PHILOSOPHY REFLECTION PAPER(1000-1500 words)
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Chapter4EpicurusCommentary.docxEpicurus Commentary
Section 1:
Epicurus begins his exposition of hedonism with a particular cosmology—that is, with a comprehensive and rational account of the ultimate nature of the cosmos, or universe. The cosmology we speak of is called atomism, which comes from the ancient Greek word atomos, meaning “uncuttable” or “indivisible.” According to atomism, the universe (and everything in it) is composed of an infinite number of atoms combining and separating in the infinite void. Atoms are the most basic building blocks of reality. They are eternal—they are neither created nor can they ever be destroyed. Thus it makes no sense to ask “where did the atoms come from?” or “why does anything exist at all?” Atoms do not come from anywhere, since they have always existed and always will exist.
Epicurus believes that atomism is the most common-sense approach to understanding reality. The fact that there are only material things, or bodies, is confirmed by the experience of all men. It impossible, he says, to even conceive of anything besides bodies and the empty space (void) through which those bodies move. Now it is true that many people believe in incorporeal (i.e., non-bodily) souls, not to mention angels and gods. But Epicurus finds this belief rather silly, since our senses do not allow us to perceive anything that is not a body. In fact, even when we try to imagine angels and gods, we invest them with a human shape or form, as if they were some kind of spiritual body, which is a contradiction in terms (because to be a real, existing being, it must have the power of acting and being acted upon, and only corporeal beings are capable of this). No, says Epicurus, the only real beings are material things. (From this observation he makes the logical deduction that if you divide bodies into halves you will at some point reach a body that is so simple that it can no longer be divided into anything smaller—this is the atom.) Everything else (immaterial gods, souls, angels, demons, spirits, etc.) is the product of our vivid imaginations. The sooner we realize this, the better off we will all be.
There are two types of bodies: compounds, which are clusters of two or more atoms, and then the actual atoms out of which those compounds are formed. As we pointed out already, the atoms are indestructible. The constellations of atoms, or compounds, on the other hand, are not indestructible: at some point they will cease to exist as particular compounds. Let us use you as an example: You, as a human being, are a highly complex bundle of perhaps trillions of atoms arranged in a particular configuration. But you have not always been such as you are now. At some point you did not exist: the atoms that now make up your body existed somewhere else in nature (perhaps in the plants and animals your parents used for food around the time of your conception). Then you were born. You went through childhood and adolescence, and now you are in adulthood. Eventually you will grow old, whither, and die, at which point the atoms that make up your body will disperse back into nature (worms will nibble away at your rotting corpse, then birds will consume the worms, and scavengers will consume the birds when they die, and so on). But what remains constant throughout this perpetual cycle of life and death is the eternal, indestructible atoms which make up the multiplicity of compound bodies inhabiting the natural world.
According to atomism, compounds are formed when atoms collide against one another and become hooked with one or more atoms to form a cluster. Those same clusters then combine with others to produce the enormous variety of substances we encounter in the world—from inanimate objects, such as rocks and minerals, all the way up to the wide gamut of animal species, including human beings. Ultimately, the many worlds that make up the cosmos, and even the cosmos itself, owe their existence to the chance collisions of an infinite number of atoms.
Section 2:
Because Epicurus is an atomist, he regards every aspect of the human being, including the soul, as having a corporeal (or bodily) nature. Now what precisely, you might ask, is the human soul? According to Epicurus, the soul is the power or faculty in us that makes possible not only sensation (hearing, sight, touch, smell, taste), but also thought itself, or reason. More generally, the soul is a kind of “life force” that “animates” (from the Latin anima, meaning soul) otherwise lifeless bodies. In other words, it is the soul that distinguishes living from non-living things. If your soul were to vanish all of a sudden, you would be reduced to a lifeless corpse.
Epicurus claims that the soul, just like the body, is composed of atoms. But whereas the human body is composed of densely packed clusters of relatively large, rough atoms, the soul is composed of exceedingly fine and smooth atoms, “resembling wind with a certain admixture of heat.” The soul atoms suffuse the entire bodily structure, from the top of the head to the tips of the toes and everything in between. Think of the human being as a wet sponge: the sponge itself is the bodily structure (bones, tendons, tissues, organs, etc.) and the water within the sponge would be the soul atoms diffused throughout the body. Although the soul may be the organ of all perception and thought, it is important to recognize that the soul atoms can only make sensation possible when working in and through the rest of the body. In other words, the body by itself is incapable of producing sensation. The same holds true with respect to the soul atoms: both soul and body need to be working together if there is to be sensation.
This has major implications for Epicurus: for if death means the dissolution of the human body, which in turn involves the dispersal of the soul atoms, then there is no possibility of sensation post mortem. If Epicurus is right, then there is no afterlife, because when we die we lose consciousness forever. Death is deprivation of sensation, and nothing more. We no longer have to worry about going to Hell (nor can we anticipate going to Heaven, for that matter). For Epicurus, as we will see, this realization becomes the cornerstone of the highest state of being of which humans are capable: tranquility of soul.
Sections 3 and 4:
In these sections Epicurus seeks to repudiate divine providence, which refers to the gods’ sovereign guidance and control of the cosmos. More specifically, divine providence is the belief that the gods sustain the natural order of the universe as well as intervene in human affairs by way of dispensing punishments and rewards both in this life and the next. According to Epicurus, the belief in divine retribution in some hellish afterlife is a source of the greatest fear and anxiety that a human being can experience, a fear which Epicurean philosophy is at great pains to dispel. As we saw in section 2, the atomistic cosmology makes an afterlife impossible: death is deprivation of sensation. In other words, when you die, your soul atoms disperse and you are no longer capable of having any kind of perception, feeling, or awareness. Death is like being in a deep, dreamless, eternal sleep. There is, therefore, no prospect of hell to spend your days agonizing over. The realization that death is nothing at all to fear is supposed to give you a sense of calm, serenity, and tranquility.
Epicurus then attacks the notion of divine providence from another angle: it makes absolutely no sense, he argues, to believe that the gods govern the motions of the heavenly bodies (or that those heavenly bodies are themselves divine and hence move themselves) because no being that is truly divine (and therefore perfect, complete, independent and self-sufficient) would ever take the trouble to engage in any of these activities, “for trouble and care and anger and kindness are not consistent with a life of blessedness, but these things come to pass where there is weakness and fear and dependence on neighbors.” The gods are by definition immortal, and thus they are neither weak nor do they depend on others for anything. Thus, to ascribe providential care to the gods is contrary to the gods’ perfection and blessedness. It is to speak of the gods as if they were mortal like us. Not only is the belief in divine providence incorrect, but when it takes the form of hellfire and damnation in the afterlife, it becomes the cause of the greatest disturbance in men’s souls, for which Epicurean philosophy is the cure.
Section 5:
This is the clearest statement of the school of thought known as hedonism, or the view that the best life is one which is dedicated entirely to the pursuit of pleasure. According to this view, the good is identical with pleasure, and evil with pain. Now there are two basic kinds of hedonism, what one may call a vulgar hedonism and a more sophisticated, Epicurean hedonism. The former kind sees the pleasures of food, drink, and sex as the most choice-worthy goods in life. The latter recognizes that the pursuit of bodily gratifications will leave you with a surplus of pain in the long run. The glutton, the drunkard, and the sex addict all pursue bodily pleasures which are short but intense, yet they leave one bloated, hung-over, and dissipated. The prudent man always takes action with an eye to the future, to the long-term pleasure. Indeed, not every pleasure is to be chosen, just as not every pain is to be avoided. Prudence dictates that some pleasures, like drunkenness, ought to be avoided, just as some pains, like exercise, ought to be chosen. Only in this way can one achieve overall well-being.
Section 6:
For Epicurus, the best, happiest, and most satisfying way for a human being to live is, in his own words, “to refer all choice and avoidance to the health of the body and the soul’s freedom from disturbance…” As we discussed earlier, the latter aim is achieved through knowledge of the cosmic order (i.e., atomism), which teaches us that death is the end of sensation, and hence that there is no afterlife in which we will be punished by wrathful gods. No less important than tranquility of soul is bodily health. It goes without saying that people with healthy bodies experience far less pain and discomfort than people with unhealthy bodies. Our goal, then, should be to live in accordance with nature. But what does this mean? Epicurus classifies the different types of desires in the following way:
|
Natural desires |
Vain desires |
|
Necessary desires Necessary for happiness Necessary for repose of the body Necessary for survival Merely natural desires |
Avoid these completely |
There are three possible causes of human misery:
fear
vain desires (i.e., desires that do not fulfill any natural human need) and
unbridled desire.
One avoids fear by recognizing one’s own mortality. One avoids vain and unbridled desire by seeking to satisfy only those desires that are natural and necessary, meaning those desires which give rise to a sense of pain if they are not satisfied. We are talking about eliminating all desires which do not involve satisfying the most basic needs of the human organism (hydration, nourishment, sleep, protection from the elements, etc.). The goal is to simplify your life, as well as to become independent in all things. We live in an age when the good life is envisioned by many as a quest to accumulate as much “stuff” as possible—a quest that does not cease until we expire. For Epicurus, this is the direct opposite of what a truly good and happy life requires. It will only add unlimited stress and anxiety, where the goal ought to be simplicity, tranquility, self-sufficiency and independence.
Section 8:
Epicurus was an early proponent of social contract theory, according to which justice is “a pledge of mutual advantage not to harm or be harmed.” Justice, like the other virtues, is valued not for its own sake, but rather for its usefulness in creating the conditions for human flourishing within a community.
Sections 9 and 10:
The surest way to provide for one’s safety and security, Epicurus tells us, is to escape the hustle and bustle of city life, with its myriad stresses and dangers, choosing instead to retire with a few like-minded friends to a simple, quiet life in the country.
Although there is no security against death, we can still experience deep satisfaction during the tiny interval we are given on this Earth by living simply and naturally, contemplating the cosmic order, and sharing the blessings of friendship.
