolded by genetics, environment, personality, culture, and language, and these thoughts are inevitably biased by a person’s limitedexperiences. The biases each person holds help order the world and predict outcomes. According to Lauwereyns (2010), they representrational, critical thinking and extensive information processing, often based on past experiences.
Suppose that you are at a crossroads where you have only limited time to make a decision. You must choose whether to continue youreducation or take a new career position that will require you to live in an isolated area without an Internet connection to continue yourstudies. You may have beliefs, expectations, values, hopes, and desires that factor into your thoughts about which path to choose, and thesemental activities provide different degrees of meaning and truth to aid you in making a decision.
However, rational, critical thinking, in which you compare one belief or one value against another, balance one emotion against another,weigh your dreams and hopes for the future, and calculate the risks and rewards of the two options, represents the more extensiveinformation processing that Lauwereyns (2010) describes. This type of rational thought enables you to evaluate positive or negativeoutcomes. It contributes to decision making by employing complex and more explicit forms of computation and strategies of informedchoice. And, in Lauwereyns’s words, “It is governed by the orientation—yes, bias—toward happiness, as all other forms of mental orbehavioral activity” (p. 86).
Lauwereyns is not alone in his belief that happiness is a primary human goal. Other researchers have also found that happiness as a stateof mind may be universal, though its meaning is subjective and culturally bound. “Cultural values can be a major force in determining theconception of happiness and, consequently, in constricting its subjective experiences” (Luo, Gilmour, & Kao, 2001, p. 480).
Consider the differences between Eastern (Asian) and Western (European/North American) concepts of happiness. Researchers havefound that Western happiness correlates consistently with the Western value of individualism, whereas collective welfare, social integration,and human-heartedness—reflecting interpersonal benevolence, group harmony, hierarchy, stability, and homeostasis—are paramount inthe Eastern concept of happiness and represent a more collectivist viewpoint (Luo et al., 2001).
Sound and Unsound Generalizations
A generalization is the application of a principle, theory, or statement from one particular situation to a broader context or a statementthat is true in most situations. However, generalizations that are unsound or that have no statistical or factual basis are not on par withthose that are sound or have empirical evidence to support them. Unsound generalizations are often spurious, while those that have asound statistical basis can be important and valid tools for decision making.
Definitional, Universal, and Empirically Sound Generalizations
Generalizations usually take the form of “x’s are y” or “x’s do or do not contain y” where x is a noun and y is an attribute or behavioraltendency of that noun, such as “Bachelors are unmarried,” “The planets in our solar system revolve around our sun,” and “Swiss cheese hasholes.”
Some generalizations are universal, meaning that all the x’s are/do contain y. In some of these instances, the generalization is a factualdefinition of the noun—a definitional generalization. For example, the statement “All bachelors are unmarried” is universal because it is partof the definition of a bachelor that he be unmarried. If someone is married, he cannot be a bachelor.
Other generalizations are universal, not because they are definitional, but for empirical reasons—they can be verified or proved byobservation or experimentation. For example, for thousands of years people believed the Earth was at the center of the universe, withother heavenly bodies moving around it. However, no empirical evidence existed to disprove this geocentric viewpoint. Then in 1543Copernicus published his heliocentric model of the universe, and subsequent publication of astronomical tables confirmed his work, soastronomers adopted the idea of the sun as the center of our solar system, and the fundamental concepts of astronomy were reformed.This example represents an empirically sound generalization: Copernicus’s conclusion that planets orbit the sun was based on observabledata.
Statistically Sound Generalizations
Everyday language is imprecise, often lacking qualifying words such as most or many, and generalizations are a common result. Evenwithout qualifiers, generalizations are usually statistically sound when they portray the traits of a majority of the members of a particularclass: “Swiss cheese has holes.” It is possible to find some Swiss cheese without holes, but random samples of Swiss cheese will usually havea hole of some size or another. It is therefore statistically possible to justify applying the statement “Swiss cheese has holes” from oneparticular situation to a broader context because the generalization accurately portrays the traits of a majority of samples of Swiss cheese(Schauer, 2003).
Generalizations are also statistically sound when they accurately portray the members of a class as having a greater prevalence of a traitthan a larger class of which it is a part. The Swiss cheese example also meets this requirement for a sound generalization. The significanceof the statement “Swiss cheese has holes” also lies in the fact that Swiss cheese generally has holes and most other kinds of cheesegenerally do not.
Empirically and Statistically Unsound Generalizations and Stereotypes
Although definitional, empirically sound, and statistically sound generalizations are valid tools for decision making, most generalizations donot fall into these categories. Consider the generalizations “Pit bulls are vicious” and “German-built automobiles are the best.” Thesegeneralizations do not fit the criteria for empirically or statistically sound generalizations. Instead, they are examples of a stereotype—acommonly held but oversimplified generalization about a group based only on belief and not on any knowledge. Generalizations like theseare widely used in everyday speech.
If the trait of viciousness could be shown to appear in pit bulls to a greater degree by nature or to a greater degree than it appears in thedog population as a whole, then the generalization would be sound. However, research has shown that pit bulls do not bite or showaggression at rates higher than other dog breeds, and therefore insufficient evidence exists to make a statistically sound judgment that pitbulls are vicious (American Temperament Test Society, 2013).
Another clear indication of an unsound generalization is the inclusion of opinion or subjective value judgment into the statement. Such isthe case with the statement “German-built automobiles are the best.” The word best represents a subjective perspective or belief that cannotbe objectively verified.
Many stereotypes are negative, such as “Women are bad drivers” or “Irish people are heavy drinkers.” However, stereotypes can be positiveas well. For example, you may have heard that “Asians are good students.” Although such a statement is related to a positive trait, it isequally inaccurate and based on a widely held but unverified belief.
Stereotypes are often pervasive throughout a particular culture and can result in social exclusion. An example of a statistically unsoundgeneralization in Japan and, more recently, in China, concerns a widely held belief that personalities are connected to blood types. As aresult of this unsound generalization, people in those countries are sometimes not hired for jobs for which they are qualified because oftheir blood type, despite the absence of any scientific evidence of the relationship between blood type and personality (Schauer, 2003).
Generalizations and Stereotypes as Preambles to Prejudice and Profiling
When applied to groups of people, stereotypes and empirically and statistically sound or unsound generalizations can become prejudicesor can result in profiling. Prejudice refers to an unsubstantiated belief that results in a preconception or prejudgment of someone becauseof his or her membership in a group. When either sound or unsound generalizations or stereotypes are used to predict someone’sbehavior or to suspect or target a person in a given situation, they are known as profiling.
Possible examples of generalizations and stereotypes used in decision making include the following:
· The Internal Revenue Service uses complex algorithms to determine whose tax returns to audit.
· TSA personnel single out certain people for pat-downs at U.S. airport security checkpoints.
· Customs officers select specific individuals for additional luggage searches as they enter a country.
· A police officer decides to stop and question a pedestrian.
It is important to remember that even when generalizations or stereotypes are statistically sound, they may not be factual in individualcases. For example, the percentage of ex-convicts who commit subsequent crimes is much greater than the percentage of the population atlarge who commit crimes (as cited in Schauer, 2003). So someone who expresses a prejudice against ex-convicts or refuses to hire themsimply because they have been in prison is relying on a sound statistical basis. However, because a trait applies to most people in aparticular group, it does not necessarily apply to all members of that group. Thus, to condemn or distrust all ex-convicts on the basis ofcharacteristics of some group members—or even most group members—is a value judgment based on profiling.
One researcher (Schauer, 2003) suggests that rules and laws are a form of decision making by generalization, similar to decisions based onprobabilities, stereotypes, profiles, and approximations. In today’s world, whereas the terms probabilities and approximations are usuallyacceptable as scientific methods, the term stereotype usually has a negative connotation, and the terms prejudice and profiling are even morenegative. Nonetheless, people make decisions every day using these methods.
The teenage boy who causes his family’s automobile insurance premiums to increase when he acquires a driver’s license is experiencingprejudice based on decision making by generalization. Insurance company actuaries are specialists in generalization and prejudice, sincethey base decisions about rates on certain characteristics attributed to an entire category of drivers. If the teenage male (or any member ofhis family) acquires a sports car, he becomes encumbered with the risk-taking driving attributes of other sports car owners—attributes thathe may not share. The teenager may complain about the unfairness of the system, but unless the system is applied disproportionately alongracial, age, or geographic parameters, most people generally accept such risk-assigning methods as valid.
Like insurance companies, individuals often operate on an actuarial basis more frequently that most would like to acknowledge. Employers, for example, generalize when they associate college degrees and good grades from a prestigious university with traits that predict jobsuccess.
Many people dislike the idea of “painting with a broad brush,” “one size fits all” thinking, or stereotyping. Even so, practices of generalizing, stereotyping, or even prejudice or profiling cannot be dismissed as necessarily morally wrong. They can be important decision-makingtools. The key to using generalization effectively and ethically is to understand and clearly differentiate between when beliefs are sound andmoral and when they are not.
If bias, generalization, stereotype, prejudice, and profiling can have a legitimate place in decision making, when do they become problematic?In the opinion of many, these practices cross into bigotry and unfairness when they manifest themselves in behavior toward others thatdiscriminates based on factors other than individual merit.
Discrimination via Actuarial Calculations
As Americans we regularly discriminate against individuals in our own and in other cultures by using actuarial calculations, or informationsuch as age or gender statistics, to discriminate against people. This type of discrimination often seems, on the surface, to be justifiable.However, statistics can be misinterpreted, and fallacies or inappropriate application of statistics can imply correlations or cause-and-effectrelationships when, in fact, no such relationship exists. For example, applying concepts such as statistical averages to an individual situationcan result in discriminatory practices. Examples of this type of discrimination are discussed below.
Age Discrimination
U.S. commercial airline pilots are required by the Federal AviationAdministration to retire at age 60. Because the consequences of piloterror are often catastrophic, this rule is an exception to the AgeDiscrimination in Employment Act of 1967. The exception was justified asnecessary for passenger safety in commercial air transport.
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 states that “the settingof arbitrary age limits regardless of potential for job performance, . . . maywork to the disadvantage of older persons” (Sec. 621 [Section 2] (a) (2)).Commercial pilots have argued for decades, to no avail, that the age-60rule’s basic flaw is that it is arbitrary. Underlying this rule is the premisethat certain physical faculties such as the speed of reflexes, hearing, andvision are necessary for commercial airline pilots and that these facultiesall decline noticeably after age 60, while the risk of sudden andunexpected incapacitation from stroke or heart attack increases (Schauer,2003).
However, even if available empirical evidence shows a slowing of certainphysical faculties in many or most people after age 60, not all people areaffected; a wide range of individual variation is found. Thus, an actuarialgeneralization can be statistically sound and still be under- oroverinclusive. It is against this empirical background that mandatoryretirement age, driving tests for senior citizens, and other proposed age-related rules and legislation are debated (Schauer, 2003).
As an alternative to mandatory age-related restrictions, some have suggested individual testing for pilots over age 60. However, such testingis itself discriminatory. Requiring testing solely on the basis of age puts a burden on a group of people that is not borne by others. It alsoputs those tested at increased risk of job loss (Schauer, 2000).
Others have suggested that a more equitable alternative would be to test all commercial pilots annually, regardless of age. Because physicalissues such as reflexes, hearing, and vision vary from individual to individual, we may find that some 35-year-old pilots should no longer beflying, whereas some 65-year-old pilots are perfectly capable of continuing to fly commercial planes.
Gender Discrimination
Gender discrimination has been debated for decades, if not centuries. Guttentag and Secord (1983) theorized that men have historicallyand culturally possessed greater structural power in societies (control over important social, political, and economic institutions), whilewomen have been viewed as possessing significant dyadic power (power due to men’s dependence on women as wives, mothers, andromantic partners and women’s influence over the nature and direction of intimate personal relationships). Generalizations formed thebasis of cultural and legislative practices that often relegated women to particular social roles and limited their opportunities.
As far back as the 19th century, many U.S. states had passed labor laws that were originally designed to protect women by prohibiting themfrom working more than an 8-hour day, working at night, or lifting anything that weighed more than 10 or 15 pounds. However, rather thanprotect them, many of these laws were used to prevent women from advancing into management positions that might require overtime ornighttime work. The laws also barred them from jobs that required manual labor. Employers were known to argue that a woman mighthave to lift something exceeding the weight limits, even though such a situation was highly unlikely and was not a material function of thejob (Freeman, 1995).
During the 1960s and 1970s, U.S. public policy toward women changed dramatically from a view of protection to one of equal opportunity,with the passage of several laws that mandated equal pay for men and women in the same jobs, as well as legislation that prohibiteddiscrimination in other aspects of employment. Chapter 7 will discuss this legislation in more detail.
Applying Tests Broadly to Avoid Discrimination
One way to avoid discrimination based on factors such as age or gender is to apply tests and other proficiency requirements to all peoplewho perform certain functions or roles. In the case of airline pilots, a means of avoiding the arbitrary nature of the age-60 rule would be toadminister individual reaction, hearing, and vision tests to all pilots—regardless of age.
Such testing might reveal that quick reflexes, acute hearing, and keen vision vary among people of all ages. Some 35-year-olds would likelyscore lower on reflex, hearing, and vision tests than their 65-year-old counterparts. Other types of tests have demonstrated exactly suchresults. This way, all pilots who fail to measure up to these physical standards, whether they are 35 or 65, would be excluded from thecockpits of commercial airliners. It is important to remember that actuarial calculations and statistical information often create distortionswhen applied to individual situations. Statistics can also be based on unproven assumptions or faulty premises that overtly or subtly resultin discriminatory practices.
Ethnocentrism and Racism
Chapter 3 discussed the fact that the term race is recognized among scholars as a socially constructed category that has no biological basis.The term racism, however, is widely used in academic literature. The meaning of racism, however, is as controversial in scholarly works as itis in contemporary conversation.
Racism is often used synonymously with ethnocentrism and defined as a set of beliefs about the inequality between people of different racesor ethnicities. Ethnocentrism can be viewed as a failure to separate oneself from one’s cultural background. From this perspective, to agreater or lesser degree, we are all ethnocentric, and judging others according to standards that predominate in one’s own culture can beuseful in helping persons conform to a community norm. Given this definition, ethnocentrism could be either a positive or a negative viewof a certain race relative to other races.
For many people, however, the term racism is always negative; it is motivated by ideology and refers to specific, negative actions against aracial group or its members. They are reluctant to use the term racist to refer to a positive attitude toward the group or members. Instead,they prefer the terms racial pride or racial recognition to express such an attitude (Gracia, 2010). According to this commonly held view,ethnocentricity is a natural connection to those who are in one’s community and is largely unconscious, but those who are racist hold aconscious and unconscious belief of superiority over others outside their culture. Thus, in this view, everyone is ethnocentric, but noteveryone is racist.
Others believe that for inequality to be considered racism, it must be related to power structures within a society. They argue that, similar tostructural inequities, racism results when systemic social patterns, policies, practices, or structures by powerful institutions within a societyimpose oppressive or other negative conditions on specific groups on the basis of race or ethnicity. Under this definition, the inequality isknown as institutional racism. Thus, those who lack power, even if they act negatively toward members of a certain race, are not racist.
An often-cited example of institutional racism is the racial disparity in the U.S. criminal justice system. The Pew Research Center lastanalyzed incarceration rates in America by race in 2010. At that time the incarceration rate under local, state, and federal jurisdictions was678 inmates per 100,000 White men in the population and 4,347 per 100,000 per Black men in the population. According to the U.S.Bureau of Justice Statistics, Black men were more than 6 times as likely as White men to be incarcerated in 2010 (Pew Research Center,2013).
In the 1960s, when civil rights became a national issue, racism against Blacks was frequently cited as a reason why society needed tochange. However, these changes resulted not only in changes in the perception of Black people among White people, but also in the mannerin which Blacks perceived themselves. The slogans “Black is beautiful” and “Black power,” prevalent at the time, were reflections of theadoption of positive attitudes and increased self-esteem by many Black people. The terms often promoted kinship and provided the impetusfor Blacks to fight for policies that benefited them (Gracia, 2010).
Some have argued that a positive emphasis on Black culture and efforts to favor Black people over White people in employment hiring orcollege admissions is a form of reverse discrimination/reverse racism. To favor Blacks over Whites, they say, is not different fromfavoring Whites over Blacks. To many people, “the answer to negative racism—racism against certain races—is not a form of positiveracism—racism for certain races—but the eradication of race as a source of social identity, preferential treatment, and policy” (Gracia, 2010,para. 2).
Jorge Gracia, known for his groundbreaking work on race and ethnicity, proposes a broad definition to encompass many of theseviewpoints. He defines the term racism as “an attitude toward individual members of a racial group or toward the racial group as a whole,merely in [by] virtue of the race, and a racist is someone who has this attitude” (Gracia, 2010, para. 8). This definition allows for the factthat racism can be self-directed or directed by others and can be either positive or negative.
Note that the terms prejudice and racism, often used synonymously, should not be confused with each other (Wellman, 1977). Whereasprejudice is an unsubstantiated belief that results in a preconception or prejudgment of someone, racism is a complex system of advantageafforded to a racial group. Commenting on this perspective, clinical psychologist Beverly Daniel Tatum (2003) writes that on every socialindicator in the United States, from salary to life expectancy, the systematic advantages in this society accrue to being White. Often referredto as White privilege, the advantages of being White or light skinned, when combined with social power—in the form of access to social,cultural, and economic resources—lead to the institutionalization of racist policies and practices and inequities that are an integral part ofthe society’s structure.
Peggy McIntosh has authored many influential articles on women’s studies and systems of racial and gender privilege. She is best knownfor her 1988 article “White Privilege and Male Privilege: A Personal Account of Coming to See Correspondences Through Work in Women’sStudies,” in which she used the phrase White privilege, characterized it as a form of oppression against non-Whites, and listed 46 ways inwhich one woman experienced White privilege in her life. McIntosh theorized that this particular oppression takes two forms: an activeform that can be seen and an embedded form that members of the dominant group are taught not to see and often deny. These denials, inher view, protect privilege from being fully recognized, acknowledged, lessened, or ended.
Jennifer Holladay (2000) of the Southern Poverty Law Center explains White privilege in this manner: “White privilege is not somethingthat white people do, create, or enjoy on purpose; it is a transparent preference for whiteness that saturates our society” (para. 4). Whiteprivilege creates perks and advantages that only White people enjoy, and many Whites have not considered that these advantages are notavailable to non-Whites. Holladay cites as examples “flesh-colored” Band-Aids that match or approximate the color of White people’s skinand “nude” pantyhose or stockings that look nude on the skin of Whites, but not on the skin of people of color. If a White person forgets hisor her shampoo when traveling, the hotel supplies complimentary shampoo that is appropriate for the hair of Whites, not Blacks.
Holladay (2000) comments that these issues might seem trivial and benign. However, White privilege is so pervasive in American culturethat if White people were to find a bottle of Pink Oil Conditioning Shampoo for Black hair in their hotel room, many would be shocked orindignant.
Holladay also notes that White privilege encompasses more than just Band-Aids and shampoo; it also means never having to assume thatwhen a police officer pulls someone over while driving that it is because of the person’s skin color; never having to wonder if people makeassumptions about a new job or a promotion because of race or if skin color will prove a burden in securing a job, an apartment, or a loan.It also provides Whites with an education in American history, literature, music, and art that touts the contributions of White Americans andoften omits those of Black Americans. In short, it results in Whites experiencing the world quite differently than do people of color.McIntosh (1988) theorized that people who enjoy such privileges have “an invisible pack of unearned assets which [they] can count oncashing in each day, but about which [they were] ‘meant’ to remain oblivious” (p. 3). As these discussions illustrate, the term racismencompasses a variety of viewpoints. Whereas McIntosh and Holladay associate it with oppressive and often exclusionary practices,Gracia’s broader definition allows for a more neutral application of the concept.
Of course, similar forms of discrimination occur when examining prejudice against older people or with regard to gender, religion,socioeconomic class, and physical abilities. And, as the next section explores, sexism and male privilege have been widely documented withregard to the way men and women experience the world differently or are viewed and/or treated differently in American society.
Sexism, Privilege, and Cultural Norms
Sexism can be broadly defined as a belief that men and women should be treated in different ways and are suited to different types of jobsand different positions in society. A formidable body of literature has investigated sexism toward both men and women, but studiespredominately focus on beliefs concerning women.
This chapter previously discussed gender discrimination based on actuarial calculations. Sexism represents a broader form ofdiscrimination than the assessment of statistical risks. Early research tended to concentrate on sexism as antipathy toward women or thedisregard of women in positions of social and political power. More recent research, similar to findings on racial prejudice, suggests thatcontemporary forms of sexism exist in blatantly negative ways as well as in more subtle and seemingly positive forms (Christopher, Zabel, &Miller, 2013).
In 1988 Peggy McIntosh wrote that her work in Women’s Studies at Massachusetts’s Wellesley College had made her aware that men wereoften unwilling to concede that they were overprivileged, although they may have been willing to grant that women were disadvantaged.McIntosh believes that entrenched male privilege, like White privilege, has been underrecognized and underacknowledged in Americansociety. This fact, in her view, has impeded the rate of change of this societal bias. McIntosh believes the 46 ways in which she identifiedWhite privilege apply equally to male privilege.
Although the phrases White privilege and male privilege have become key terms in the study of diversity, McIntosh herself wrote that sheconsidered the word privilege to be misleading. She stated, “We usually think of privilege as being a favored state, whether earned, orconferred by birth or luck. . . . [However] such privilege simply confers dominance, gives permission to control, because of one’s race orsex” (McIntosh, 1988, p. 15).
Ambivalent Sexism
Traditional views of sexism assumed that it was a negative attitude or bias toward a specific gender. Researchers Peter Glick and SusanFiske have written extensively about gender-based prejudice and, in 1996, developed a theoretical framework they called ambivalentsexism to distinguish between blatant and subtle sexist attitudes. Before the ambivalent sexism theory was suggested, the field ofpsychology considered only hostile forms of sexism relevant. Today, however, both types of sexism are considered equally detrimental(Christopher et al., 2013).
Glick and Fiske (1996) labeled the blatant form hostile sexism and defined it as a type of prejudice in which women are viewed in anopenly negative manner, often as incompetent or inferior to men. Hostile sexism stems from a desire to maintain a hierarchy in which menare dominant and women are prevented from gaining power. Glick and Fiske labeled the subtle form benevolent sexism and characterizedit as a view of women that is subjectively positive, yet stereotypical and gender role reinforcing—for example, as needing protection.Benevolent sexism, although positive on the surface, discriminates against women in patronizing ways. It engenders beliefs that women arefragile and, thus, restricts women to subordinate roles through protective paternalism and chivalry (Jones, Dovidio, & Vietze, 2014).
Social institutions, such as religion and social class, and factors such as education level and job type (blue-collar versus white-collaremployment) have been shown to play a role in either reinforcing or challenging sexist beliefs (Glick & Fiske, 2001). In traditional male–female relationships, a power difference generally coexists with a strong interdependence. Thus, sexist attitudes create considerableambivalence on the part of each sex toward the other, and both hostile sexism and benevolent sexism are likely to occur. Hostile sexismmight be exhibited as either antipathy or resentment toward women who are viewed as rejecting conventional gender roles and trying to“usurp” men’s power. Benevolent sexism could encompass protective, affectionate, but patronizing attitudes toward women who conform toexpected roles (as cited in Glick, Lameiras, & Castro, 2002).
Ambivalent sexism has its roots in patriarchal social structural control. This power imbalance in traditional heterosexual relationships—men hold superior status but must also assume provider responsibilities—together with conflict between stereotypical gender roles anddesire for intimacy, create a unique combination. This intersection of conflict, expectation, and need breeds ambivalent, yet highlycorrelated, hostile and benevolent gender ideologies to maintain the status quo. One recent study showed that hostile and benevolentattitudes have a similar function: to promote the gender status quo and to uphold traditional gender roles by prescribing desirablecharacteristics in a traditional partner and proscribing characteristics that threaten conventional gender roles. The study showed:
The enforcement of traditional roles occurs not just within the public sphere, such as the workplace, but also in theprivate sphere as well. Cultural ideals of who men and women “should be” powerfully shape heterosexual romanticpartner preferences, linking romance with inequality. (Lee, Fiske, Glick, & Chen, 2010, p. 594)
Glick and Fiske (1996) produced an instrument titled the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory to test their theory. Subsequently, they developedthe Ambivalence toward Men Inventory (AMI) that differentiates between women’s hostile and benevolent prejudices and stereotypesabout men. The AMI is strongly related to its sister scale, the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, and to two other established scales of attitudestoward men. Only the AMI, however, distinguished between subjectively negative and subjectively positive beliefs about men. The twoinventories have since been tested across 19 different cultures, and researchers have found empirical evidence for both forms of sexismtoward both men and women (Glick & Fiske, 1999).
Cross-Cultural Studies
Itakefotos4u/iStock/Thinkstock
In some societies, such as that in Turkey, womenoccupy a lower status than men. This caninfluence the society’s perceptions aboutacceptable behaviors in marital relationships.
By virtue of their higher income, higher status positions in employment, and othermeasures, men generally have greater power than women and are the dominant group inmost societies. They also have the added advantage of exercising control through hostilityin relationships (as cited in Lee et al., 2010). Women, on the other hand, are expected to benice, never hostile, and they encounter backlash when they violate this prescription(Rudman & Glick, 2001).
Thus, hostile gender ideologies based on assumed, prescribed behaviors create a powerstruggle between heterosexual couples and hostility toward women. These ideologies canpredict negative evaluations of women who threaten male power. Some concrete examplesinclude giving negative appraisals to female candidates and positive recommendations formale candidates in management (Masser & Abrams, 2004) and negative assessment ofcareer women (Lee et al., 2010).
In societies where women occupy a much lower status than men, specifically Turkey andBrazil, hostility toward women predicted people’s approval of husbands using physicalviolence to control their wives (Glick et al., 2002) and men’s willingness to coerce sex(Abrams, Viki, Masser, & Bohner, 2003).
Among women in traditional heterosexual relationships, similar ambivalent sexist attitudestoward men were found to include hostility, because conventional stereotypes characterizethem as powerful and arrogant, as well as a benevolence that acknowledges theirtraditional role of protector and provider. These male and female sexist attitudes justifyand reinforce structural inequality in society; presumably, changing those attitudes is onekey to achieving greater equality.
The changes are complex because a society is not monolithic but rather composed of manysocial institutions. Some of these tend to fortify and others to challenge the myths thatlegitimize the status quo. The educational system and religious organizations are two of themost important social institutions within a society, and they can work at cross purposes,with some religions justifying gender inequality and educational systems challenging traditional beliefs and generally giving students accessto greater career opportunities, regardless of their gender (as cited in Glick et al., 2002).
Stereotypes and Attitudes Toward Homosexuality
The American public generally views lesbians and gay men more positively since the 1970s. However, negative stereotypes and substantiallevels of institutional and personal hostility toward homosexuals persist. Felmlee, Orzechowicz, and Fortes (2010) cite numerous studiesfrom existing scholarly literature on gay men and lesbians that document common stereotypes, including perceptions of gay men as gentle,passive, effeminate, and well-dressed and beliefs that gay men violate acceptable male gender roles. Common stereotypes of lesbiansemphasize characteristics of excessive masculinity and a disinterest in traditional feminine pursuits and appearance.
In spite of evidence to the contrary, other stereotypes characterize homosexuals as sexually promiscuous, sexual predators, psychologicallymaladjusted, or as incapable of forming committed relationships. These prejudices extend across international borders, as cases ofhomophobic violence documented across Europe, Australia, and the Americas attest (as cited in Felmlee et al., 2010).
Sex, sexuality, and gender are often assumed to be congruent with one another and fixed over the course of one’s life (Lorber, 1996, ascited in Felmlee et al., 2010). Beginning in infancy, individuals are classified as either male or female based on the physical appearance ofexternal genitalia. Judith Butler (1999), who has conducted groundbreaking work in the philosophy of gender, argues that thiscategorization gives rise to the association of the terms masculine and feminine as attributes of male and female. “In other words, oursociety associates gender and sexuality with biological sex and assumes that behavioral expectations align with one of the two gendercategories to which one is assigned” (as cited in Felmlee et al., 2010, para. 3).
This categorization underlies a belief that in both same-gender and cross-gender relationships, the partners complement each other by onetaking on a masculine role and one taking on a feminine role. However, these beliefs are not confirmed by research (Felmlee et al., 2010). Inreviewing Butler’s work, Angela McRobbie (2009) of the University of London cites Butler’s argument that these beliefs are the basis forthe creation of cultural norms of heterosexuality and result in sanctions or marginalization for those who do not or cannot comply. Thesebeliefs also underlie the stereotypes of effeminate gay men and masculine lesbian women.
Sexism, Privilege, Values, and Cultural Norms
As the chapter has discussed, sexism and privilege in a society and the reinforcement of these beliefs reflect the beliefs and valuesconcerning gender roles that are prevalent in the society. These beliefs and values, in turn, form part of the foundation of the society’sculture.
Chapter 2 explored ways culture helps people establish their identity and is normative; it prescribes masculine and feminine gender roles inthe society and establishes what are considered acceptable and unacceptable ways in which people behave with one another. For culture tochange, underlying beliefs and values must change, and these changes are difficult to achieve.
The values people hold have cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components. Many personal values have been passed down from parentsor significant others, and people accept them for many years. Other people may adopt values because they are held by those in their socialgroups from church, neighborhood, extended families, or service organizations. Still other values may be consciously formed based onpersonal, self-chosen principles.
Those values that are freely and consciously chosen often reflect issues people have thought about, feel strongly about, and may even havesupported with actions such as publicly advocating a particular position or making a life decision based on one of these values. Thus, strongvalues become guiding principles in an individual’s life and help form a foundation for decision making and behavior. When others sharesimilar values, those values are usually codified into laws, regulation, public policy, and cultural norms.
Values, however, have relative strength, and they often conflict. For example, someone might want to purchase an item that is high quality,available immediately, and inexpensive; however, rarely does the buyer obtain all three of these characteristics at the same time. A personmust often prioritize what he or she values and decide based on only one of three factors, whichever is most important. The buyermight accept a lesser quality, for instance, to obtain a more inexpensive price or decide to forego a bargain in favor of buying exactly what isdesired.
Because personal values are prioritized in this same manner, one way to change them is to consider them in the content of other values andto determine their priority. Sexism, privilege, gender roles, racial and ethnic discrimination, and ethnocentrism may have been part of aculture historically, but they need not determine the future. Global issues such as same-sex marriage, the importance of heterosexualmarriage, interracial adoptions, same-sex adoptions, transgender challenges, and similar issues challenge society to review and clarify itsvalues. To do so involves determining which of them have been freely chosen, based on individual or societal reasoning, and prioritizingthem among other values related to freedom, equality, and equity.
The chapter has so far discussed bias, generalizations, stereotypes, prejudices, values, and contemporary theories concerning the factorsthat influence discriminatory practices. This section looks at how these ideas and practices are formed and transmitted throughout aculture.
Social Discourse Theory
French psychologist and philosopher Michel Foucault (1926–1984) were instrumental in analyzing how discourse, or formal speaking orwriting about a subject, defines that subject and in effect structures society’s concept of reality. Author Naima Browne (2004) reflects onFoucault’s ideas regarding the relationship between discourse, power, and knowledge, particularly about the language used todiscuss gender issues.
Gender Discourses
Browne (2004) suggests that views of what constitutes “feminine” and “masculine” areestablished through social discourse—the body of ideas, concepts, and beliefs regardingsocial life that become established as common knowledge or an accepted worldview. Shewrites, “Discourses are powerful ways in which we produce or create ‘reality’ by providingwords and conceptual frameworks for determining what can be said, written and possiblythought” (Browne, 2004, p. 6) about a certain subject. Discourses also help people makesense of their experiences and the experiences of others. They act as lenses to helpindividuals determine what they see and do not see. In this respect discourse can actuallydistort someone’s vision.
Cultural expectations of feminine and masculine, says Browne, are based on genderdiscourses. These ideas then become a powerful framework for understanding and actionin social life. For example, the stereotypical preferences of girls to play with dolls and boysto play with action figures would be viewed, in society’s gender discourses, as a naturalexpression of biological differences. Most parents and educators would feel that suchbehavior is normal and would be unlikely to intervene unless the children began playing inan “unnatural” manner (e.g., girls physically play-fighting or boys consistently playing withdolls).
One of the dominant gender discourses presents the terms masculine and feminine asdichotomous constructs: mutually exclusive and in opposition to each other. Breaking freeof this either/or thinking and talking and writing about gender as a continuum rather thana binary construct are difficult because both require thinking outside the dominant genderdiscourse.
One way to avoid this limited thinking is to acknowledge that concepts of gender are aconsequence of “race,” ethnicity, social class, language background, disability, and cultureand to recognize the extent to which these factors affect every person’s gender discoursesand life experiences. Because each individual has unique life experiences, each one hasdifferent needs, desires, and pressures to conform to cultural expectations for “girls” and“boys” (Browne, 2004).
For example, consider the concept of machismo, an element of some Latin American cultures. The term has been defined as a strong orexaggerated sense of masculinity and the demonstration among men of attributes of virility, physical courage, and domination of women.Someone raised in a culture that values machismo is likely to be subjected to discourses and to have experiences that are different fromthose of someone raised in a culture that does not value that concept. Therefore, failure to take into account the ways in which diversediscourses and experiences shape views of gender tends to cause individuals to guide children not to stray too far from the “norm,” ordominant discourse about a particular subject in a society, without questioning the validity of the norm.
Gender Equality Versus Gender Equity
Failure to consider diverse discourses and experiences also tends to encourage people to strive for gender equality when discussing howto treat children and others fairly. Gender equality can be defined as equal access to social, economic, or political goods, services, andresources that is neither dependent on nor constrained by one’s biological sex. However, Browne (2004) argues that gender equality shouldnot be the goal. Rather, society and individuals should strive for gender equity, which emphasizes the importance of considering individualdifferences, rather than treating all people equally by treating them the same. Gender equity can be defined as fairness in distributinggender responsibilities and providing special considerations or eliminating disadvantages that prevent women and men from operating ona level playing field, or from benefiting equally from social, economic, or political goods, services, and resources.
For example, boys outperform girls in areas of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) on standardized tests as early asgrade 3. At the doctoral level, males earn more doctorates in these areas and also secure more tenure-track positions than do females.Women who do persist in striving for scientific careers not only receive tenure in fewer numbers but also have lower salaries than do theirmale counterparts. The gaps have been closing in recent years, but it continues at a time in U.S. history when a larger workforce isnecessary (Miller-Friedman, Sonnert, Hazari, & Sadler, 2011).
Prior to the 1970s women were heavily discriminated against in scientific fields, if they were allowed to participate at all. However, decadesafter blatant gender discrimination was ended and gender equality was mandated through civil rights actions in the late 1960s and the1970s, the gender gap persists. In trying to determine causes for the disparity between men and women in STEM fields, scholars havefocused on the principle of equity. Even after the removal of blatant barriers, they found that subtle obstacles in attitudes, prejudices,stereotypes, and behavior still disadvantage females in STEM, and engrained cultural values and preferences still distance females from thefields.
At the National Association for Research in Science Teaching Annual Conference in 2011, a team of scholars from Harvard and ClemsonUniversities presented a paper titled “Bridging the Gender Gap: Equality vs. Equity” in which they presented an equality/equity frameworkfor STEM and studied male and female teaching strategies in the fields. They found that gender differences existed among teachers, and thatfemale teachers more strongly emphasized pedagogical approaches connected to the equity principle to encourage female students.
In the view of this research team, equality indicates a sense of treating each group exactly the same, without reference to gender. Equity, onthe other hand, implies a need for special compensation, encouragement, attention, or support for historically disadvantaged ortraditionally underserved, underachieving, or underrepresented groups to attain outcomes equal to those of the dominant group (Miller-Friedman et al., 2011).
UNESCO viewed the issue of gender equality and equity through a broader lens of male and female gender social roles across cultures.UNESCO (2000) contends that the male and female sexes are complementary biologically and that, based on their culture, men and womenassume different social roles. These gender social roles, states UNESCO, are sociopolitical and cultural constructs and a consequence ofpolitical choice. How men and women are perceived and treated in a society, argues the organization, is one of the cornerstones and mostrevealing facets of any political system. Social roles have evolved throughout history, vary from one society to another, and are prone tofurther change. However, regardless of their form, UNESCO believes genders should have full equality and full equity in the social roles theyassume. UNESCO (2000) explains the difference between gender equality and gender equity in this manner:
Gender equality . . . entails the concept that all human beings, both men and women, are free to develop theirpersonal abilities and make choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles and prejudices.Gender equality means that the different behavior, aspirations and needs of women and men are considered, valuedand favored equally. It does not mean that women and men have to become the same, but that their rights,responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or female. Gender equity meansfairness of treatment for women and men, according to their respective needs. This may include equal treatment ortreatment that is different but which is considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations andopportunities. (p. 5)
Ideology and Political Influences
Beginning with early studies in social psychology, researchers observed that attitudes and social beliefs seem to have some type ofcoherence or psychological consistency. In other words, despite variations and contradictions in different attitudes on a social issue,research can identify and categorize similarities in basic opinions, explanations, and the general norms or values being expressed. Thiscoherence enables us to label the attitude accordingly—as a conservative or a liberal viewpoint, for example (Van Dijk, 1990).
Teun A. van Dijk, a professor of discourse studies at the University of Amsterdam, refers to this coherence as an ideology, a group-based,shared framework that provides the basic building blocks for relevant norms and values. Thus, Van Dijk (1990) considers an ideology as ameans to structure and organize social representations: the values, ideas, metaphors, beliefs, and practices shared among the members ofgroups and communities. Ideologies, in his view, are self-serving and geared toward maintaining the overall group’s interests.
In his work, Van Dijk developed a method of critical discourse analysis to study the utterances and writings on a given subject and toidentify the ideologies underlying a particular point of view. This framework has been used extensively, by him and by others, in numerousareas of study, including psychology, language studies, media and journalism, and intercultural studies. This approach is perhaps mostuseful, however, in the field of politics, which is largely based on ideological differences and alliances and the attempt to structure anarrative to make sense of polarized viewpoints and resonate with audiences as legitimate (Rashidi & Souzandehfar, 2010).
For example, in a study published by Rashidi and Souzandehfar (2010) of Shiraz University in Iran, a critical discourse analysis wasperformed using Van Dijk’s framework that demonstrated how the two major Republican and Democratic candidates prior to the 2008 U.S.national election presented and viewed a single reality, the continuation of the U.S. war in Iraq. The purpose of this study was to determinethe underlying ideologies and how these ideologies were presented as commonsense, acceptable, and natural features of discourse.
Political demonstrations, political campaigns, speeches, and debates are all fields of ideological battle and clearly demonstrate how ideasand attitudes are transmitted throughout a culture. Rashidi and Souzandehfar (2010, para. 2) cite the contention of Van Dijk (2004) that “itis eminently here that different and opposed groups, power, struggle and interests are at stake. To be able to compete, political groups needto be ideologically conscious and organized” (p. 11). When they are successful, the narrative can become dominant and the group willmaintain power and control. Control can then be exercised by means of ideological production through the media or education and thus,indirectly, the group can control public discourse to express those ideas that are consistent with the dominant ideology (Van Dijk, 1990).From this discussion, it is easy to see why attitudes are not formed or changed easily or in an arbitrary way.
Societal Pressures to Conform
In addition to social discourse and ideological and political pressures, society and social relationships wield a great deal of pressure toconform to the norms of the primary, dominant culture and the subcultures to which individuals belong. This pressure tends to perpetuatesocietal norms and continually influences members’ perspectives on social issues. As Chapter 2 discussed, cultural norms are reinforced inovert and in subtle ways. They may form the basis of laws concerning public behavior, and they are supported by embarrassment,punishment, or exclusion of those who violate the norms.
From a sociological point of view, an individual cannot be defined without considering his or her social relationships (Callero, 2009). Peoplemay think of themselves as individuals, as unique and independent persons with distinct identities and as separate from others. However,this view is sometimes called the “myth of individualism” and is one of many ways in which society, in one form or another, valuesconformity and works against the quest for personal freedom and individuality.
For example, advertising encourages children and adults to “fit in” by wearing the latest fashion; celebrities are often asked to lend theirnames to or wear specific styles that are trendy. Those who do not subscribe to the latest fashions can be ridiculed, bullied at school, excluded from social activities, or published in “worst-dressed celebrity lists.” In that way, individuals are influenced to conform to currentsocietal fashion trends. Social forces such as these shape lives to the point that the individual and society are one and the same, mutuallysupportive, and intertwined (Callero, 2009).
The merging of the individual and the social is also true within larger entities such as businesses and organizations, neighborhoods, andeven nations. As the previous discussion of aspects of culture explained, identity is a social creation that is constantly sustained by socialrelationships. Although every person is free to make personal choices, powerful social forces shape these choices. To end discrimination, itis not enough to avoid generalizing; this is a naive response to a complex sociological phenomenon. First, people must recognizethat inequality is produced in social interactions that are structured by powerful social forces. By recognizing these social forces andworking to change social interactions and social discourse, individuals can make strides to keep discriminatory behavior from perpetuating.