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Korgen, K. O., & Atkinson, M. P. (2019). Sociology in action (1st ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Chapter 3
Culture and Gender
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Learning Objectives
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
· Explain how culture allows large groups of people to live with one another
· Differentiate how independent and interdependent cultures define the self and affect cognition, emotion, andmotivation
· Describe the cultural dimensions of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity versus femininity,and short-term versus long-term orientation
· Describe some possible sources of cultural differences
· Differentiate sex and gender, gender role, and gender stereotype
· Explain what gender differences researchers have found regarding for math ability and aggression
· Explain what gender differences researchers have found regarding acceptance of casual sex, desired numberof sexual partners, reasons for jealousy in a romantic relationship, and qualities desired in a romanticpartner and a possible explanation for this group of differences
Chapter Outline
3.1 Culture
· Independent Versus Interdependent Cultures
· Cultural Dimensions
· The Source of Cultural Differences
3.2 Gender
· Gender Differences: Source and Method
· Gender Differences: What Are They?
Chapter Summary
* * *
The 7 billion people on planet Earth inhabit the approximate 57,500,000 square miles of land surface. Gathered into groups,they make up around 196 countries and speak approximately 6,800–6,900 languages, depending on the definition of countryand language. As groups of people have organized themselves, differentiations have developed. For instance, with some groupsan activity begins at a specific time, while for others the starting time is more fluid and the activities begin whenever everyonearrives. Such things as views of time are developed by people, but some differences are inborn; for instance, roughly half of theworld population is male and half is female. In this chapter we explore some ways in which people are differentiated from oneanother on a large scale, first investigating cultural differences and then looking at possible gender differences.
3.1 Culture
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Many Western stories, like The Adventures ofHuckleberry Finn, center on an independentindividual.
One challenge for people living in large social groups such as extended families, clans,tribes, states, and nations is organization. The human brain with all its complexity andability to organize enables large social groups to live together with some degree ofharmony (Adolphs, 2009; Dunbar, 1998). Groups must be able to get along and nothurt one another, to feed and shelter themselves, and to take care of offspring. Culture—shared beliefs, attitudes, values, and norms for behavior—allows large groups tomaintain social order and avoid chaos by developing and passing down standard waysof living together. For example, when everyone in a culture shares an understanding ofexpected and appropriate greetings, everyone knows what to do when they meetfriends and strangers. By having standard rules for shared and private space, groupsknow where to keep resources, engage in intimate acts, or deal with bodily needs.
Culture is visible in a variety of ways and also influences the structure of our brains.How people engage in daily interactions within a culture influences the way the brainis built (Kitayama & Park, 2010). As people meet and collaborate with one another,they learn how to engage in rewarding interactions and how to avoid unpleasant orpotentially dangerous interactions. This learning strengthens neural pathways,influencing future meetings as well as the general way in which the individualapproaches the world. Each of our brains is uniquely qualified to engage in cultureand specifically tuned to our own culture.
Independent Versus Interdependent Cultures
Our sense of self is developed and continues to change over our lifetimes (Greve,Rothermund, & Wentura, 2005). Culture has a large impact on the development of ourself-concepts. Cultures vary greatly in many ways, one large difference being the waycultures view the self and connections with others. In independent cultures (orindividualistic), people are viewed as separate, unique individuals whose qualities are independent of their social connections. In interdependent cultures (or collectivistic), people are viewed as enmeshed within social connections such that the person cannot bedescribed adequately without social context and connections (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Some of the differences between these culturesare summarized in Table 3.1.
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Table 3.1: Characteristics of independent and interdependent cultures |
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Independent/Individualistic |
Interdependent/Collectivistic |
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Tend tobe foundin . . . |
United States, Western Europe |
Asia (e.g., Japan, Korea, China), Central and SouthAmerica |
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The self isseen as . .. |
unique, not dependent on social context |
flexible, varies with context |
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Internalattributesare . . . |
expressed through interactions withothers; others allow for an expression ofinternal attributes |
meaningful and complete only in interactionswith others |
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Behavioris . . . |
largely determined by the self and one'sinternal attributes |
a result of the situation and social roles; internalattributes of the self are not powerful inregulating behavior |
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When individuals from an interdependent culture are asked to write down statements in response to the question "Who am I?" they tendto include more role-specific and concrete information (Cousins, 1989). For example, a Korean student might write that she is silly whenwith friends. People from independent cultures respond with more trait or attribute characterizations. An American might write that he isartistic. Notice how the individual from an interdependent culture included context (with friends) when describing herself, but the personfrom an independent culture did not. This is not to say that people in an independent culture never take into account the context or referto themselves in relation to others or that people in an interdependent culture never describe themselves according to traits; individualsfrom each culture are simply more likely to use each description (Kashima, Koval, & Kashima, 2011).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
Figure 3.1: Conceptual representations of the self
Researchers have discovered that participants withindependent cultures (like North Americans) tend to focusmore on the self, while those with interdependent cultures(like Chinese) tend to focus more on relationships.
From Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications forcognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224 Copyright © 1991 by the American PsychologicalAssociation. Reprinted with permission.
Different cultural constructions of the self will impact people's reactions to the environment. For instance, individuals in interdependentcultures pay much more attention to the setting or the surroundings in all sorts of circumstances, while those from independent culturesfocus on the main object or person, largely ignoring the setting. In a study that illustrates this difference, participants were asked towatch an animated scene of fish, seaweed, and other aquatic objects. Both the American (independent culture) and Japanese(interdependent culture) participants noted the main fish, but the Japanese participants were much more likely to also make statementsabout the environment ("there was a pond"). Their judgments in later tasks were affected if the background was changed, though thebackground change made no difference for the American participants (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001).
This tendency also plays out in relationships and view of self. Because independent cultures focus on the unique self, people have a largeand elaborate body of knowledge about the self and a less elaborate body of knowledge about others (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). On theother hand, interdependent cultures focus more on relationships—something evidenced in the way categories are formed (see Figure 3.1).When a group of Chinese children were asked to group cards containing pictures, they put women and babies into one category becauseof their relationship. American children tended to put the adults together because of shared category membership (i.e., they were bothadults) (Chiu, 1972).
The expression of emotions also differs depending on culture. Individuals in interdependent cultures tend to express more other-focusedemotions, emotions like shame or sympathy that are centered on other people (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Ego-focused emotions, orthose emotions that express a person's attributes and are centered on the individual, are more often expressed by those in independentcultures. Anger and pride are ego-focused emotions. Expressing an emotion like anger is considered childish in interdependent culturesbut is more accepted in independent cultures because these emotions come out of and help distinguish the self. For example, in order forpeople to express anger, they must feel some sort of injury or offense to the self, and they must also believe that it is all right for them toexpress that injury to the self.
In other studies on emotions, culture researchers found that independent cultures tend to focus more on positive feelings than negativefeelings. Because independent cultures view emotions as an expression of the self, it makes sense that people would encourage theirpositive emotions and suppress or avoid negative emotions. Emotions as expressions of the self are less important in interdependentcultures since the self is more clearly defined by others. Emotions, positive or negative, therefore receive less attention (Kitayama,Markus, & Kurokawa, 2000). People in independent cultures generally report feeling emotions longer and more intensely than those frominterdependent cultures (Mastumoto, Kudoh, Scherer, & Wallbott, 1988). For interdependent cultures such as Japan, such expressionsdisrupt social relationships and the harmony in the group, so they are less acceptable than interpersonally engaged emotions (e.g.,friendly feelings) (Kitayama, Markus, & Kurokawa, 2000). For this reason, the Japanese have a series of emotions that involve relying onothers that do not have counterparts in English. For example, amae refers to a dependence on others, feeling or hoping to feel cared forby someone (Markus & Kitayama, 1991).
Social Psychology in Depth: Personal Space
Each person on our planet requires a certain amount of space. The space needed to feel comfortable when interacting withothers varies from culture to culture. Personal space is the bubble of space around an individual over which a person feelssome kind of ownership. Because of this sense of ownership, individuals feel a sense of discomfort when their personalspace is violated by someone being too close physically. If someone invades our space, we do not get more comfortable overthe short term; our high level of discomfort remains (Hayduk, 1981). To prevent such invasions, we often erect barrierssuch as placing personal objects in a space near to us (Fisher & Byrne, 1975). When someone does invade our space, wemay do nothing, move personal belongings away from them, leave, say something to the invader, or strike up a conversation(Skolnick, Frasier, & Hadar, 1977).
Some space universals exist. Across cultures all people have a personal space. We begin to develop our sense of personalspace around 3 years old, and it continues to enlarge until about age 21 (Hayduk, 1983).When strangers encounter oneanother, they leave space between them, though how that space is used will vary depending on situational factors (Høgh-Olesen, 2008; Pedersen & Heaston, 1972; Mazur, 1977).
In some cultures personal space is small. Such cultures are often called contact cultures and include Southern Europeancountries, Latin American countries, and Arabian countries. Cultures with larger personal space are called no contactcultures. No contact cultures can be found in the countries of Northern Europe and North America (Remland, Jones, &Brinkman, 1995). Even greater distance for interacting dyads can be found in Asian cultures such as Japan (Beaulieu, 2004;Sussman & Rosenfeld, 1982).
Gender differences also exist for personal space. Women generally expect less personal space than men, particularly wheninteracting with other women (Skolnick, Frasier, & Hadar, 1977; Sussman & Rosenfeld, 1982). When space is invaded andthey are touched with no justification for the contact, men react negatively to the intrusion. Women, on average, do notreact negatively (Sussman & Rosenfeld, 1978).
Researchers have found physiological reactions to space invasion. When seated close to one another on a train, peopleshowed an increase in stress hormones (Evans & Wener, 2007). Within the brain the amygdala seems to be important in thereaction to invasions of personal space. The amygdala is part of the brain's limbic system and plays a role in emotionalreactions, particularly aggression and fear. A patient with severe damage to her amygdala felt no discomfort even whenstanding nose-to-nose with another person (Kennedy, Gläscher, Tyszka, & Adolphs, 2009).
The tendency toward contextualization can create problems for counterfactual thinking, "what-if" types of thinking, or abstract reasoning.When participants in Taiwan and Hong Kong were asked to decide which parenting technique was most appropriate based on aparagraph explaining why a particular technique would be most helpful, many of them chose incorrectly. Their responses were not due toa lack of intelligence but rather a reluctance to answer something in a way that went against their own experience. They did not want tosuggest parenting behavior to others that they believed would not work. American participants may have disagreed with the conclusionof the paragraph based on their own experiences, but they were willing to answer in the abstract and choose the option suggested by theparagraph (Bloom, 1981; Markus & Kitayama, 1991).
Motivations differ for those from different cultures. In independent cultures, motives are internal and individual. Examples of motivesmight include achievement, self-actualization, or enhancing self-esteem. A student in an independent culture may enter a writing contestwith the goal of showing how great a writer he is and to receive praise for his abilities. Motives for those in interdependent cultures, onthe other hand, restrain the self and focus on others. These motives might include affiliation, nurturance, or deference (i.e., respect orsubmission) (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). A student in an interdependent culture may join the chess club primarily as a way of gainingfriends or honoring a teacher who asked her to join, rather than showing her abilities in competitions. When a student in interdependentcultures engages in actions because of a need for achievement, that achievement is not focused on achieving for the self but ratherachieving to bring honor or meet expectations of one's in-group (Yang, 1982). Motivations for actions in the two cultures certainly dooverlap, but in each type of culture, each type of motive will be more dominant.
A motivation for people in Western (independent) cultures is not to fit in but to show their own traits, preferably in a favorable light.People from Western cultures take pride in their positive attributes to a greater degree than they are remorseful about their negativeattributes. A great basketball player may take great pride in that attribute and be motivated to work to improve basketball skills evenmore. A lack of cooking skills probably will not bother him or her, so that person will not focus time and energy on improving thoseskills. For interdependent cultures, there is less of a discrepancy between ratings of positive and negative attributes, as well as lessemphasis on positive attributes. Individuals from interdependent cultures also desire to improve their negative attributes rather thantheir positive attributes (Lo, Helwig, & Chen, 2011).
Test Yourself
For each of the following, decide whether you'd be more likely to see it in an independent or an interdependent culture.Click on each phrase below to reveal the answer.
· Accurate assessment of control in a situation
· Categorization based on relationships between objects
· Sympathy
· Achievement to better one's own situation
Cultural Dimensions
There is more than one dimension of cultural differences. Hofstede (2001) explored cultural variability beyond differences in independentand interdependent cultures by surveying thousands of employees at multinational corporations, covering 72 different countries andmany different languages. His early work was with the large, multinational company IBM, but he found similar results within particularcultures when he surveyed people in other organizations. To determine how cultures differ, he examined individualism versus collectivism(independent and interdependent), but also looked at power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity versus femininity, and long-termversus short-term orientation (see Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2: Hofstede's cultural dimensions
Hofstede surveyed various countries and discovered differing ranges between cultures on dimensions such asmasculinity, long-term orientation, individualism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance.
Based on Hofstede, G. H. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Power Distance
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Employees from large power distance countries might be lesslikely to openly disagree with business executives.
Power distance has to do with the acceptance and promotion of adistance between those at different levels of power. In some countries,people are differentiated based on their position in a hierarchy, and rightsand benefits come with positions of power that are not afforded to thoselower on the hierarchy. Japan, for instance, has a large power distance. Astrong respect for the hierarchy is evident in the Japanese language. Theway individuals refer to themselves, for instance, changes depending onwhether they are talking to a peer or to someone with power over them,like a teacher or a boss (Hamamura & Heine, 2008). Other countries highin power distance include Malaysia, Guatemala, and Panama.
In cultures with low power distance, such as Israel, Denmark, Austria,New Zealand, Canada, and the United States, rules and rituals thatmaintain status and power differences are rarer. Often the people withinthese cultures demand justification for inequality and work to equalizepower. In countries with lower power distance, an employee might makesuggestions or disagree with the supervisor. Rituals, like having the bosssit at the head of the table, may not be as rigidly adhered to, and leadersmay use different strategies and styles to influence their workers(Jackson, Meyer, & Wang, 2013; Pasa, 2000). Cultures with a lower powerdistance, as well as more independent cultures, also tend to show moreinnovative ideas and products (Rinne, Steel, & Fairweather, 2012).
Uncertainty Avoidance
Different cultures have different ways of dealing with the uncertainties of life. Some cultures prescribe specific behaviors in specificsituations as a way to avoid life's uncertainties. In many situations, new, different, or unorthodox ideas are unwelcome and viewed aspotentially dangerous. In Guatemala, for example, appropriate rituals for greeting and saying good-bye are expected, and people havefairly rigid rules for acceptable behavior in various social situations. Attempts to change these rituals or disregard them will lead tonegative interactions and loss of trust. Countries high in uncertainty avoidance include Greece, Guatemala, Uruguay, Portugal, Belgium,and Japan.
Other cultures are more relaxed when it comes to ambiguity, with few rules or rituals. Rather than being rigid, these cultures tend to beflexible and easygoing. In Jamaica, for instance, greetings may be quite informal, and few rituals are followed in everyday interactions. Incultures like Jamaica, wearing unusual clothing or engaging in non-normative behavior will have few social consequences. Countries lowin uncertainty avoidance are Singapore, Sweden, Jamaica, and Denmark.
Masculinity Versus Femininity
Masculine cultures are those in which men and women are expected to exhibit different qualities—men are expected to be assertive, andwomen are expected to be tender and caring. Some of the most masculine countries in the world are Japan, Austria, Venezuela, Italy, andSwitzerland. In masculine cultures, men are socialized to be tough and focused on success, while women are to be modest. These culturesseek to foster and maintain differences between men and women through different norms for men/boys and women/girls (e.g., boysdon't cry), and by teaching men and women different things (e.g., women learn to cook). Masculine cultures tend to be more driven byqualities that are more often associated with men, such as achievement and success.
Feminine cultures are those where both men and women are socialized to be modest and tender (Hofstede, 2000). Feminine cultures tendto focus more on caring for their citizens and overall quality of life, investing more in human development programs (Rodrigues &Blumberg, 2000). For such cultures, some success may need to be sacrificed for the good of the people, rather than the people sacrificingto help the society succeed as would be done in a more masculine culture (van den Bos et al., 2010). Countries with more of a feminineculture include Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Costa Rica. The United States is closer to the masculine than feminineend of the spectrum but has elements of both.
Long-Term Versus Short-Term Orientation
Some cultures encourage delay of gratification and forward-thinking. These cultures are considered to have a long-term orientation andare focused on preparing for future events through saving and persistence in the present. For example, individuals in these culturesshould show a higher savings rate and lower debt, since current wants or needs will receive lower priority than having resources for thefuture. Asian cultures often have a long-term orientation, with Japan, China, and Taiwan having the highest prevalence of this view.
Other cultures with a short-term orientation are more focused on the present and past. In these cultures, there is a greater emphasis onquick results, spending now instead of saving for the future, as well as a respect for past traditions. Cultures with short-term orientationinclude Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Spain, Philippines, Spain, Canada, and the United States. One's orientation also influences theculture's view of truth. For those with more of a short-term orientation, truth is absolute whereas with a long-term orientation, truth ismore dependent on the situation (Hofstede, 1993).
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
The Source of Cultural Differences
Where do these cultural differences originate? Pointing to just one source is difficult because such differences arise from many places.One theory about the source of differences points to exploration of new frontiers. For example, when we compare the culture of thosewho migrated to new territories to those cultures who stayed put, differences in focus on the individual emerge. European Americans inthe United States tend to be more individualistic than Europeans (Kitayama, Park, Sevincer, Karasawa, & Uskul, 2009). Greaterindividualism is also found within Japan among those who migrated from their original homes to new islands (Kitayama, Duffy, & Uchida,2007). Researchers should find Spanish-speaking people in Latin America and Portuguese-speaking people in Brazil versus theircounterparts in Spain or Portugal to be more individualistic (Kashima et al., 2011).
Cultural Context for our Behavior
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Culture and its influence on our behavior.
Critical Thinking Questions
· Why is it so important to consider culturalcontext?
· What is an example of how culture is "dynamic" asopposed to "monolithic"?
Physical environment is also a factor in defining culture. Greater independenceis needed in parts of the world where making a living requires constantadjustment and movement. Among nomadic people and those who herd animals,we tend to find more independent cultures. Greater interdependence tends todevelop when people are living in close geographic proximity and have lowgeographic mobility, such as those found in agriculturally based communities(Kitayama & Uskul, 2011). Additional differences are found when agriculturalpractices that require vigilance and hard work, such as those needed to growrice, lead to a different approach to life than agricultural practices that rely onfactors like the weather that are outside one's control, such as those needed togrow wheat and other grains (Nisbett, 2003). Cultures with historic agriculturalpractices that require attention and diligent labor tend to see achievement asbased on those factors. Cultures with historic agricultural practices that rely onwishes and prayers tend to view achievement as at least partially outside oftheir control.
Cultures are not static; they are constantly changing, affected by history,economics, and changes in the natural world. Some of the current differences incultures come from events in history (Kitayama, Conway, Pietromanaco, Park, &Plaut, 2010). Japan, for example, made a drastic change in its politicalorganization after World War II, moving from an empire to a democracy(Kashima, Koval, & Kashima, 2011). Yet on an individual level, culture is passeddown from generation to generation and is changed by each generation.
A culture begins to exhibit cultural values with its children early on. For example, children in independent cultures tend to sleep in theirown beds in their own rooms rather than co-sleeping, or sleeping in the same room or same bed as another family member (Shweder,Jensen & Goldstein, 1995). Co-sleeping is more common in interdependent cultures such as China (Huang, Wang, Zhang, Liu, 2010).Parents in the United States tend to direct their baby's attention to objects in the world, while parents in Japan direct their baby'sattention to themselves or other people (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, & Morelli, 2000). In these and hundreds of other ways, childrenlearn how to exist within their own culture and carry those patterns of behavior and perception into adulthood.
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Parents begin instilling different cultural values in their children during infancy.
Because culturally appropriate responses to situations are learned early and feel natural, visiting or living in a place with a differentculture creates culture shock. Culture shock is the result of a disparity between what feels natural or what one expects in a situation andthe demands of that situation (Kitayama, Markus, Matsumoto, & Norasakkunkit, 1997). The larger the difference between one's homecountry and the culture of the country one visits, the greater the culture shock (Zeitlin, 1996). Eating with one's fingers at a formaloccasion may feel wrong to an American but might be expected from a guest at a wedding in India. People who have more knowledgeabout cultural differences tend to encounter less culture shock, perhaps because the differences between cultures are not as surprising(Chen, Lin, & Sawangpattanakul, 2012). Although eating with a fork may always feel unnatural to someone who grew up eating withfingers, knowing that utensils are required will not come as a shock to a more culturally knowledgeable person. Awareness of cultureshock can also help someone living or traveling in a new culture to identify what they are feeling and work through it (Zapf, 1991).
It is also important to remember that even though people are different across cultures, there are also a great number of differencesbetween people within a culture. If you meet someone from a culture that is different from your own, you might use the differencesbetween cultures described in this chapter as a starting point in learning about that person; however, it is important to remember thatthese descriptions may not all be present in that individual.
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
3.2 Gender
Besides culture, another potential source of difference between people is their sex. Although the words sex and gender are often usedinterchangeably, most psychologists differentiate between the two terms. Sex refers to biological sex, based on chromosomes or genitalia. Gender, on the other hand, refers to differences between men and women that are based in culture, or to differences between men andwomen whose causality has not been established. Gender is socially constructed; sex is biologically based (Gentile, 1993; Unger &Crawford, 1993). Psychologists have investigated many potential differences between men and women and the source of those differences.
Gender Differences: Source and Method
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Gender roles are often prescribed in early childhood. A young girlmight be given a doll to care for, while a young boy might beencouraged to manage a wooden train track.
Biology is a major source of difference between men and women. Mostmen and women have different sex chromosomes, different hormonelevels, different genitalia, and different reproductive capabilities. If biologyis the basis for differences between men and women, we should see suchdifferences among almost all men and women in all cultures and overhistory. One theory that has its basis in the biological differences betweenmen and women, particularly in their reproductive capacities, isevolutionary theory. Evolutionary theory will be described in more detailin the next section.
Another potential source of difference between men and women is theenvironment. A social group may prescribe particular behaviors asappropriate for men and a different set of behaviors for women. Genderroles are cultural or group-based norms for appropriate behaviors andactivities for men and women. For example, the female gender role incertain cultures and groups may include being nurturing and caring forothers. A gender stereotype is a set of beliefs about what individuals of acertain gender are and should do and be. A gender stereotype might bethat only women should be nurses. If the environment is the cause ofdifferences between men and women, we should find somewhat different gender roles in different cultures and at different periods.
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
Gender Differences: What Are They?
One stereotype about women is that they are not as good at math as men (Nosek et al., 2009). Is there truth to this stereotype? In recentmeta-analyses, researchers found no difference between the mathematical ability of boys/men and girls/women (Lindberg, Hyde,Petersen, & Linn, 2010). In direct opposition to this stereotype, girls earn better grades than boys in mathematics in elementary and highschool (Kenney-Benson, Pomerantz, Ryan, & Patrick, 2006). Neither gender is favored in general mathematics ability in elementary andmiddle school, but researchers have found slight preference for men in complex problem solving in high school and college (Lindberg etal., 2010). In the past, girls were less likely to take advanced mathematics courses and are still somewhat less likely to take physicscourses, so the discrepancy in complex problem solving may be due to lack of exposure and training in complex problem solving ratherthan something inherent in the female sex.
In a study assessing nine predictors of mathematics performance at age 10, Melhuish and colleagues (2008) found that the bestpredictors were the mother's education, quality of the home learning environment, and the effectiveness of the elementary school—notgender. Other predictors were birth weight, father's education, family income, socioeconomic status, and preschool effectiveness. Whilegender gaps in math achievement do exist in different nations around the world, these gaps tend to occur when there are differences inschool enrollment, participation of women in science and technology fields, and participation of women in roles of governmentalleadership (Else-Quest, Hyde, & Linn, 2010). Given all of these findings, we can fairly safely conclude that, with opportunities andencouragement, women and girls are just as capable in mathematics as men and boys.
Aggression is another variable where gender stereotypes are prevalent. In a meta-analysis of aggression, researchers find that men tendto be more aggressive than women, though the effect size is small (Bettencourt & Miller, 1996; Eagly & Steffen, 1986). In instances ofaggression without provocation, men are more aggressive than women. But when a situation includes provocation, this difference largelydisappears (Bettencourt & Miller, 1996). Provocation might include being insulted or being harmed by another person. When showingaggression, men and women have different responses. Women are more likely to aggress if they can use verbal aggression rather thanphysical aggression, and are also more likely to aggress if it is toward another woman rather than a man. Men also aggress more towardother men (Bettencourt & Miller, 1996). Because men and women are equally aggressive when provoked, some researchers havesuggested that differences are largely based in social roles (Richardson & Hammock, 2007). Men are aggressive generally because theirmasculine social role calls for it, and women are not aggressive generally because their social role prohibits it. If, however, there is reasonfor aggression, both men and women are willing to show it.
On the other end of the spectrum, is there a difference between men and women in levels of cooperation? As with aggression, there isessentially no difference between the general cooperativeness of men and women (Balliet, Li, Macfarlan, & Van Vugt, 2011). There aresome differences in the context in which men and women are cooperative. Men tend to cooperate more when they are working withother men. Women cooperate more in groups that include both men and women.
Age and Gender Differences in TeenDating
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Gender differences impact the nature of datingviolence.
Critical Thinking Questions
· Who perpetrates more acts of violence in theirteen years, girls or boys?
· Why does age matter?
Men and women are different in their tendencies to forgive. Men are less likelyto forgive than women. In a meta-analysis the effect size for this difference wassmall (Miller, Worthington, & McDaniel, 2008). A large difference between menand women was found for vengeance. Men had a greater desire for vengeancethan women. The results of studies in other cultures suggest that this desire forvengeance is one encouraged by culture. In some cultures there are nodifferences in vengeance between men and women (Kadiangandu, Mullet, &Vinsonneau, 2001).
One possible explanation for gender differences is found in the social rolesexhibited in interdependent and independent cultures. For interdependentcultures, behaviors associated with gender roles are attributed to the role ratherthan the person. A woman's nurturing nature may not be somethingcharacteristic of herself but rather a requirement of her role as mother. Inindependent cultures, on the other hand, social roles have less power, so similarnurturing behaviors are believed to come out of an aspect of the self rather thanthe social role (Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001). Another possibleexplanation is that inherent differences between men and women are difficult tosee in cultures where social roles are prescribed. These inherent differences aremore obvious only in more egalitarian cultures where men and women have thefreedom to express what comes naturally to them—the personalitycharacteristics they have based on biological endowment rather than based insocial roles (Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Allik, 2008). More research is needed totease out the source of these findings.
Across cultures, men and women also differ in their acceptance of casual sex, desired number of sexual partners, desired qualities ofmates, and source of jealousy in intimate relationships. In general, men are more accepting of casual sex (Oliver & Hyde, 1993; Petersen &Hyde, 2010). Men prefer more sexual partners than women, particularly if they are asked to estimate how many partners they woulddesire if there were no social or health risks and no limitations in their ability to find willing women. With no risks or limitations, menrespond that their ideal number of sexual partners during their lifetime is around 12.9, while women report an ideal number of 4.9.However, when viewed from a different angle, researchers found that 47% of the women had an interest in more than one partnercompared to 76% of the men (Fenigstein & Preston, 2007). Another difference between men and women is that men place moreemphasis on the physical attractiveness of a romantic partner (Feingold, 1990). Women tend to be pickier when choosing potentialromantic partners and put more focus on status and potential to invest in children (Brase, 2006; Buss, 1989, 1995).
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Evolutionary psychologists believe that biologicalfactors, like paternity uncertainty and maternalinvestment, have shaped gender differences in mateselection.
Evolutionary psychologist David Buss points to differences in adaptive challengesfaced by men and women in evolutionary history as the cause of these differences.Because of biological differences, reproduction requires different things. A man'sgenes can potentially be passed on by having sex one time with a fertile woman. Awoman's genes, however, can only be passed on if she has sex, gets pregnant, invests 9months in the pregnancy, has a successful birth, and feeds and cares for the child untilit can make it on its own. Women, then, have an exponentially larger investment ineach offspring than men do. Given this difference, the major tasks of men in passingdown their genes are to identify fertile women and convince them to have sex.
Unlike women, men do not necessarily know if an offspring of someone they had sexwith is their own—a phenomenon Buss calls paternity uncertainty. There are two,non-mutually exclusive strategies to deal with this dilemma. A man can attempt toprotect the woman he had had sex with from other men, thereby assuring that anyoffspring she produces are his. Because his contribution to future children can be assmall as a single act of sex, the other strategy a man could adopt is to attempt to havesex with as many women as possible, so even if one woman ends up not having hisbaby, another might. Given her large investment in each offspring she produces, themajor tasks of a woman, on the other hand, is to identify a man who is willing andable to invest in her and her offspring and protect herself from getting pregnant froma man who will not invest.
The gender differences in acceptance of casual sex, attractive qualities in the oppositesex, and feelings about different types of infidelity are generally found in all culturesaround the world. Given this cross-cultural consistency, it is unlikely that social rolesare the basis of these differences. Evolutionary psychologist David Buss points todifferences in adaptive challenges faced by men and women in evolutionary history asthe cause of gender difference. Evolutionary theory proposes that characteristics oforganisms that help them survive and reproduce in a particular environment will allow the genes of those organisms to be passed on.Organisms that do not have those advantages will not survive and, therefore, those genes will not continue into the future. Withevolutionary theory, we would expect men who have the skills to provide for a woman to be more successful. In a hunter-gatherer society,such as that in which our ancestors lived, a man's physical attributes, such as his ability to throw a spear quickly and accurately, wouldmake him more successful.
Based on their reproductive challenges, it makes sense that women would be more picky when choosing mates. Women need to identifymen who have the resources to invest, that is, those of higher status and who are willing to invest in children. Evolutionary theory alsoattributes women's desire for fewer sexual partners and tendency to be more upset by emotional infidelity to her desire to protect herchildren. Emotional infidelity could mean the man in her life would leave and invest in someone else, leaving her with fewer resources tocare for her children. Evolutionarily speaking, men's desire for more attractive partners may be rooted in the need for men to identifyfertile women. Similarly, men's need to identify their children as their own explains why men are more upset when their romanticpartners have sex with another person.
Evolutionary theory may not be the only way to explain cross-cultural similarities in gender differences. There is also the social structuraltheory. According to Alice Eagly and Wendy Wood (1999), some basic biological differences led, historically, to a difference in thestructure of societies. Larger body size and strength led men to engage in more physical activities. The physical demands of pregnancyand lactation led women to engage in more home-based pursuits that could be interrupted by demands of small children. Because menand women have the same biologically based capabilities across cultures, these societies tended to organize themselves in similar ways.Men tended to specialize in activities like hunting or herding that brought greater resources, power, and status. Women could not engagein those activities and therefore were more likely to be dependent and specialize in nurturing activities. According to the social structuraltheory, the majority of differences between men and women are based in the social structure—if the social structure is changed, so toowill the differences between men and women. Indeed, in countries with greater gender equality, the social status of the man is not asimportant to women as in countries with less gender equality. Men are less interested in the domestic skills of women in more egalitariancountries.
Overall, men and women are more alike than different. Some differences, particularly those that are common in most cultures, canreasonably be attributed to different challenges in evolutionary history but might also be based in a society's social structure. Differencesthat vary from culture to culture, such as those in math performance, are better explained as due to social factors such as gender normswithin a culture.
Test Yourself
Click on each statement below to reveal the answer.
· Name two variables that meta-analyses have found are not appreciably different for men and women.
· Name three variables where differences between men and women have been found.
Conclusion
The billions of people who live on planet Earth have organized themselves into groups, and, as a group, have developed particular ways ofrelating that are unique to their group. Cultures differ in various ways, and these differences impact the way people encounter and thinkabout their worlds. Differences between men and women are another source of difference. Some differences between men and womenare based in biology, but some differences are due to the roles they play due to group or cultural influences.
Chapter Summary
Culture
Cultures can be divided into those that emphasize independence of the self from others, such as those found in the United States andWestern Europe, and those that focus on context and social roles as important, such as those found in Asia and Central and SouthAmerica. These independent and interdependent constructions of self affect how people think, feel, and what motivates them. Culturesdiffer in terms of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity versus femininity, and short-term orientation versus long-termorientation.
Gender
Gender differences may originate in biological differences between men and women, or may arise from different expectations for men andwomen in different cultures or groups, or a combination of the two. Few differences exist in men and women, such as mathematicalability and aggression with provocation. Differences that do exist can often be traced to differences within cultures' social roles.Evolutionary theory helps explain differences in men's and women's acceptance of casual sex, desired number of sexual partners, desiredqualities in a mate, and reasons for jealousy. Some of these differences can also be explained by the ways societies tend to build socialstructures to address biological differences.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What are some advantages of living in an independent culture? What are some advantages of living in an interdependent culture?
2. If cognition, emotion, and motivation are different in independent and interdependent cultures, what else about people might bedifferent?
3. The chapter discusses the effect of independent and interdependent cultures on sense of self. How might Hofstede's culturaldimensions influence a person's sense of self?
4. What other gender differences might exist? Do you think these differences are based in biology or have been developed because ofsocial factors?
5. At times, evolutionary explanations for behavior make people uncomfortable because someone might claim these differences arebased in evolutionary history and cannot be changed or controlled by the individual. Is such a claim legitimate? How would yourespond to someone who made that argument?
Key Terms
Click on each key term to reveal the definition.
Chapter 4
Attitudes, Attributions, and Behavior
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Learning Objectives
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
· Define attitude, and differentiate between implicit and explicit attitudes
· Describe when behaviors and attitudes are likely to match
· Explain the theory of planned behavior
· Describe cognitive dissonance theory and insufficient justification
· Describe self-perception theory
· Define an attribution, and differentiate internal and external attributions
· Define the fundamental attribution error
· Explain how explanatory style works, and differentiate between optimistic and pessimistic explanatory style
· Describe the hostile attribution of intent
· Differentiate the false consensus effect and false uniqueness effect
· Explain the illusion of transparency and spotlight effect
Chapter Outline
4.1 Attitudes
4.2 Behavior and Attitudes
· Theory of Planned Behavior
· Behavior and Attitude Mismatch
· What Is My Attitude?
4.3 Explaining the Behavior of Others
4.4 Fundamental Attribution Error
4.5 Explanations and Our Behavior
· Optimistic and Pessimistic Explanatory Styles
· A Hostile World
· Just Like Everybody Else
· What Do Others See?
Chapter Summary
* * *
If you have ever tried online dating, you are in good company. A study by Match.com reported that 40 million people visited orused an online dating site in the previous year, with an annual revenue of 1.9 billion dollars (Laird, 2012). Most online datingsites involve profiles, where potential daters post information about themselves. Others then access that information and decidewhether they would like to communicate with or date the person profiled. People often share their likes or dislikes in theirprofiles, and potential online dates look at those attitudes and form their own attitudes about the person. In meeting newpeople, online or face to face, and in interacting with those we know, we are constantly trying to understand the motivationsbehind people's actions—we make attributions for behavior. In this chapter we look at both of these phenomena, attitudes andattributions, and how they interact with our behavior.
4.1 Attitudes
From the time you wake up in the morning to the moment your head hits the pillow at the end of the day, you encounter objects, people,animals, actions, and situations that require a response. As you face all these things, you must make quick evaluations so you know howto react. For example, if you evaluate the neighbor as mean and cream as good, you would avoid interacting with the neighbor and putcream in your coffee. Attitudes are evaluations. These evaluations are based on our reactions—both in terms of how we feel and what wethink—to some attitude or object. The objects of our attitudes/evaluations can be physical objects, other people or groups of people,abstract or concrete ideas, animals, behaviors, or even some aspect of ourselves (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). An online dater might have anattitude about his online date, as well as about her dislike of football, her love of cats, and her identity as a runner. The woman, football,cats, and running are all attitude objects. Your neighbor and cream are also attitude objects.
Expand Your Knowledge: Pew Global Attitudes Project
If you would like to investigate a wide variety of attitudesfrom around the world, take a look at the Pew GlobalAttitudes Project website at http://pewglobal.org/ .Reports on a variety of surveys are also available.
Attitudes have long been considered important to social psychology(Allport, 1935). Throughout the years, social psychologists have foundthe subject of attitudes a fruitful area of research (Crano & Prislin,2006). The evaluations we make have two measures: strength andvalence. Attitudes may be very strong or very weak. In terms ofvalence, we may have attitudes that are on the positive side of thespectrum (you like cats) or negative side of the spectrum (you hateelephants). Putting together strength and valence, you might have afairly weak positive attitude toward cats and a very strong negativeattitude toward elephants. There is also a body of work on ambivalentattitudes—attitudes that are simultaneously positive and negative (Armitage & Conner, 2000; van Harreveld, van der Plight, de Vries,Wenneker, & Verhue, 2004).
When most of us think of attitudes, we probably think of how we feel about objects, people, or groups, but researchers have found thatconsciously known and reported attitudes are only part of the attitude picture (Nosek & Smyth, 2007; Payne, Burkley, & Stokes, 2008).The attitudes we report, those that rely on our knowledge and beliefs about an attitude object, are called explicit attitudes. Implicitattitudes—attitudes that we are unaware we hold—are based on the automatic, unconscious reactions we have toward an attitudeobject.
We learn implicit and explicit attitudes either through symbolic representations of or through encounters with attitude objects. Explicitattitudes are based in language, logic, or some other symbolic representation. Because of this, we can develop explicit attitudes relativelyquickly through simple communication. For example, if someone told you about a particular group you had not known about before (e.g.,pygmies) and shared with you how much he or she liked this group, you might form a positive explicit attitude toward the group. Implicitattitudes are learned as we encounter the attitude object. For example, if you always encountered representations of a particular group(pictures of pygmies) that were positive, you might develop a positive implicit attitude toward them (Olson & Fazio, 2006; Rydell &McConnell, 2006; Strack & Deutsch, 2004; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000). This difference in the processing of implicit and explicitattitudes allows for people to hold opposite explicit and implicit attitudes. If people logically believe that a social group is good and reporta positive explicit attitude but society has a negative view of the group and that has been communicated with individuals, they might holda negative implicit attitude.
Implicit attitudes are frequently communicated by society. The particular social environment and culture people are exposed to has alarge impact on their implicit attitudes (Shepherd, 2011). If representations of a particular racial or ethnic group in the media are alwayspaired with violence or poverty, individuals in that society tend to hold negative implicit attitudes toward these groups. Because implicitattitudes are associations that occur outside of conscious awareness, they are not subject to logic. For example, if you found out that anew friend is in a bowling league, you would know logically that your friend may or may not have a number of qualities that youassociate with people in bowling leagues. Your explicit attitude toward this person would, at least for a while, still rely on what you knowabout your friend rather than her membership in this group. Your implicit attitude would, however, not be ruled by logic but wouldautomatically assign the stereotypical characteristics of people in bowling leagues to your friend (Ranganath & Nosek, 2008).
Figure 4.1: Implicit association task
An IAT might first prime you for "good" words, and then ask you to match older faces with "good" words.
Based on Project Implicit® (2011). Four-category race-gender IAT. Retrieved from https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit Photo credit: Amos Morgan/Digital Vision/Thinkstock
Expand Your Knowledge: ImplicitAssociation Test
Information about implicit attitudes and the opportunityto take a variety of implicit association tests can be foundat the Project Implicit website, http://www.projectimplicit.net/ . You can read researchpapers, take an Implicit Association Test, and participatein ongoing research. Most of the research studies takeabout 10 to 15 minutes, and participants must registerbefore taking part in research. Participants are providedwith a summary of their own results at the end of theirparticipation. If you want to see what your scores mightbe but do not want to be part of a research study orregister, you can take a demo test.
To assess implicit attitudes, researchers need to measure our automaticreactions—reactions we are not even aware of. Psychologists developeda test to look at implicit attitudes called the Implicit Association Test(IAT) (Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998; Schnabel, Asendorpf, &Greenwald, 2008). The IAT measures implicit attitudes by evaluatingreaction times. Test-takers match characteristics that are flashed in thecenter of a computer screen to a category of words in the uppercorners of the screen (see Figure 4.1). For example, if "good" is in theleft corner and "bad" in the right, a word like "joy" should be matchedto the left corner and "evil" to the right. Attitude objects are placed inthe same corners as those words, and respondents need to quicklymatch to words for the good and bad categories and words or facesassociated with that attitude object. For a test looking at implicitattitudes toward older adults, "old" might be assigned to the left cornerand "young" to the right. The respondent would need to quickly switchfrom a word (joy) to a face (older adult) and match each with thecorrect corner (left).
A person who has a negative implicit attitude toward older adults should take longer to match the picture of an older person with the left"good" corner than to the right "bad" corner. This delay in matching an older person with a corner that also contains the category "good"provides evidence of a negative implicit attitude toward older adults.
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· How is it possible to have a mismatch between an explicit attitude and implicit attitude?
4.2 Behavior and Attitudes
Our attitudes involve evaluations of other people, behaviors, and objects. Logically, these evaluations should affect how we behave towardthese attitude objects (Allport, 1935; Droba, 1933). For example, if you have a favorable attitude toward exercise, you should be morelikely to engage in physical activities than if you had a negative attitude. LaPiere (1934) was one of the first to investigate the relation ofattitudes to behaviors. In the 1930s, LaPiere traveled around the United States with some of his Chinese friends. In that time, manyAmericans held negative attitudes toward the Chinese, and LaPiere and his friends were concerned about the service they might get asthey traveled. Despite this fear, they were treated well in all but one location. LaPiere was curious about this reaction, so several monthslater he sent questionnaires to the places he and his friends had visited, as well as a number of hotels and restaurants they had notvisited. Almost universally, these businesses reported they would not serve someone who was Chinese. The negative attitude was presentbut, happily, LaPiere and his friends found that behavior did not match these attitudes.
Since the 1930s, a great deal of work has been done to sort out this problem. Researchers have identified factors that can strengthen andweaken the ability of attitudes to predict behaviors. Attitudes that are particularly accessible are more likely to determine our behavior(Fazio, 2000). Generally, if people respond quickly in reporting their attitudes, these attitudes are highly accessible. If you respond quicklythat you hate blind dates, you are unlikely to find yourself on one. When relatively narrow attitudes are assessed, then relatively narrowbehavior also needs to be assessed, but when broader attitudes are assessed, broad behaviors must be assessed as well (Weigel &Newman, 1976). For example, if you were asked about your attitude toward sports, your answer may not match well with yourattendance or lack thereof at the local high school football game. If we asked about your attitude toward the local high school footballteam, we may have better luck predicting if we will see you at a game. Another factor is whether the behavior is easy or difficult toperform (Wallace, Paulson, Lord, & Bond, 2005). One might have a negative attitude toward smoking but continue to smoke becausequitting is difficult. The social pressure one has to join in or avoid a behavior is also important. If a person feels a strong social pressureto engage in a behavior (wearing a seat belt), that person may engage in the behavior despite a negative attitude (Wallace et al., 2005).
Explicit attitudes can predict consciously controlled behaviors, but implicit attitudes are the best predictors of nonverbal behaviors. Thosewith a negative implicit attitude toward people of a particular racial group tend to show nonverbal behaviors that indicate dislike for amember of the group with which they are interacting, even when their verbal behavior is friendly and welcoming (Dovidio, Kawakami, &Gaertner, 2002). Therefore, negative implicit attitudes can have an unconscious, adverse effect on our interactions. In a study ofphysicians, those with negative implicit attitudes toward Black patients had more negative interactions with Black patients. The clinicianstended to dominate the conversation, and the patients showed less confidence in and were less trusting of the physician (Cooper et al.,2012).
In contrast, consciously controlled, deliberate behaviors are evidence of explicit attitudes (Jellison, McConnell, & Gabriel, 2004; McConnell& Leibold, 2001; Rydell & McConnell, 2006). Because implicit attitudes are less consciously controlled, they are better at predictingbehavior in situations where the ego is depleted and behavior is more instinctual. For example, if you have a negative explicit attitudeabout the healthiness of chocolate, when you are trying to eat healthy and have not already exerted self-control, you would choose to eatfruit over chocolate. However, when you are tired, you might automatically reach for the chocolate bar in the checkout lane, followingyour positive implicit attitude toward chocolate (Friese, Hofmann, & Wanke, 2008).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· Has attitude research been a topic only recently for social psychology?
· What makes explicit attitudes more likely to match with behaviors?
Theory of Planned Behavior
Behaviors may be difficult to predict from attitudes alone. The theory of planned behavior combines several factors to provide forbetter prediction (see Figure 4.2). According to this theory, if we want to predict both intent to behave and actual behavior, we need toknow three things: (1) attitude toward that specific behavior, (2) subjective norms related to that behavior, and (3) perceived behavioralcontrol (Ajzen, 1991). Subjective norms involve people's beliefs about how other people in their environment perceive their behavior.For example, you might believe that people in your social circle (friends, relatives) think healthy eating is a good idea, but yoga is silly. Perceived behavior control is your belief that you can engage in the behavior. For example, you might think that eating a healthy diet isa lot of trouble, but going to yoga class is easily accomplished. In this example, your perceived behavioral control would be high for yogabut low for healthy eating. If someone has a positive attitude, positive subjective norms, and high perceived behavioral control, we canpredict with some accuracy their intentions to engage in that behavior and their eventual behavior. You might join a yoga program if youhave a positive attitude toward yoga, if people in your environment think it is a good idea, and if you foresee no problems in getting tothe studio for classes.
Figure 4.2: The theory of plannedbehavior
The theory of planned behavior relies on several factors forpredicting behavior.
Reprinted from Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. OrganizationalBehavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. Copyright © 1991, withpermission from Elsevier.
The theory of planned behavior is an extension of an earlier theory calledthe theory of reasoned action. The theory of reasoned action, developed byAjzen and Fishbein (1972), predicted behaviors using just attitudes andsubjective norms. Ajzen (1991) later added the element of perceivedbehavioral control to provide better prediction of behavior. This additioncreated better forecasts about behavior.
Some behaviors are difficult to control. For example, many people findquitting smoking a very difficult thing to do. Taking into account theamount of control people have for such behaviors is helpful to predictingbehavior. For behaviors like quitting smoking, where a perceived lack ofcontrol interferes with actually engaging in the behavior, assessingsmoker's beliefs about their control makes predicting smoking cessationmore reliable (Madden, Ellen, & Ajzen, 1992). Since the addition ofperceived behavior of control to the model, the theory of planned behaviorhas been used to help explain an extremely wide variety of behaviors, fromsmoking cessation (Norman, Conner, & Bell, 1999), to using dental floss(Rise, Astrom, & Sutton, 1998), to composting (Kaiser, Wolfing, & Fuhrer,1999). Evaluating these behaviors through meta-analysis, Armitage andConnor (2001) found that this model can accurately predict behavior, andthat attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are allimportant to accurate prediction.
This theory does not predict behavior perfectly; there are a few factors that may make it more or less likely to lead to accuratepredictions. Habitual behaviors, such as driving a car to work instead of taking the bus, may not be well-predicted by the model. However,habit may undergo a change if circumstances change, such as when bus tickets become cheap and a bus stop comes to one's street(Bamberg, Ajzen, & Schmidt, 2003; Verplanken, Aarts, van Knippenberg, & van Knippenberg, 1994). The theory of planned behavior alsoassumes that people make rational decisions about their actions. This may be true some of the time, but at the moment of decision, one'sgood intentions may not be enough to deter behavior. In one study of risky sexual behavior, anticipated emotions that would occur aftersex, such as regret, were a strong predictor of actual sexual behavior (Richard, van der Plight, & de Vries, 1996). For some decisions,emotions may rule the day. Overall, the theory of planned behavior does a better job of predicting behavior over which individuals havesome control. The theory also is more accurate when people are in the process of actually making decisions, rather than relying on habitsor other mindless behaviors to determine their actions (Manstead, 2011).
Stockbyte/Thinkstock
Edward, a longtime smoker, wants to stop smoking,but has doubts that he will be able to do so.According to the theory of planned behavior, thesedoubts might inhibit his actual behavior of quitting.
The theory of planned behavior may be particularly helpful to those who want toencourage people to engage in healthy behaviors by determining what might bestanding in the way of the healthy behavior. As noted previously, research using themodel has been done on a number of health-related behaviors. Other researchers haveinvestigated exercise (Spink, Wilson, & Bostick, 2012), fruit and vegetableconsumption (Kothe, Mullan, & Butow, 2012), screening programs (Cooke & French,2008), and risky drinking behavior (Collins, Witkiewitz, & Larimer, 2011). If anindividual believes eating lots of vegetables is a good idea (positive attitude) andthose in his or her environment also think so (subjective norm), but this individualfeels unable to buy or prepare vegetables, an intervention might be targeted at theelement of perceived behavioral control— the individual's belief in the inability toattain and prepare enough veggies. An information campaign might be launched thatgives hints where to find reasonably priced vegetables and provides recipes forcooking vegetables. On the other hand, if people did not see the value in eatingvegetables (negative attitude), but others in their environment were encouraging themto eat vegetables (subjective norm) and vegetables were easy to find and prepare(perceived behavioral control), a campaign to change attitudes might be launched.
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
· What are the three components of the theory of planned behavior?
Behavior and Attitude Mismatch
Imagine you have agreed to be part of a research study. You come to the study and are asked to do two boring, repetitive tasks for anhour. As you finish, the researcher looks distressed; there was supposed to be another student coming to introduce the tasks you justcompleted to the next participant. The researcher tells you that the next participant is supposed to be told that these tedious tasks youjust completed are fun and interesting, with the goal of measuring how expectations influence performance. The researcher asks if youmight be willing to help him out and tell the next participant that what you just did was fun. He is willing to pay you $1 for your effort.You agree and tell the next participant that the task was interesting and exciting. Afterward, you are asked how interesting the tasks youjust did were and whether you'd be willing to participate in similar types of studies in the future. How would you have answered? Wouldyour answer be different if the researcher had given you $20?
A group of male college students faced exactly this situation in a study by Festinger and Carlsmith (1959). In their study, one third ofparticipants received $1 to tell the next participant that the study they were about to participate in was fun and interesting, another thirdreceived $20 to do so, and the final third, the control group, was not asked to say anything to a future participant and was not given anymoney. Unbeknownst to the participants, the hesitant request was part of the experiment and the other participant was working for theexperimenter. What the researchers were really interested in was whether the different amounts of pay would affect how participants feltabout the study. According to Table 4.1, which group thought the research was most interesting when later asked? Who was mostinterested in participating in similar studies in the future?
|
Table 4.1: Results from Festinger and Carlsmith's (1959) study of cognitive dissonance |
|||
|
Interview Question |
Experimental Condition |
||
|
|
$1Group |
$20Group |
ControlGroup |
|
Were the tasks interesting and enjoyable? (rated from –5, extremely dull andboring, to +5, extremely interesting and enjoyable) |
+1.35 |
–0.05 |
–0.45 |
|
Would you have any desire to participate in another similar experiment? (ratedfrom –5, definitely dislike to participate, to +5, definitely like to participate) |
+1.20 |
–0.25 |
–0.62 |
|
From Festinger, L. & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cogintive consequences of forced compliance. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58(2), 203-210. doi:10.1037/h0041593. |
As you can see, the participants who received $1 seemed to like the study best. Festinger and Carlsmith proposed that those participantswho received $1 for lying to another person felt they had insufficient justification for doing so. In other words, these participants liedfor a very small amount of money and could not explain (justify) what they did by the monetary reward. These participants were facedwith two things: knowledge that the research was boring (the researchers had deliberately made it mind-numbingly tedious) and abehavior that involved telling someone else it was interesting. The gap between what they believed and what they did created a type oftension known as cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is uncomfortable because it indicates an inconsistency in what peoplethink or feel and do. People are motivated to reduce this tension. The participants could not go back in time and change what they haddone, so their only option was to change how they felt about the study. In the $20 condition, there was also a gap between what they didand how they truly felt, but these people did not experience any tension. They had sufficient justification for what they did: $20. Thepeople in the $20 condition later reported that the study was boring because they had no need to justify what they did. When thediscomfort of cognitive dissonance is felt, it results in an attitude change to reduce tension.
Cognitive dissonance can be reduced without changing one's attitude. For example, if you decided you needed to be on a diet but thenwent to a dinner and had chocolate mousse, you could change your attitude toward the diet (maybe you do not really need to diet), butyou could also reduce that tension by doing other things.
Expand Your Knowledge: Attitude andBehavior Mismatch
Do your attitudes and behaviors always match? If you aresimilar to most people, you see distracted driving asdangerous, but also engage in the behavior.
A post on this issue can be found here . The authordescribes a study in California in which almost 60% ofparticipants listed talking on the phone as a seriousdistraction for drivers while almost 46% admitted tomaking a driving mistake while talking on the phone.
One option would be to minimize the importance of one of theelements (Festinger, 1957). You could say that dieting is not thatimportant to you or that chocolate mousse is not a big deal. Anotheroption would be to reduce your perceived choice (Beauvois & Joule,1999; Wicklund & Brehm, 1976). You might tell yourself it would havebeen rude if you had not eaten your host's dessert. You might also addthoughts that support or explain your behavior. You could tell yourselfthat chocolate mousse is healthy; after all, chocolate containsflavonoids that are good for your health.
The principle of cognitive dissonance can be helpful in understandingor promoting behavior change. Researchers have found that differencesbetween attitudes about dating aggression and behaviors resulted in adecrease in dating aggression over time (Schumacher, 2004). In a studyinvolving high school students at risk for eating disorders like anorexiaor bulimia, researchers induced behavior change by creating dissonance (Stice, Rohde, Gau, & Shaw, 2009). The students were part of aprogram where they were asked to engage in behaviors that went against their unhealthy attitudes toward their bodies and food. Forexample, they were asked to write a letter to a young girl about the dangers of the thinness ideal, to share what they like aboutthemselves, and to practice what they would say to others to challenge the thinness ideal. This intervention decreased risk factors in theparticipants for an eating disorder.
Cognitive dissonance has different manifestations across cultures (Hoshino-Browne et al., 2005). Individuals in independent cultures likethe United States are more concerned about their own individual identity and attributes. Therefore, internal consistency is the primarygoal for someone in an independent culture. For example, if Alice had a positive attitude toward children and disliked her neighbor's 4-year-old, she would know these two things were inconsistent. Even if she never told anyone of about her dislike of the child, she wouldstill feel guilty because her attitudes and feelings were inconsistent. Individuals in interdependent cultures, like that found in Japan, aremore concerned about how they fit with the expectations of others—in particular, others that are part of their own group. The approvalof others is, therefore, of great importance.
For interdependent cultures, internal consistency is not as important as consistency between attitudes or behaviors, especially whenothers are going to be appraised of one's behavior. In a study by Shinobu Kitayama and colleagues (Kitayama, Snibbe, Markus, & Suzuki,2004), Japanese and American college students were asked to make judgments that revealed the amount of cognitive dissonance they felt.The Japanese college students showed greater dissonance when they were aware of potential public scrutiny of their choices. When therewas no potential of others being made aware of their choices, dissonance did not appear to come into play. When this study was done onAmerican college students, the results showed that the potential for public scrutiny did not matter. Because the American students wereattempting to be internally consistent, they showed a similar degree of dissonance in both situations. The amount of dissonance theAmerican students showed was not as high as that shown by the Japanese students who thought their choices would be public, but washigher than that of the Japanese students who believed others would not know of their choices.
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
Social Psychology in Depth: Cognitive Dissonance, Children, and Monkeys
Where does cognitive dissonance come from? In investigating the origins of cognitive dissonance social psychologistsinvestigate whether children feel cognitive dissonance, or if it develops later in life. We may also want to know if cognitivedissonance occurs in nonhuman primates, or if it is unique to humans. This would help us understand the potentialevolutionary origin of the phenomenon.
Egan, Sanatos, & Bloom (2007) investigated cognitive dissonance in children and in monkeys. For both populations, theycreated cognitive dissonance by having the child or monkey make a choice between two alternatives, two different stickersfor the children or two different M&M candies for the monkeys. Frequently, when faced with two equally good options, wewill reduce our cognitive dissonance by increasing our liking of our chosen option, and decreasing our liking of the optionwe did not choose.
In this study, the participants made an initial choice and were then asked to make a second choice. The second choiceincluded the option not chosen on the first trial and a new option. Presumably, if cognitive dissonance was at play, theparticipants would have decreased their liking of their un-chosen option and be less likely to choose that option in thesecond trial. For example, if children originally rated stickers with a flower, a bird, and a rainbow equally, they mightinitially be asked if they wanted the flower or the bird sticker more. Having chosen the flower, they would then be asked tochoose between the bird (the option not chosen in the previous trial) and the rainbow. If cognitive dissonance is in play,they should choose the rainbow. The initial choice would have created cognitive dissonance, leading the children to discounttheir liking of the bird sticker to reduce that dissonance. Even though the participants initially liked all three optionsequally, the results showed that after making a choice, they were less likely to choose the option they had not chosen on thefirst trial. The authors proposed that due to the fact this effect is found among young children (4-year-olds) and monkeys,cognitive dissonance may be impacting us before we have much experience in making choices; language and socializationmay not be necessary precursors to cognitive dissonance.
What Is my Attitude?
If attitudes help determine our behaviors, do behaviors ever help us define our attitudes? If you were wondering about your attitudetoward sushi, one place you could look to determine your attitude is your behavior. If you have chosen sushi restaurants over those thatdo not serve sushi and order sushi when you get the chance, you are likely to conclude that you have a positive attitude toward sushi. Ifyou have spent a lot of time making fun of people who eat sushi, you might conclude, looking at these actions, that your attitude towardsushi is negative. This sense that we can figure out our attitudes by looking at our behaviors is the basis of self-perception theory (Bem,1967). Self-perception theory explains how we might form or enhance particular attitudes, while cognitive dissonance theory explainshow our attitudes change.
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An example of self-perception theory is when youassume that you don't like the news just because yourepeatedly change the channel when a news reportcomes on TV.
To evaluate the extent to which our actions influence our attitudes, Zak, Gold,Ryckman, & Lenney (1998) asked 64 dating couples to come to their lab. Eachmember of the couple was asked to provide information on how much they trustedtheir partner. The couples were separated and told one of three things. The first thirdof participants were told that their partner would be dancing with a researchassistant to a Debbie Gibson or Madonna song. These participants were asked if thatwas okay with them—if they trusted their partner to dance with someone else. Thenext third of participants were told they would be dancing with a research assistantto a Debbie Gibson or Madonna song. The researchers told them that their partnerhad been asked if that was all right, and their partner had said yes, they trusted theirsignificant other. The final third of participants, the control group, were told that theirpartner would be listening to music.
The researchers wanted to measure whether acting in a trusting manner, that is,telling the researcher that they trusted their partner to dance with someone else,would increase trust. When the researchers assessed levels of trust at the end of thestudy, they found that both the participants who acted in a trusting way and thosewho were trusted showed an increase in trust when compared to the control group.The biggest change, however, was with the participants who acted in a trusting matter.The act of trusting, it seems, increases trust.
Behavior can be affected in more subtle ways by our self-observations, such as withour relationship to certain colors. The color black is often associated with bad things.This fact is evident in our language. For example, people might be blacklisted orblackmailed, or their reputation might be blackened. Even dark colored chocolate cakeis called devil's food cake. Would members of sports teams in black uniformstherefore observe themselves in that bad color and be more willing to engage inaggressive behavior? Frank and Gilovich (1988) investigated whether what we arewearing has an impact on our actions. They found that individuals who donned black were more willing to engage in aggression,measured by their choice of aggressive games over nonaggressive games, than those who were asked to wear white. National HockeyLeague teams wearing black were more aggressive on the rink than those wearing other colors; that is, members of teams wearing blackspent more time in the penalty box than teams wearing other colors. A similar result was found in online gaming with people whoseavatars were wearing black (Yee & Bailenson, 2009).
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4.3 Explaining the Behavior of Others
Our daily lives present us with situations where we need to explain the behaviors of others. At work, you might want to know if yourboss intended her behavior as encouragement to pursue a raise or as a clue that your job might be in danger. Attributing your friend'slate-night phone call to concern will affect the relationship differently than attributing it to rudeness. Attributions are also involved indeciding the proper punishment of a misbehaving child or a criminal. Attributions—our explanations of the behavior of others andourselves—have been of interest to psychologists for a long time. In 1958, Fritz Heider wrote a book on how we make judgments aboutone another. According to Heider, and others who came after him, we generally explain others' behavior as due either to somethinginternal to the person or to something external to the person.
Imagine you are sitting in a coffee shop waiting for a date you met online. Your date is late. If you decide that your date is inconsiderate,you have made an internal attribution for your date's behavior. When you make an internal attribution, you blame personality, attitudes,or some other dispositional factor for the action. If, on the other hand, you think your date is late because of the traffic or someemergency at work, you have made an external attribution. When you make an external attribution, you attribute situational factors forthe action. We do find differences in the patterns of attributions in different cultures. Generally, individuals from more independentcultures make more internal attributions while those in more interdependent cultures make more external attributions (Triandis, 2001).For example, in the United States, salespeople tend to attribute their performance to internal factors—their sales are due to their hardwork and wonderful people skills. In more interdependent cultures, such as that found in India, attributions tend to be more external—their sales are due to a good customer base (DeCarlo, Agarwal, & Vyas, 2007).
Attributions can make a difference in how we treat people and deal with societal problems. For example, how crime is attributed canimpact how we handle criminals. If a society and the people within that society believe that criminals engage in crime because it wastheir choice or because they have no morals, then that society will lock up its criminals and try to prevent them from ever getting out tooffend again. On the other hand, a society that believes that lack of job opportunities, racism, or peer pressure is primarily to blame forcriminal behavior is likely to offer rehabilitation and education to criminals as well as work to eradicate societal ills (Templeton &Hartnagel, 2012; Unnever, Cullen, & Jones, 2008).
4.4 Fundamental Attribution Error
Daily life offers many opportunities to make attributions. When a neighbor fails to greet or wave at you while passing in the hallway orstreet, you might declare your neighbor rude and unfriendly. Blaming a behavior on a dispositional factor, like rudeness, may not beaccurate. Your neighbor might not have seen you because of the large bag of groceries you were holding, or been distracted by a fight shejust had with her child. When people attribute behavior to dispositional factors when there are clear situational factors at work, they areengaging in correspondence bias, also known as the fundamental attribution error (Gilbert & Malone, 1995; Gilbert, Pelham, & Krull,1988; Jones & Harris, 1967; Ross, Amabile, & Steinmetz, 1977). See Figure 4.3 for an example.
Figure 4.3: The fundamental attribution error
Often when we attribute behavior to dispositional factors, we engage in the fundamental attribution error.
Based on Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (2004). Interactive lectures. In Psychology, Media and Research Update (7th ed., Chapter 8). Retrieved from http://wps.prenhall.com/hss_wade_psychology_7_mru/21/5605/1434950.cw/content/index.html .
In Ross, Amabile, and Steinmetz's (1977) study on the subject, participants were randomly assigned the role of questioner or contestantin a quiz game. The questioners came up with questions from their own storehouse of esoteric knowledge. Depending on the backgroundof the questioners, they might develop questions on geography or cars or breeds of cows or any number of other odd topics. Contestantscompleted the quiz and rated the general knowledge of the questioner. Given the freedom of the questioner to develop difficult questionsfrom any realm, most contestants did not do very well. When rating the general knowledge of the questioner, they overestimated thatknowledge. The contestants overestimated the effect of dispositional factors (knowledge) and underestimated the effect of the situation(freedom to ask any question).
Various factors make the fundamental attribution error more likely. People make the fundamental attribution error more when they arehappy versus when they are sad. Because happy people process less information from their environment, they tend to make quick andeasy decisions about the cause of the behavior of others (Forgas, 1998). The attributions people make with the fundamental attributionerror grow more situational over time. When making an immediate attribution, we tend to show the bias toward dispositionalattributions predicted by the fundamental attribution error. When time has passed, our judgments take the situation into account to agreater degree (Burger & Pavelich, 1994; Truchot, Maure, & Patte, 2003). Over time, then, the power of the fundamental attribution errordiminishes. The likelihood of making the fundamental attribution error also diminishes from young adulthood to middle age. After middleage, the likelihood of making the error begins to increase again (Follett & Hess, 2002).
Fundamental Attribution Error
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The nature of the fundamental attribution error.
Critical Thinking Questions
· Why do people assume that hosts are smarter thancontestants?
· How have you seen the fundamental attributionerror play out in your own life?
There are certainly times when behavior is due to rudeness, so your decisionthat your neighbor is inconsiderate could be appropriate. The fundamentalattribution error is an error because we make these kinds of decisions aboutsomeone's disposition even when clear situational factors are at work. But youdon't make this error, do you? Most people believe themselves to be lessvulnerable to the fundamental attribution error than others, even though we aregenerally similar to others like us in our tendency to make the error (Van Boven,Kamada, & Gilovich, 1999; Van Boven, White, Kamada, & Gilovich, 2003).
One context where the fundamental attribution error is particularly likely is incommunication using a computer. Messages in one's email inbox provide fewcues as to the situation of the writer. Without these cues, it is easy to misjudgedetails about the sender and the message. For example, if you received a messagewith a number of misspellings and grammar mistakes, it is likely you wouldjudge the writer of that message as not very intelligent or competent. Withoutknowing the writer was pressed for time, distracted by a crying child, anddealing with a faulty computer keyboard, you may judge that dispositional, ratherthan situational, factors were at work (Cramton, 2001). It is only when we aremade aware of some of these situational forces that we change our judgments.One study found that when people are told that the sender of an email is from adifferent culture, the email recipients are less harsh in their dispositionaljudgments for language errors like misspellings, although dispositional judgmentsare still made for etiquette errors (Vignovic & Thompson, 2010).
With a name like fundamental attribution error, one would assume that this error is common in all people in all cultures. Not so. Whencomparing European Americans, researchers have found that East Asians are more aware of situational constraints on behavior.
When situations are powerful or easily recognized, East Asians are more likely to attribute behavior to those situational factors (Choi,Nisbett, & Norenzayan, 1999; Miyamoto & Kitayama, 2002; Morris & Peng, 1994). When research participants were told that the personwhose behavior they were evaluating had no choice in his behavior, and simply followed the directions of the experimenter, Koreanparticipants were more likely to take into account the situational constraints on the person, whereas American participants largelyignored the situational factors (Choi & Nisbett, 1998). For example, someone raised in an East Asian culture might say that a person isrude because his parents never taught him manners rather than rude because it is part of his nature. East Asians also think moreholistically about the person (Choi, Nisbett, & Norenzayan, 1999). Even if someone's behavior is blamed on internal factors, these internalfactors are explained situationally. Although the phenomenon came to be known as the fundamental attribution error because so manyresearchers found similar results over a number of years (Jones, 1998), it turns out the fundamental attribution error is not asfundamental as we thought.
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When a driver assumes the personwho cut him off is inconsiderate andincompetent, even though they mayhave had to switch lanes to avoid anaccident, it is an example of thefundamental attribution error.
A related concept to the fundamental attribution error is the actor-observer bias. Thefundamental attribution error suggests that as observers, people discount situational factorsand overestimate dispositional factors. The actor-observer bias expands this tendency to explainour own behavior as actors. Actors tend to make more situational attributions for behavior(Jones & Nisbett, 1972). The situationally based explanations for our own behavior are strongerwhen we are explaining negative rather than positive events (Green & McClearn, 2010). Whenexplaining positive events, like doing well on a test, the self-serving bias leads us to account forour behavior using more dispositional explanations, such as our own intelligence.
Recent research has called into question the traditional formulation of the actor-observer bias.In a meta-analysis, Bertram Malle (2006) found that actors are not more likely to makesituational inference, and observers are not more likely to make dispositional inferences. Actorsand observers do, however, explain behaviors differently. Malle and colleagues (Malle, Knobe, &Nelson, 2007) proposed an asymmetry in explanations based in different desires and differentknowledge. Actors know the reasons behind a decision and are motivated to present themselves as rational people. Imagine Jill cleaned out the work refrigerator and in the process threw outseveral people's lunches. She would describe her action as due to the boss's request to clean therefrigerator, the lack of clear markings on containers about who they belonged to, and heroverall helpfulness in keeping the office clean.
Observers can only guess at the reasons for a behavior and must instead rely on their generalknowledge of situations and their ability to mentally simulate the thought process of the actor.
Observers have no particular need to present the actor in a positive light. Jill's coworkers might explain her actions as irrational, makingthe argument that the refrigerator did not need to be cleaned and Jill should not throw out things that do not belong to her. Thecoworkers would describe Jill's actions as due to her rude and inconsiderate nature. Observers are more likely to distance themselvesfrom an actor's actions by making note of a belief or motive rather than just the reason itself. Jill might say, "The food in the refrigeratorwas old; that's why I threw it out." A coworker would say, "Jill believed the food in the refrigerator was old; that's why she threw it out."Malle and colleagues' explanations for differences between actors and observers provide a more nuanced approach to these differencesand help explain inconsistencies in past research.
Test Yourself
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Which of these people may have made the fundamental attribution error?
· Janelle believes the clown she hired for her son's birthday party is a happy and joyful person.
4.5 Explanations and our Behavior
As we make attributions day after day, we may develop patterns for making these judgments. These patterns then influence how weapproach others and react to events. Two of the major patterns investigated by researchers are those surrounding whether we explainevents in an optimistic or pessimistic way and the extent to which we expect hostility from others in our interactions. The attributions wemake are influenced by our need to fit in with others but also by our need to differentiate and stand out from the crowd. However, wetend to overestimate the amount we stand out and are noticed by others. The behaviors we engage in are influenced by these variouspatterns of attributions.
Optimistic and Pessimistic Explanatory Styles
Every day we interpret the actions of others and the events that occur. As we do so, we may fall into a certain pattern of explanation. Onepattern of attributions is optimistic and leads us to expect positive outcomes from our interactions. Another pattern is more pessimisticand leads us to expect negative outcomes from our interactions. Consider how you would explain these two events: your datecomplimenting you on your appearance and your inability to find a job. According to researchers, you have three decisions to make asyou interpret those events (Seligman & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987; Seligman & Schulman, 1986). When you are explaining a compliment youreceive, you could assume the other person was just having a good day and complimented everyone. On the other hand, you couldassume that the compliment was prompted by your own appearance. In this case you are attributing the compliment to either an externalcause, something about the other person or the circumstance, or an internal cause, something about you. Your second choice involveswhether you consider the compliment to be an event that will likely never or rarely happen again, like a free makeover you just had, orsomething that will always be around, your attractive face. In this case, you are making an attribution that is either unstable, meaningthat the cause is there rarely or only some of the time, or stable, meaning that the cause is always there. You need to decide whether thecompliment just applies to your present appearance at the mall where you got the makeover, or whether you will likely get complimentsin all situations in your life. In this case you are making a decision of whether the cause is specific, applying only in this particularsituation, or global, applying to all situations. Putting this all together: When you decide on the cause for a behavior or event, you decidewhether it is external or internal, unstable or stable, and specific or global.
People tend to have relatively stable patterns in making such decisions. These patterns characterize a person's explanatory style. If youreceived a compliment, what kind of attribution do you think would make you feel the best? If you consider the cause of the complimentto be internal (something about you), stable (something that will always be there), and global (something that will be found in allsituations), you are likely to feel better about yourself.
Would the same be true in explaining long-term unemployment? If you think about a negative event like long-term unemployment, anexplanation that will make you feel best about yourself is one that says the cause is external (something about the job market), unstable(a job market that will change), and specific (applies only to the job market).
People with an optimistic explanatory style show exactly this pattern. Someone who is optimistic will explain positive events asinternal, stable, and global. Negative events, on the other hand, will be explained as external, unstable, and specific.
Individuals with a pessimistic explanatory style have exactly the opposite pattern. Pessimistic people generally blame themselves fornegative events and believe those events are typical of what is likely to happen in many aspects of their lives. They also tend to imaginesuch events continuing in the future. Optimistic people generally blame outside influences for negative events and interpret these eventsas temporary. See Figure 4.4 for examples of how optimists and pessimists may respond to certain events.
Figure 4.4: Explanatory style
Optimistic people see bad events in the same way as pessimistic people see good events. Conversely, pessimisticpeople see bad events in the same way as optimistic people see good events.
Optimistic explanatory style is related to more positive well-being in both younger and older adults (Forgeard & Seligman, 2012; Mohanty& Begum, 2012). Individuals with optimistic explanatory styles are more likely to persist in the face of failure. This can be seen in thecase of sales agents. Sales agents experience a lot of failure, as the majority of their potential clients say no to their product. Researchersassessed the explanatory style of beginning life insurance agents using a questionnaire and followed them to see how much life insurancethey would sell and how long they would remain in their jobs (Seligman & Schulman, 1986). Those agents who were most optimistic soldthe most insurance. At the end of the first year, those who were the most optimistic were twice as likely to still be selling insurance.
In contrast, individuals with a pessimistic explanatory style are more likely to get sick when they encounter stressful events (Bennett &Elliott, 2005; Jackson, Sellers, & Peterson, 2002). Pessimistic explanatory styles have been linked to depression and suicide (Hirsch,Wolford, LaLonde, Brunk, & Parker-Morris, 2009; Peterson & Seligman, 1984). When people with negative explanatory styles encounter abad event, like losing a job, they are likely to explain it as due to something about them, such as having unmarketable skills—somethingthat will always be there, such as no one will ever hire someone with their skills, and something that is global, such as that all of theirskills are useless. These explanations lead to a state of learned helplessness. Learned helplessness occurs when we have acquiredthrough our experiences a sense that no matter what we do, our actions will not have a positive impact on negative experiences(Seligman & Maier, 1967). When a job loss is explained as internal, stable, and global, it is unlikely anything the person does will changethe situation; so giving up is the most rational response to the problem.
Expand Your Knowledge: Martin Seligman
Martin Seligman, a prominent researcher in the area ofexplanatory style, has a website dedicated to his research.The website is primarily focused on his work on positivepsychology, but some references to work on explanatorystyle and learned helplessness are provided.
Seligman's website: http://www.ppresearch.sas.upenn.edu/.
Opportunities to participate in Seligman's ongoingresearch are available. Seligman is known for his work onexplanatory style, so there may be some related to thematerial within the text. Seligman also does research inthe area of positive psychology, studying humanflourishing.
Negative explanatory styles are linked to poorer academic performance(Peterson & Barrett, 1987). Researchers found that first-year universitystudents who interpreted negative events as internal, stable, and globalreceived lower grades. These lower grades seemed to be due to areluctance to seek help when struggling (why do so if you believe yourpoor performance is due to your lack of intelligence?) and a lack ofacademic goal setting. Similarly, college students with a pessimisticexplanatory style were less likely to actively deal with their symptomswhen they got ill, prolonging or exacerbating their illnesses (Lin &Peterson, 1990).
Pessimism does not always link to poor performance. In a longitudinalstudy of law students, researchers assessed explanatory style with asurvey at the beginning of law school and revisited the studentsthroughout their time in school (Satterfield, Monahan, & Seligman,1997). The students with a more pessimistic style at the beginning ofschool ended up with higher grade point averages and did better inpublishing in law journals. The difference may come from the fact thatthe law students had already proven to be resilient in the face ofproblems, given their ability to get into law school, as well as a profession that rewards skepticism and cautious decision making.
Social Psychology in Depth: Attribution, Story, and Depression
Lewis J Merrim/Photo Researchers/Getty Images
As part of their study, Peterson and Ulrey gave participantsThematic Apperception Tests. Subjects were given anambiguous scene and asked to describe what was happeningin the scene.
Our explanations for behavior influence how we feel aboutourselves. Adler, Kissel, and McAdams (2006) interviewed adultswithin the community, asking them to tell about eight differentepisodes in their life (e.g., childhood memory, high point, lowpoint) as well as themes they saw in their life and how theywould divide their life into chapters. When the researchers lookedat attributions made in the stories, they found that whenindividuals explained negative events in their stories as stable andglobal, they were more likely to report symptoms of depression ina depression scale. Keep in mind that these were attributions thatappeared spontaneously and were not solicited by the researchersthrough a questionnaire or direct questions.
Depression was also related to contamination sequences instories. A contamination sequence occurs when a story beginswell but is ruined or spoiled by negative events. For example,someone might tell a story about a fun day at the beach that wasspoiled by a fight and ended in a car ride home in stony silence. The presence of these types of stories independentlypredicted depression, apart from attributional style.
Other evidence linking stories with attributional style and depression was found by Peterson and Ulrey (1994). In theirstudy, they showed people pictures of ambiguous scenes and asked them to describe what was happening in the picture.The researchers then analyzed the stories that were told. They found that individuals who used a negative attributionalstyle to tell stories explaining the events were at greater risk for depression. We may often think of depression as simplyfeeling bad about oneself and the world, but these studies reveal that depression is related to the way we view and describethe world around us.
Test Yourself
For each of the following indicate whether the explanation is internal or external, stable or unstable, global or specific. Clickon each explanation below to reveal the answer.
A Hostile World
Some individuals view the world as a hostile place. In making judgments about the actions of others, we can decide that others engagedin those actions to deliberately harm us. People who chronically make these kinds of judgments have a hostile attribution of intent,sometimes called hostile attribution bias (de Castro, Veerman, Koops, Bosch, & Monshouwer, 2002). If you believe someone hasdeliberately stepped on your toes or cut in front of you in line, your reaction is likely to be different than if you believe these actions wereunintentional. Hostile attribution of intent does tend to lead to more aggressive behavior, at least in children, where this has been studiedthe most (de Castro et al., 2002). One source of these attributions may be peer interactions or interactions in the home. Freeman andcolleagues (Freeman, Hadwin, & Halligan, 2011) conducted a study in which kids in their early teenage years communicated with hostileor non-hostile teens in an online chat room. Some of the teens from this chat room explained behavior of others in a hostile way, but forothers the explanations were more benign. For example, when explaining why a group of unknown kids stood up when approached, somesaid it was a desire to defend territory, a hostile attribution. For others a more nonthreatening explanation was given—that the kids weregoing to give a greeting. The teens that interacted with more hostile peers were more likely to make hostile attributions.
For children, a rejection by their peers can activate the hostile attribution of intent and lead to aggressive action. Kids who thought othersrejected a personal profile they posted online believed that others had more hostile intent toward them and were angrier and moreaggressive toward the rejecters (Reijntjes et al., 2011). Family also plays a role. Negative interactions within the home are related to morehostile attributions (Bickett, Milich, & Brown, 1996; Gomez & Gomez, 2000). For example, parents who reported using harsh disciplinetactics had children with more hostile interaction goals and more aggressive behavior (Heidgerken, Hughes, Cavell, & Willson, 2004).Children's exposure to violent video games also increases hostile attributions, both immediately after they play and over time (Hasan,Bégue, Scharkow, & Bushman, 2013).
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Just Like Everybody Else
As we observe others, we look for clues concerning what they think or feel. One way in which we fill in the gaps of our knowledge is tooverestimate the extent to which people have similar interests and preferences, a phenomenon called the false consensus effect. Forexample, we assume that our friend will love going to our favorite coffee shop; we love the place, surely our friend will as well!
When research participants were asked about something they liked, such as movies or particular types of music, and then asked toestimate the degree to which others like those things, they tended to overestimate the extent to which their own preferences are sharedby other people (Gilovich, 1990; Ross, Greene, & House, 1977). False consensus is stronger for our likes than our dislikes (Gershoff,Mukherjee, & Mukhopadhyay, 2008). We more easily come up with reasons for liking what we like, so we may overestimate how commonthose opinions are (Mullen et al., 1985). We engage in the false consensus effect for a wide variety of opinions, from favorite ice creamsundae toppings or movie posters (Gershoff et al., 2008) to favorite celebrities (Bui, 2012), from sexual behavior (Whitley, 1998) to illegaldrug use among both college students and elite athletes (Dunn, Thomas, Swift, & Burns, 2012; Wolfson, 2000).
False consensus comes, in part, from selective exposure to others that are like us and agree with us (Whitley, 1998). Online groups areone way people connect with others who are like-minded. Being part of one of these groups may increase false consensus by giving one afeeling that there are many people who share one's opinions, even though there may be few in the general population (Wojcieszak, 2008,2011). When trying to estimate how many other people share our opinions, instances where we remember others agreeing with us (e.g., Ilike cats too!) more easily come to mind and may therefore lead us to overestimate how many others do agree (Marks & Miller, 1987;Mullen et al., 1985). Another source of our overestimations comes from our desire to see ourselves as part of the group (Marks & Miller,1987; Sherman, Presson, & Chassin, 1984). People who have a greater need to belong show a greater tendency toward false consensus(Morrison & Matthes, 2011). In a desire to see our behavior as normal, we may overestimate the extent to which others are engaging inthat behavior. For example, college women who were sexually experienced gave higher, and less accurate, assessments of peer sexualbehavior; the further their own behavior was from the norm, the higher their estimates of their peers' behavior (Whitley, 1998).
False consensus may lead us to make judgments about others that can create later problems. For example, not knowing if your onlinedate likes the singer Beyoncé or not, you may simply assume he or she does because you do. This can make additional conversations andface-to-face meetings problematic when one's illusions about the other person's thoughts and attitudes are revealed (Bridges, 2012;Finkel, Eastwick, Karney, Reis, & Sprecher, 2012). Even more serious, false consensus has been shown to lead to inaccurate judgmentsabout HIV risk in intimate relationships (Harman, O'Grady, & Wilson, 2009). If judgments based on false consensus translate into riskybehavior, severe consequences can result.
In contrast, we also have behaviors or beliefs that we view as unique. The tendency for people to underestimate the extent to which theiropinions or behaviors are shared by others is the uniqueness bias, or the false uniqueness effect. This underestimation usually involvesbeliefs or behaviors that are desirable or a source of pride. When we perceive our attributes to be more unique than they really are, wemake ourselves feel even better about our rare and wonderful qualities. For example, if you give blood on a regular basis, you mayunderestimate the number of people who also give blood so that you feel particularly virtuous (Allison, Messick, & Goethals, 1989;Goethals, 1986; Monin & Norton, 2003).
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· When are we likely to find the greatest false consensus?
What do Others See?
When people feel a strong emotion, they often overestimate others' ability to discern that emotion. For example, if your new romanticinterest baked you terrible-tasting cookies, your feeling of disgust as you ate them might not be as clear to your date as you think it is(Gilovich, Savitsky, & Medvec, 1998; Holder & Hawkins, 2007). This tendency to believe that our thoughts or feelings can be more clearlyseen by others than they actually are is called the illusion of transparency. If you have ever been surprised that a family member didnot know you were upset or that your boss did not notice how hard you worked, blame the illusion of transparency (Gilovich & Savitsky,1999). Because we believe those we are closest to can read us well, or at least better than others can, we are more likely to have anillusion of transparency among those we know well, such as a friend or romantic partner (Kudo, 2007). This principle also applies to ourbeliefs about our ability to lie. People generally believe that their lies are easier to spot than they actually are (Gilovich, Savitsky, &Medvec, 1998; Rai, Mitchell, & Faelling, 2012). In truth, the emotions or behaviors that we thought were so apparent to others are not soclear.
Evidence for the illusion of transparency has proven helpful to those who suffer from speech anxiety. Although most people who sufferfrom speech anxiety believe their anxiety is evident to the audience, most people listening to a speech are unaware of the extent of theanxiety the speaker suffers. After realizing this, those high in speech anxiety gave better speeches (Savitsky & Gilovich, 2003). The viciouscycle of being anxious, believing others know we are anxious, and therefore becoming more anxious can be broken by knowledge of thisillusion.
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Sometimes you might feel that everyone notices your behaviors orappearance, when in reality, most people aren't paying attention.This is called the spotlight effect.
Along with our illusion of transparency comes a sense that others areaware of our triumphs and our trials. This tendency to believe that othersnotice our behaviors and appearance to a greater extent than theyactually do is known as the spotlight effect. Imagine you arrange to meeta new friend at a restaurant. When you get to the restaurant, you realizeyou have a spot of spaghetti sauce on your sleeve. Although you believeyour friend will quickly zero in on the spilled sauce, the likelihood is thatperson is too focused on making a good impression to notice such a smallspot.
In one study of the spotlight effect, college students were asked to don aT-shirt with a depiction of Barry Manilow on the front. Manilow is asinger-songwriter who is well known but not very popular with collegestudents. The Manilow T-shirt was chosen because college studentsreported that they would be embarrassed to be known as a Manilow fan.After the students had put on the shirt, they were brought to a roomwhere other students were working, staying there briefly before leavingagain. After leaving the room, the students were asked how many of theother students noticed their T-shirt. The T-shirt wearers believed, onaverage, that about 45% of the people in the room would notice their Manilow shirt. The other students were also asked if they noticedthe Manilow shirt. Of the students in the room, on average, just over 20% of the students actually did notice (Gilovich, Medvic, & Savitsky,2000).
Along with this sense that we are noticed, we generally believe that others judge us more harshly than they actually do. For example, ifyou accidentally set off an alarm by taking the fire exit as you left a university library, you might assume everyone thinks you are stupid.While there may be a few who think so, the vast majority of students are much less harsh in their judgments and are likely to besympathetic to your plight (Savitsky, Epley, & Gilovich, 2001). Embarrassment caused by the behavior of a friend or relative is also oftenmore acutely felt than is necessary. When someone we are known to be associated with makes a blunder, others generally do not connectthat action with us, contrary to what we might think (Fortune & Newby-Clark, 2008). Just because your brother picks his nose in publicdoes not mean that others think you are disgusting by association.
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· Why is the illusion of transparency called an illusion?
Conclusion
Our lives are full of things that demand explanation. People form attitudes by evaluating the things and objects in their environment.Although we may not always be aware of the attitudes we hold, they may still affect our behavior. These attitudes can be helpful inpredicting our behavior, although many other factors come into play. Our attitudes can change because of our behavior (as in cognitivedissonance theory), or be formed because of our behavior (as in self-perception theory). As we make judgments, our attributions tend tofollow certain patterns. Those patterns can be fairly common across a culture, as is so with the fundamental attribution error, or be basedon our experiences in life, as is so with the hostile attribution of intent.
Chapter Summary
Definition of Attitudes
Attitudes involve an evaluation of an entity or behavior. Attitudes can be placed on a continuum from weak to strong, and on a continuumfrom positive to negative. When people report on an attitude, they are describing an attitude that they are consciously aware of, called anexplicit attitude. Attitudes that emerge from automatic processes are implicit attitudes. Implicit attitudes can be assessed with the ImplicitAssociation Test (IAT).
Behavior and Attitudes
Attitudes and behaviors are often misaligned. We are more likely to see an agreement between attitude and behavior when the attitude isaccessible and it matches the behavior in level of specificity, the behavior is easy to perform, and social pressures support an alignment.The theory of planned behavior allows for the prediction of behaviors from attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.Cognitive dissonance theory proposes that when our attitudes and behaviors do not match up and we have insufficient justification, weare likely to change our attitude. Self-perception theory involves figuring out our attitudes from observing our own behavior.
Explaining the Behavior of Others
When making attributions, we attempt to explain the behavior of others. Internal attributions involve attributing an action to somethinginternal to the person, such as personality. When we make external attributions, on the other hand, we attribute actions to somethingoutside the person, such as current circumstances. When we make internal attributions despite plausible external causes we are makingthe fundamental attribution error. The actor-observer bias adds the idea that as actors we point to situational factors in our behavior.
Explanations and Our Behavior
Our habitual patterns of making attributions can vary in terms of whether we make an internal versus external, a stable versus unstable,and a global versus specific attribution. When we make internal, stable, and global attributions for positive things, and external, unstable,and specific attributions for negative things, we are showing an optimistic explanatory style. Pessimistic explanatory styles are directlyopposite optimistic styles. Patterns of attributions can also involve how much hostility one expects from others and therefore sees inactions, known as hostile attribution of intent. At times we overestimate the extent to which our attributions or abilities are shared,engaging in false consensus. At times we overestimate how rare our abilities or beliefs are, engaging in false uniqueness. With an illusionof transparency we think that when others look at us they see more than they actually do.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. How might making the fundamental attribution error affect your relationships? Are there times when the effect might be positive andtimes when the effect might be negative?
2. Within your own cultural tradition, is the fundamental attribution error common?
3. An optimistic explanatory style was represented as generally positive for well-being and persistence. When might an optimisticexplanatory style be detrimental to a person?
4. The text points out one positive to knowing about the illusion of transparency, lower speech anxiety. What might be some negativeeffects of knowing about the illusion? In other words, why might it be good for us to believe others see more than they actually do?
5. If implicit attitudes are something we are not even aware of, do they matter?
6. What other influences on attitudes and behaviors might researchers study?
7. If you were to add a factor to the theory of planned behavior, what might it be? What additional variable might be added to betterpredict behavior?
8. Have you ever had an experience where your attitudes and actions did not match? Did you do any of the things suggested to reducecognitive dissonance?
Chapter 5
Making Judgments
©2012 NBCUniversal Media, LLC/NBCU Photo Bank via Getty Images/NBCUinversal/Getty Images
Learning Objectives
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
· Contrast conscious and automatic processes
· Define schemas and scripts and discuss their importance
· Describe the value of heuristics
· Identify and explain the availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic, and affect heuristic
· Describe how the conjunction fallacy and the base rate fallacy contribute to errors in judgment
· Define belief perseverance, confirmation bias, and illusion of control
· Describe how the self-fulfilling prophecy can affect behavior
Chapter Outline
5.1 Conscious and Automatic Processes
5.2 Schemas and Scripts
· Schemas
· Scripts
5.3 Heuristics
· Availability Heuristic
· Representativeness Heuristic
· Affect Heuristic
5.4 Errors in Judgment
· Belief Perseverance
· Confirmation Bias
· Illusion of Control
5.5 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Chapter Summary
5.1 Conscious and Automatic Processes
When you make a decision do you weigh your options, carefully sorting out pros from cons? Have you ever made a decision because youhad a gut feeling? Psychologists believe that our cognitive processes operate at two levels: the conscious and the automatic. The thoughtprocesses we are aware of and tend to direct are on the conscious level. We might involve conscious thought when we make a decision bycarefully weighing our options. Processes that are done without our intention or awareness, such as when we make a decision based onour gut feeling, occur on the automatic level. Researchers have called these principles a variety of names, but they all focus on some kindof rational, conscious process and another more emotional or experientially-based unconscious process (Epstein, 1994; Kahneman, 2003;Peters, Hess, Vastfjall, & Auman, 2007; Reyna, 2004).
Table 5.1 summarizes the basic differences between these systems. As you can see from the table, the processing of the automaticsystem is something that we are generally not aware of. It processes or interprets stimuli that come from our environment, and when ithas completed processing or gets stuck, something researchers call disfluency, it alerts the conscious system (Alter, Oppenheimer, Epley, &Eyre, 2007). The capacity of the conscious system is much smaller than that of the automatic system but it is a system we can direct.The unconscious system may be processing something you are not interested in working on; it is only the conscious system that allowsyou to deliberately focus on a particular idea, situation, or problem.
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Table 5.1: Characteristics of the automatic and conscious systems |
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|
Automatic System |
Conscious System |
|
Fast |
Slow |
|
Outside of conscious awareness |
Within conscious awareness |
|
Effortless |
Effortful |
|
Large capacity |
Limited capacity |
|
May do many tasks at once |
Limited to very few tasks at once |
|
Imprecise, general responses |
Nuanced responses |
Sometimes these systems conflict with one another. An example of the conscious and the unconscious system working against oneanother can be seen in the Stroop Color–Word Task (Stroop, 1935). In this task, people are asked to identify the color in which letters orwords are printed. When the letters are meaningless, such as the lines of Xs in Column 1 of Table 5.2, the task is easy and people gothrough the list quickly. However, when the letters spell a color that is not the same as the color of the ink, people tend to stumble. Thetime it takes someone to go through the second list is much longer than the time it takes to go through the first list. The reason for this isthe fact that reading color words is a well-practiced skill for most adults; most of us read the word whether we want to or not. When thetwo do not match, there is a fight between the automatic system, which says "Green! The word is green!" and the conscious system, whichfocuses on the color of the blue ink (although, not everyone agrees with this interpretation; see Besner, Stolz, & Boutilier, 1997). Thisslower response when dealing with two conflicting stimuli is called the Stroop effect. The Stroop effect was named after J. R. Stroop whodeveloped the task in the 1930s and wrote about the phenomenon. Since then, a variety of other tasks have been developed that havesimilar findings (MacLeod, 1991).
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Table 5.2: The Stroop color–word task |
|
|
For each column identify the color of the ink in which the letters are written. For example, in the firstcolumn the first set of letters is red. |
|
|
Column 1 |
Column 2 |
|
XXXX |
Green |
|
XXXX |
Blue |
|
XXXX |
Red |
|
XXXX |
Blue |
|
XXXX |
Brown |
|
XXXX |
Red |
|
XXXX |
Green |
Expand Your Knowledge: Stroop Effect
To try out the Stroop effect for yourself by clicking here .The program will time you as you identify the ink colorin two different tasks. You can compare those times tosee if naming an ink color in a contrasting color wordslows you down.
The conscious and automatic systems do work together at times.Imagine you are at a busy and boisterous bar and are talking with asmall group of people. Suddenly, in the next group over you hear yourname being spoken. You were not actively listening for your name andwere engrossed in your conversation, yet, you somehow heard it. Thisoften occurs when we recognize our own name or other self-relevantinformation amidst other distracting stimuli without consciouslylistening for it (Moray, 1959; Wood & Cowan, 1995). In this scenario,our conscious system is oblivious to what those in the other group aretalking about, but your automatic system is monitoring what is goingon around you. When your name is spoken, your unconscious systemalerts the conscious system to pay attention and suddenly you are straining to hear what is being said about you (Alexopoulos, Muller,Ric, & Marendaz, 2012; MacLeod, 1998). Similarly, our own faces jump out at us from a sea of others faces; you may have noticed thisphenomenon if you have ever looked at a group picture and quickly noticed your own face (Tacikowski & Nowicka, 2010).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· What are some characteristics of the conscious system?
· What are some characteristics of the unconscious system?
5.2 Schemas and Scripts
Our automatic system allows us to make shortcuts and come to conclusions without taxing the conscious system (Shah & Oppenheimer,2008). In fact, when our resources are depleted we are more likely to use the shortcuts offered by the automatic system (Masicampo &Baumeister, 2008). The automatic system has two ways of doing this; one focuses on things like objects or people, while the other focuseson events, what they include, and how they are sequenced.
Schemas
Figure 5.1: Schemas
Your schema for a baseball game may include a baseballdiamond, a salute to the American flag, and peanuts.
Dorling Kindersley RF/Thinkstock, iStockphoto/Thinkstock,iStockphoto/Thinkstock
Chapter 2 introduced the idea of schemas as knowledge structures that organizewhat we know and that can affect how we process information. Self-schemas areknowledge structures about the self, but we can have schemas about many otherthings in our world, such as animals, objects, places, and concepts (see Figure 5.1).When we are making judgments, schemas may affect those judgments. Forexample, a boss might have a schema about an employee as a good, reliableworker. If that employee is late one day, the boss makes a different judgment aboutthat employee than she would if the boss had a schema about that employee aslazy and irresponsible. Because of the positive schema about her employee, theboss might also quickly remember the employee's contributions to past projects,eventually concluding that the employee had a good reason to be late. Whileschemas can help us remember things by organizing them into preconceivedstructures, they may also create false memories for us (Lampinen, Copeland, &Neuschatz, 2001). If you were to sit in a professor's office for several minutes andthen, outside of the office hours later were asked what you saw in that office, yourschema could help you answer. You expect to see bookshelves with books, a desk, acomputer, a stapler, and some pens in a professor's office. As you remember what was in the office, your existing schema might help youremember that you saw a bookshelf. But the schema may lead you to remember something that was not there. If you expected to see astapler, you might report that a stapler was there, even if it was not.
Schemas
00:00
00:00
How schemas influence behavior.
Critical Thinking Questions
· Why are schemas considered a fundamental partof social psychology?
· How does a victim's schema put people at a higherrisk of being victimized?
Schemas can also help us remember items because they violate a schema. If youwere to see a stuffed teddy bear in a professor's office, you might rememberand recall it because it was outside of your typical professor's-office schema.This type of effect may have serious consequences when we examine the role ofschemas in eyewitness testimony in court. Researchers have found that schemasfor crimes can influence the details people remember about crimes they witness(Tuckey & Brewer, 2003). For example, you would expect a bank robbery toinclude a thief with a bag; a bag is a schema-consistent element. You would notexpect the thief to wear bright clothing; bright clothing is a schema-inconsistentelement. People tend to be accurate about schema-relevant and schema-inconsistent information. Information that is irrelevant to the schema is mostlikely to be forgotten.
Schemas can be fairly broad, applicable in a wide variety of situations or with awide variety of objects or people, or relatively narrow, being very specific to oneor two objects, people, or situations. Broader schemas take us longer to learn, aswe encounter different ways to think about and view a particular entity orproblem. But these broader schemas may allow us to be more flexible (Chen &Mo, 2004). For example, as a child you might have learned the concept ofsharing toys and applied it when playing at home with friends. But, if you wereprovided with examples of a variety of ways to share over the course of yourlife, including sharing resources and time with others, you may be more able torecognize when someone needed your help and know how to provide it.
Scripts
How do you know what to do when you go into a restaurant? How do you know what is expected on a first date? In our lives it is helpfulto know how to act and respond in social situations. Psychologists call expected series of events scripts, like the scripts in a movie orplay that tell the actors what is going to occur next. Scripts can be very helpful to us. When a restaurant follows a script, both the serverand the diner know what to do and what is expected of them without having to discuss the process. If you have ever lived or traveled in adifferent country, or if you are part of a distinctive subculture in your own country, you know that others do things differently. Forexample, in Chinese culture when someone shows admiration for something done well, the appropriate response in the Chinese socialscript is to respond with modesty. According to the script, the admirer's next response should show even greater admiration for theaccomplishment (Han, 2011). If you are new to a culture or situation, you may find yourself confused and unsure. In those kinds ofsituations you may feel like everyone knows what is going on but you—you do not know the script.
©Getty Images/Hemera Technologies/AbleStock.com/Thinkstock
Adhering to your script of grocery shopping, what might occur next in thesequence of events? What next event would violate your script for groceryshopping?
In a dating scenario between a heterosexual couple, it is likely the man will pick the woman up at her home for the first date, they will goto a restaurant, talk about their lives, hope to impress one another, and perhaps then attend a movie. The man will likely offer to pay forboth the dinner and the movie. Not all first dates follow this pattern, but many do (Eaton & Rose, 2012; Laner & Ventrone, 2000). Likeschemas, we use scripts to make sense of and organize our experience. Schemas involve our expectations for things or concepts, whilescripts involve our expectations for events or sequences of events.
Dating scripts can be quite detailed and can include behaviors that are different for men and women. In a 1989 study, undergraduatestudents listed 19 different actions that women would engage in and 27 different actions for men. Most of these students agreed on whatbelonged in the script, indicating that scripts are shared within a culture (Rose & Frieze, 1989). Students noted that certain foods weredate foods and others were not; foods that could be eaten neatly, foods that were not too smelly, and foods that were not likely to causebad breath were suggested date foods (Amiraian & Sobal, 2009). Dating scripts go beyond the first date, implicating how a relationshipshould develop over time. When partners share a script for how the relationship should develop, they show greater relationshipsatisfaction (Holmberg & MacKenzie, 2002). For example, if both partners expect to call one another daily and go out on a date everyFriday night, each will be more satisfied than if one is expecting only a couple phone calls a week and a date every other Saturday night.
The effects of scripts on our lives are not always benign or helpful. A script that supports risky sexual behavior, such as not using acondom, may lead to high-risk behavior and, therefore, increased rates of infection with sexually transmitted diseases (Bowleg, Lucas, &Tschann, 2004; Hussen, Bowleg, Sangaramoorthy, & Malebranche, 2012). Sexual scripts come from parents, peers, school, television andthe movies, as well as pornography (Hussen, et al., 2012). Sexual scripts might also be learned from romance novels. Such novelsgenerally have very similar sexual scripts and these scripts have changed little over the last 20 years (Menard & Cabrera, 2011). A sexualscript includes when and where a couple has sex. For example, some might expect sex after a few dates while others may need to knowtheir partner for months or be engaged or married before engaging in sexual intercourse. Partners might expect to have sex in a bed inone of their bedrooms or in some other location in their living space, their car, or in a hotel. The script will also include elements of theencounter itself such as who initiates sex, length of foreplay, type of activities expected in foreplay, and the use of condoms or otherbarriers that reduce the risk of sexually transmitted diseases or pregnancy.
The ability to describe a script or put events in a script in the correct order seems to lie in the frontal lobe of the brain, directly behindthe forehead. People with brain damage to this part of the brain sometimes show difficulties with scripts (Grafman, 1989). Our ability towork with scripts can also be influenced by age. Older adults had more difficulty correctly ordering extensive scripts than younger adults(Allain et al., 2007). For example, an older adult may have more difficulty accurately describing the sequence of events needed to changea flat tire.
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· How are schemas and scripts similar?
· How might schemas lead to false or mistaken memories?
5.3 Heuristics
Quick processing is a theme of our cognitive systems. As discussed, schemas help us keep information organized and can help in memory,and scripts help us know what to do without expending a lot of energy trying to figure out what is appropriate in a given situation. Whenmaking judgments we also attempt to get quick answers. The shortcuts we use in making judgments are heuristics. If you were havingtrouble answering an abstract problem, you might try to think about it concretely, or draw a picture in an attempt to answer the questionquickly, without further taxing your cognitive system. Just as schemas and scripts can be helpful to us, heuristics can also be helpful—weare likely to quickly come up with a pretty good answer. But just as schemas can cause us to remember something was there when it wasnot, heuristics can lead to incorrect judgments. Researchers who evaluate heuristics most often focus on what happens when heuristicsfail us and we make incorrect judgments. Despite the problems they sometimes create, heuristics quickly provide us with a good-enoughanswer most of the time.
Heuristics
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Heuristics and their impact on our lives.
Critical Thinking Questions
· How do heuristics function in daily life?
· How are heuristics studied in social psychology?
Availability Heuristic
Are there more words in the English language that begin with the letter "R," orthat have the letter "R" as the third letter of the word? Tversky and Kahneman(1973) asked participants in their study to respond to this question. Most peopleresponded that there are more words with "R" as the first letter, estimating thatthere are about twice as many with "R" as the first letter than with "R" as thethird letter. How do people make this judgment? If you solved this like mostpeople do, you thought briefly about how many words you knew that had "R" asthe first letter (relatives, rainbow, rich, run). Then you thought about how manywords you knew that had "R" as the third letter (park, more, marshmallow). Asyou made those calculations, you realized that you were able to come up withmany more words with "R" as the first letter than "R" as the third letter. Wordsstarting with "R" were more available to you in your memory.
Making a judgment this way, you and the research participants were using theavailability heuristic. The availability heuristic involves the tendency to makejudgments about the frequency of something or the likelihood of an eventoccurring by considering how available it was in memory. Instances that comemore easily to mind, and thus are more available, are judged to be more likely. Asnoted earlier, these strategies often get us the right answer, but in the case of theposition of the "R" our judgment is wrong. There are actually more words in the English language with "R" as the third letter than "R" asthe first letter. Often this type of judgment will provide you with the right answer, but, as in this instance, there is room for error.
We can apply this to other realms and other experiences. How successful is online dating? Many people will tell you about a cousin orcoworker who met and is happily married to someone found on an online dating site. You may have such a story yourself. But how oftendo you hear the stories about unsuccessful searchers who gave up on online dating in frustration? Occasionally, perhaps, but because wehear more of the happily-ever-after stories and fewer stories of frustration, many of us assume online dating is successful for the majorityof those who engage in it.
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
· Why does the availability heuristic have the word availability in its name?
Representativeness Heuristic
"Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issuesof discrimination and social justice, and also participated in antinuclear demonstrations" (Tversky & Kahneman, 1983, p. 297). Which ofthe following is more likely?
1. Linda is a bank teller.
2. Linda is a bank teller and active in the feminist movement.
If you are like most people you chose answer b. Why? Most people say they chose b because Linda sounds to them like someone whowould be active in the feminist movement who happens to be a bank teller rather than just a stereotypical bank teller. If you answeredthis way, for this reason, you were using something called the representativeness heuristic. The representativeness heuristic involvesmaking decisions based on how similar someone or something is to the typical, or representative, person or situation. Because Lindaseems like your typical vision of someone in the feminist movement, you choose b.
Expand Your Knowledge: Heuristic Simulation
Want to think more about the representativeness andavailability heuristics? You can participate in simulationsof heuristics at http://cat.xula.edu/thinker/decisions/heuristics/ . Otherheuristics are described as well. After making your ownjudgments, you can read about usual answers andexplanations for these answers.
The representativeness heuristic will often get you to the right answerwhen you are making quick decisions. But in the above example, Lindais more likely to be just a bank teller than to be both a bank teller andactive in the feminist movement. There are more bank tellers thanthere are bank tellers who are active in the feminist movement. Whenwe rate two things occurring together as more likely than one of thosethings occurring alone, we engage in the conjunction fallacy. Theconjunction fallacy is the error of believing that two events occurringtogether are more likely than either of those events occurring bythemselves. It is a fallacy because logic dictates a single event is morelikely than that same event happening with another event.
Another piece of faulty reasoning that may be behind these heuristicsis the base rate fallacy (Kahneman & Tversky, 1973). Consider the following: Walter is a 47-year-old man who reads poetry, watchesPBS, and plays golf in his spare time. Which is more likely: that Walter is an Ivy League professor or that Walter is a truck driver? Formost of us, Walter sounds like an Ivy League professor. Using the representativeness heuristic, we solve this problem by thinking aboutwhether Walter is more like a typical Ivy League professor than a typical truck driver. But Walter is more likely to be a truck driver. Why?According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2012) 1.6 million heavy and tractor-trailer truck drivers are employed in the United States, tosay nothing of elsewhere in the world. Consider how many Ivy League professors there are. With only eight Ivy League schools, withbetween a little under 1,000 faculty (Dartmouth and Brown) to just over 4,000 (Pennsylvania and Columbia) per school, there are about19,500 Ivy League professors. Given the very large number of truck drivers and relatively small number of Ivy League professors, it ismuch more likely that Walter is among the large group than the small group. When we make a decision about the likelihood of somethingand ignore the number of instances of that in the population (of people, actions, diagnoses, etc.) we are victims of the base rate fallacy.
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· Why is the conjunction fallacy called a fallacy?
Affect Heuristic
Expand Your Knowledge: Affect Heuristic
Research on how people understand numbers shows thatwhile frequencies and percentages are easily understood,absolute frequencies are given greater weight. Absolutefrequencies are perceived to be larger than equivalentfrequencies or percentages. Although there may be otherthings going on, the text explains this as at least partlydue to the affect heuristic. We connect emotionally toabsolute frequencies (30 people with cancer) in a way wedo not with percentages (30% of the group has cancer).Click here for an article explaining the research"Numerical Information Can Be Persuasive or InformativeDepending on How it's Presented."
Source: Science Daily/University of Toronto.
Imagine you are on a parole board deciding whether to parole aninmate. You are told that 20 in every 100 people released under similarcircumstances as this inmate go on to commit a violent crime. Wouldyou parole the person or deny parole? What if you were told that 20%of people released who are like this inmate go on to commit a violentcrime? Research participants have been asked similar questions. Thosegiven information using relative frequency, the first form of question,believed there was greater danger than those with information instatistical form (Slovic, Monahan, & MacGregor, 2000). Rationally, weknow that 20 out of every 100 people is equivalent to 20%, but weprocess these bits of information differently. When this information ispresented in relative frequency form, in this case the number ofinstances out of 100, people imagine 20 perpetrators of violent crimes—a disturbing image. These images lead to a gut-level negativeemotional reaction. The statistical form, a percentage in this case,seems to separate us from that image, and therefore reduces thenegative affect (emotional reaction). We use our gut-level reactions tohelp us make decisions (Slovic, Peters, Finucane, & MacGregor, 2005).This tendency to use affective reactions (gut-level emotional reactions) as information to make judgments is called the affect heuristic.Someone looking for a home might use the affect heuristic. Although price, square footage, school district, and neighborhood may all bepart of the judgment, if the affect heuristic is in play homebuyers might report that the home they chose just felt right.
These heuristics are not just a novelty of research studies. They can affect our lives. In a study of women who were being tested forgenetic vulnerability for breast and ovarian cancer, researchers found extensive use of the availability heuristic and the representativenessheuristic (Kenen, Ardern-Jones & Eeles, 2003). The women described vivid stories of others they knew who had been treated for or diedof cancer, which affected how vulnerable these women felt in terms of their cancer risk. The representativeness heuristic caused thewomen to judge their own cancer risk by how similar they felt they were to others who had died of cancer.
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
Social Psychology in Depth: Heuristics and Politics
When you vote, do you spend all the time and energy required to consider all the issues for all the candidates? If not, youare not alone. Voters often use heuristics to make judgments about political candidates. The time required to find, sortthrough, and evaluate information on all the candidates is more than many people can afford. How, then, does that affect thedecisions themselves?
R. R. Lau and D. P. Redlawsk (2001) note that voters often use party affiliation or candidate ideology to make quickdecisions in voting. Most of the time such decision-making strategies get the voters what they want, but there are timeswhen party affiliation or ideology can lead a voter astray. A candidate might be categorized incorrectly. For example, themedia may say that a candidate for governor is a conservative when she is actually more of a moderate in her policies.Candidates may also differ from the party line. A voter may assume that because the candidate is Republican she is pro-life,but she may actually be pro-choice.
Beyond party affiliation and ideology, a voter might also use endorsements to make decisions. If a favorite celebrity showssupport for a particular candidate, that voter might choose to vote for that candidate. Endorsements may come fromindividuals one trusts, like a close friend or a celebrity, or from organizations one believes in, like the National RifleAssociation or the National Organization for Women.
Polling data also provides a simple cue to a voter. When a particular candidate is ahead in the polls, voters might vote forthat candidate because that candidate is popular or because they perceive that candidate will win. Candidate appearancecan also influence voters.
The researchers found that less sophisticated voters made poorer decisions when they relied on these heuristics. Thesevoters would have been better served if they had examined the issues the candidates stood for and made a logical, rationalchoice rather than relying on heuristics. Using a shortcut was detrimental to decision making. More sophisticated voters,those with greater interest and knowledge of the political system, made good decisions while using heuristics. This findingis somewhat ironic given that sophisticated voters are least likely to need heuristics, but they were the ones whosedecisions making did not suffer from using them.
5.4 Errors in Judgment
Heuristics often get us the correct answer and do so quickly. At times, however, our cognitive systems use shortcuts that make it moredifficult for us to find the right answer. These ways of thinking create and perpetuate errors by leading us to keep believing in somethingeven after our reasons for believing have been disconfirmed. The cognitive shortcuts might also cause us to ignore or discountinformation that goes against our beliefs. When we believe we have more control than we actually do, we are making an error in ourjudgment.
Belief Perseverance
Imagine you were presented with evidence that firefighters who are risk takers are better firefighters. These firefighters are willing to dorisky things like climb up tall ladders and run into burning buildings. Their risk-taking tendencies also help them to find new andinventive ways to fight fires. After you have seen this evidence you are then told it is completely false. There is no relationship betterfirefighters' ability to fight fires and their risk-taking tendencies. Would you continue to believe what you were told? Researchers foundthat research participants presented with evidence did continue to believe, even after the researchers told them they had falsified thedata. They continued to believe it when the researchers checked with them one week later (Anderson, 1983). Maybe because the ideathat risk taking is needed in firefighting is so self-evident, it is the logical thing to believe, even when the story is debunked. The problemwith this conclusion is that the researchers only told half of the participants that good firefighters are risk takers. The other half weretold that risk aversion was a good quality in firefighters. Firefighters need to carefully analyze situations and only go into a burningbuilding when they know the risks, so they can get themselves and others out safely. The participants told about the positive effects ofrisk avoidance continued to believe the story they had been told even after they found out it was fabricated.
The tendency to believe something even after the initial reasons for that belief are discredited is called belief perseverance. Beliefperseverance can be problematic in many situations. For example, if your romantic interest becomes secretive, you might suspect him orher of cheating on you. Even when you find out the secretiveness was part of planning a romantic surprise for you, your suspicion mightremain. Students who come to believe they lack a certain ability may persevere with that belief despite evidence that their poorperformance is a result of poor instruction, rather than inability (Lepper, Ross, & Lau, 1986).
One way to counteract belief perseverance is to come up with explanations that are opposite of that belief. When research participantshad to explain why risk-averse firefighters might be good firefighters, the opposite of their initial belief, they showed less beliefperseverance (Anderson, 1982). However, if people try to come up with an alternative for their initial belief and find it difficult to do so,they come to hold their initial belief more strongly. When using the availability heuristic, people assume that an explanation that isdifficult to think of is an unlikely explanation. Another, counterintuitive way to fight against belief perseverance is to ask people to comeup with a large number of explanations for the initial belief (Nestler, 2010). If it is difficult to develop 10 reasons why risk-takingfirefighters might be better firefighters, then people come to believe that conclusion less.
Confirmation Bias
Once a belief is established, people tend to search for information that will confirm that belief, a phenomenon called the confirmationbias. This is not something people do consciously or deliberately (Gibson, Sanbonmatsu, & Posavac, 1997). Nonetheless, wheninformation is presented, the material that supports a preexisting belief is seen as convincing while material that refutes a belief isexamined closely and criticized (Lord, Ross, & Lepper, 1979). For example, a professor might evaluate a student paper whose argument isin line with his beliefs on economic policy very favorably. However, he might attack the logic or arguments of a paper that goes againsthis position on economic policy, even if it is as well-written as the other paper.
©Bettman/Corbis/AP Images
A person's pre-existing belief might be confirmed by reading anewspaper that supports his or her opinions.
This tendency might be particularly dangerous in criminal cases. Whensomeone commits a crime, police and lawyers need to find the personresponsible and make a case against that person. If the police andprosecutors believe a particular person is guilty they are likely to searchfor information that confirms that belief and may discount or ignoreinformation that goes against their belief. If they are correct in the guiltof the person, belief perseverance is not too problematic. It is when aninnocent person is accused that belief perseverance is most dangerous.For example, early identification of a particular suspect colors perceptionsof later evidence, even when that identification was made with littleconfidence in its accuracy (O'Brien, 2009). Police officers might pushharder in interrogation for someone they believe to be guilty thansomeone they are less sure of and see evidence of someone's innocenceas less reliable (Ask, Rebelius, & Granhag, 2008; Kassin, Goldstein, &Savitsky, 2003; Kerstholt, & Eikelboom, 2007). Also, when a potentiallyguilty suspect has been identified, fewer alternative avenues may bepursued (O'Brien, 2009; Rassin, Eerland, & Kuijpers, 2010).
Keep in mind that this is an unconscious process. Serious, well-meaning, and ethical police and lawyers may fall victim to this generalhuman tendency. Individuals in other professions are just as likely to experience belief perseverance. Psychiatrists, for example, may seekinformation to confirm a certain diagnosis they believe to be true (Mendel, et al., 2011). One technique that can be helpful to fight againstthe confirmation bias is to deliberately discuss evidence both for the belief and against it (O'Brien, 2009). Arguing against a belief canhelp make people aware of other possibilities and explanations.
Illusion of Control
Our cognitive shortcuts do not only allow us to maintain and persevere in our beliefs—even when reasons behind our beliefs are nolonger valid, they also cause us to make errors in our judgments about the control we have in situations that involve chance. Despiteknowledge to the contrary, we treat many chance situations as circumstances in which our choice, skill, or hard work will make adifference—a phenomenon shown in Ellen Langer's studies of illusion of control. In the 1970s, Ellen Langer did a series of studiesinvestigating the amount of control people believe they have in situations involving chance. In one of these studies, Langer asked people ifthey would like to buy a $1 card to participate in a $50 lottery. Half of the participants were allowed to choose the card from a deck ofcards, the other half were handed a card from that same deck. When Langer came back later to ask if they would be willing to sell thecard they owned, those who had chosen their card wanted an average of $8.67 for the card. Those who were handed a card said theywould sell for $1.96. Why the difference? Langer proposed that choice gave people a sense that they had some control over the outcomeof the lottery, even though all cards were equally likely to win.
When people participate in a game of chance and believe that their actions somehow influence the outcome, they have an illusion ofcontrol. An illusion of control occurs any time we approach a situation believing and acting as though we have more control that weactually have. This is true when we have no control and act as though we have some control, or when we have some control and act asthough we have more control than we do (Presson & Benassi, 1996). The illusion is greater when people are more involved in the taskand when the task or aspects of it are more familiar (Langer, 1975; Thompson, 1999; Wohl & Enzle, 2002). A state lottery that allows youto choose your own numbers is using both of these to increase your sense of control. By choosing your own numbers you are moreinvolved. Many people who play the lottery play with familiar, sometimes much loved, numbers such as birth dates or weddinganniversaries. Success at a task also increases illusion of control. When people get the outcome they desire, particularly at the beginningof a string of outcomes, their illusion of control is greater (Langer & Roth, 1975; Thompson, 1999). For example, if someone was playing aslot machine and had a string of wins early on, that person would have a stronger illusion of control and may, with that illusion, be morelikely to continue to play.
Test Yourself
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5.5 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
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Self-fulfilling prophecy is even prevalent in ancientmythology. Oedipus, a Greek king, was told that hewould one day kill his biological father and marryhis biological mother. This dated painting depictsOedipus killing his father.
Can our judgments about another person affect that person's behavior? In otherwords, can one person's expectations affect how another person acts? This was aquestion investigated by Robert Rosenthal in a study involving teachers and students(Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1966). After giving students what appeared to be a test ofintelligence, Rosenthal told teachers that certain students were predicted to "bloom"over the school year; that is, these students were expected to make great intellectualgains. In reality these students' names were randomly chosen from each classroom.The students were not told anything about the tests or what their teachers expectedof them. When the researchers returned at the end of the school year, they found thatthese randomly chosen students did indeed make gains. The researchers concludedthat because the students were no different from their classmates at the beginning ofthe study, it must have been the teachers' expectations that affected the students'performance.
This tendency for our expectations to affect the behaviors of others is called the self-fulfilling prophecy. We "prophesy" someone else's behavior, that is, we believesomething will happen, and through our actions resulting from that belief, we make itcome true (see Figure 5.2). The behaviors we engage in to make these propheciescome true is behavioral confirmation. Left alone, the prophesied behavior wouldlikely not have happened; these students would not have made the gains they did.Because of the prophecy and the teacher's subsequent behavior, the teacher managedto create a situation where the prophecy would come true. The teachers called on thestudents they expected to make gains more often, gave them more feedback, andcreated a generally more welcoming learning environment. Researchers themselvescan fall victim to the self-fulfilling prophecy. When doing an experiment a researcherhas expectations for how the study will turn out, stated in the hypothesis for the study. If controls are not put in place, the researchermight act in a way that leads the participants to behave in a way that fulfills the experimenter's expectations.
Figure 5.2: The self-fulfilling prophecy
The self-fulfilling prophecy demonstrates that our beliefs about others and subsequent actions toward themcan influence the beliefs and actions of others.
One theory that helps explain how individuals come to behave in ways others expect them to is self-verification theory. According toself-verification theory people want to confirm or verify what they believe to be true about themselves (Swann, 1987). Even when ourbeliefs about ourselves are negative we desire to confirm those beliefs because it allows for a stable self-concept and a predictable socialworld (North & Swann, 2009). For example, if you believed you were awkward in social situations, you would want others toacknowledge that because then you would not have to change your self-concept and others would not expect you to be suave and self-confident in social situations. Self-verification interacts with self-fulfilling prophecy when the behaviors of the person making theprophecy lead the person to internalize those beliefs and then work to fulfill that sense of self. For example, in a longitudinal study ofteens and their mothers, Madon et al. (2008) found that a mother's beliefs about her child's future drinking behavior influenced thechild's belief about his or her future drinking behavior. The child's belief lead to self-verification behaviors and, therefore, the fulfillmentof the mother's drinking prophecies.
Self-fulfilling prophecies have multifarious effects. As noted, parent's beliefs about their child's underage drinking can create a self-fulfilling prophecy, leading to greater or lesser drinking later on depending on the prophecy (Madon, Guyll, Spoth, Cross, & Hilbert, 2003;Madon, Willard, Guyll, Trudeau, & Spoth, 2006). Within relationships, researchers found that women with high rejection sensitivity—inother words, those who expect that the other person will reject them—act in ways that lead to rejecting responses. These womenprophesied rejection and, by their actions, created rejection in their romantic partners (Downey, Freitas, Michaelis, & Khouri, 1998). Self-fulfilling prophecy has even been proposed as partially responsible for the extreme violence found in the Pelican Bay State Prison, asuper-maximum security prison for extremely violent and dangerous prisoners (King, Steiner, & Breach, 2008). Researchers argue that theexpectation of prisoners to be very violent in the prison environment creates behavior that leads to a fulfillment of that prophecy.
The self-fulfilling prophecy may influence our experiences of pain or illness. Teens who believed they would have more pain after surgeryended up feeling more pain and using more pain medication than those who believed their pain would be minimal (Logan & Rose, 2005).It may be that the teens who were expecting pain were more anxious and paid more attention to every twinge of discomfort, leading to amore severe experience of pain. In a similar way, naval cadets who believed they would experience less sea sickness and any sea sicknessthey experienced would be unlikely to affect their work did better when at sea (Eden & Zuk, 1995). In neither of these situations did theprophecy eliminate the pain or sickness, but it did make it better for both.
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
· How is it that self-fulfilling prophecies come true?
Conclusion
Our cognitive systems are designed to work as efficiently as possible, with the automatic system taking over as much as it can, while theconscious system deals with the nuanced and difficult problems that the automatic system cannot handle. The use of schemas andheuristics helps make this possible. These mental shortcuts can be helpful to us, but, at times, do lead to errors.
Chapter Summary
Conscious and Automatic Processes
The human cognitive system operates on two levels, a conscious level and an automatic level. The conscious system is directed by theindividual and works slowly and deliberately on problems to provide nuanced answers. The automatic system works outside of consciousawareness and without intention. The automatic system works quickly, is largely effortless, and provides general answers.
Schemas and Scripts
Schemas are knowledge structures that allow for organization of information. Schemas can be helpful in memory but can also providemisleading cues when something we expect because of our schema is not present. Scripts are knowledge structures about events. Scriptscan be helpful by allowing individuals to predict what will happen and to, therefore, engage in expected behavior.
Heuristics
The automatic system allows us to make quick judgments through the use of mental shortcuts called heuristics. When we use theavailability heuristic, we judge the likelihood of an event based on how available that event is in memory. The representativenessheuristic involves judging the likelihood of an event based on how closely it resembles the typical case. When we make errors injudgments using these heuristics it may be due, in part, to the conjunction fallacy or the base rate fallacy. With the conjunction fallacy, wejudge the likelihood of two things occurring together as more likely than one of those occurring alone. When we ignore the rate of eventsand make judgments that suggest the unlikely event is more likely, we have engaged in the base rate fallacy. The affect heuristic occurswhen we make judgments based on gut-level emotional reactions to events.
Errors in Judgment
Particular ways of thinking can contribute to errors in judgment. When we engage in belief perseverance we continue to believe insomething even after our reasons for believing have been disconfirmed. Confirmation bias occurs when we ignore or discount informationthat goes against our beliefs and search for and pay attention to information that fits with our beliefs. When we believe we have morecontrol in a situation we have an illusion of control.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Others' expectations of us can influence our behavior. Researchers have found that prophecies for behavior—in other words, what peoplethink others will do—can become self-fulfilling when individuals act in ways that elicit that behavior from the other.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. How might schemas be helpful and harmful in one's life?
2. What might your life be like if there were no scripts?
3. Consider a time when you might have used the availability, representativeness, or affect heuristic in making a judgment. How did thataffect the accuracy of your judgment?
4. Although the examples in the chapter concern times when heuristics lead us to incorrect answers, why are heuristics helpful andused regularly by us?
5. What might you do to recognize and fight against belief perseverance and confirmation bias?
6. Have self-fulfilling prophecies ever affected your life?
Key Terms
Click on each key term to reveal the definition.
Prejudice
Chapter 6
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Learning Objectives
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
· Differentiate prejudice, bias, stereotypes, and discrimination
· Define stigma and stigma by association
· Describe how and why categorization occurs
· Define ingroup favoritism and the outgroup homogeneity effect
· Describe how stereotypes and prejudice originate in social norms, conflict, and social inequalities
· Describe how stereotype threat affects performance
· Describe how interactions between people are affected by prejudice
· Explain how prejudice can be reduced
Chapter Outline
6.1 Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination
6.2 Social/Cognitive Origins
· Categorization
· Ingroup Favoritism
· Outgroup Homogeneity Effect
6.3 Societal Origins
· Norms
· Competition for Resources
· Social Inequalities
6.4 Influences on Those Stereotyped
6.5 Reducing Prejudice
Chapter Summary
* * *
Many social groups are the subject of stereotypes, as well as the prejudice and discrimination that often accompanies it. Foryears women have faced barriers in rising to leadership positions, and even today face a gap in pay of 23¢ on every dollarearned by a man (American Association of University Women, 2013; Wirth, 2001). In 2013, Jason Collins came out as the firstopenly gay NBA athlete. In his interview with Sports Illustrated, Collins describes his fear of being the target of prejudice anddiscrimination because of his sexual orientation (Collins & Lidz, 2013). Minority ethnic and racial groups face prejudice anddiscrimination as well. Just under half of the hate crimes committed in the United States are racially motivated (46.9%), with72% of those motivated by anti-Black prejudice (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2013). Prejudice, stereotypes, anddiscrimination are predominant issues in our world today, affecting many lives in profound ways.
6.1 Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination
Most people know about and have experienced prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. Social psychologists differentiate among theseterms by focusing on whether they involve feelings (affect), cognition, or behaviors. The judgments we make about others can result instereotypes. Stereotypes are beliefs about the characteristics of particular groups or members of those groups. For example, stereotypesabout people who are overweight are that they are lazy and unsuccessful, and that they are not as attractive or popular as people ofaverage weight (Cossrow, Jeffery, & McGuire, 2001; Greenleaf, Starks, Gomez, Chambliss, & Martin, 2004). Our tendency to form judgmentsabout people based on a characteristic such as skin color, sexual orientation, or personal characteristics is known as a bias. When peopleengage in weight bias, they make judgments about others based on their weight, not taking into account other characteristics of theperson.
Expand Your Knowledge: Weight Bias and Stigma
Excess weight affects more than one-third of the U.S.population, causing a number of health problems(Centers for Disease Control, 2012). Those who areoverweight (with a body mass index over 25 and under30) and obese (with a body mass index over 30) do notjust deal with weight issues; they are also targets ofprejudice and discrimination. Being overweight or obeseis a stigmatizing condition linked to ridicule and shame(Farrell, 2011). To read more about weight bias andstigma visit the Yale Rudd Center for Food Policy &Obesity website. The site offers a variety of resources andreadings: http://www.yaleruddcenter.org .
While stereotypes refer to our cognitive processes, prejudice describesour emotional experience. Prejudice involves a negative attitude towardindividuals based on their membership in a particular group. Prejudicemay be aimed at those from different racial or ethnic groups, thosewith a particular sexual orientation, or individuals with mental orphysical challenges, and many more. For example, prejudice againstthose who are overweight involves feelings of dislike or disgust towarda person who is heavy. As with attitudes, prejudice can come in anexplicit form and as implicit prejudice. Explicit prejudice is prejudicethat is conscious and can be reported. Someone who engages in a hatecrime and states that he did so because he hates that group is engagingan action because of explicit prejudice. Implicit prejudice isunconscious and requires tests like the Implicit Associations Testdescribed in Chapter 4 to assess. Implicit prejudice tends to controlunconscious and nonverbal behavior, such as nonverbal expression ofdiscomfort in the presence of someone from another racial group.
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Prejudice and discrimination towards African Americans sparkedthe Civil Rights Movement.
Similarly, discrimination is negative behavior toward individuals orgroups based on beliefs and feelings about those groups. Job applicantswho are obese are less likely to be hired than those who are of normalweight, and once they are employed they are often given less desirableassignments, paid less, and disciplined more harshly (Fikkan & Rothblum,2005). Part of that discrimination may come from a stigma associatedwith membership in a particular group. A stigma is a sign of disgrace orshame that taints the entire person. Others might avoid or limit contactbecause of a stigma, or ridicule or denigrate the person carrying thestigma. People who are overweight report feeling that their weightstigmatizes them, with the worst experiences of stigmatization comingfrom family and friends (Puhl & Brownell, 2006; Puhl, Moss-Racusin,Schwartz, & Brownell, 2008). Stigmatization from friends and familymight come in the form of denigrating remarks or ridicule of eating,exercise, or dieting habits as well as other negative behaviors.
Expand Your Knowledge: Beyond Prejudice
The website Beyond Prejudice provides a great deal ofinteresting and accurate information on prejudice. Theauthor differentiates between automatic prejudice andunintentional prejudicial responses, and conscious andintentional prejudicial responses. Suggestions areprovided for reducing prejudice.
Stigmas do not just affect the stigmatized target. If you were associatedwith a person who has been stigmatized, that stigma is partiallytransferred to you. This phenomenon is called stigma by association.For example, in some cultures someone who is HIV-positive carries thestigma of AIDS, and the family of the person would be seen as taintedor is shameful by association (Pryor, Reeder, & Monroe, 2012).Generally, the closer the association (family versus friends versusacquaintance), the greater the stigma by association experienced.However, researchers found that simply sitting next to someone who isoverweight in a job interview leads to stigmatization of the jobapplicant of average weight (Hebl & Mannix, 2003).
Test Yourself
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· How are stigma by association and stigma related?
6.2 Social/Cognitive Origins
A variety of factors are responsible for our prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination. One group of factors relates to how we cognitivelyprocess information. Overall, our processes lead to generalizations about other people—generalizations that do not take into account theuniqueness of the individual. In this section, we will examine the ways in which our processes lead to conscious or unconscious prejudiceand stereotypes.
Categorization
Labeling
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Labels can influence how people are perceived.
Critical Thinking Questions
· How does labeling impact behavior?
· How have you seen this demonstrated?
Sorting people into categories has long been related to stereotyping andprejudice (Allport, 1954). Categories are helpful because they allow us to dealwith large amounts of information in an efficient way. The cognitive energy-saving nature of categories was demonstrated in a study by Macrae, Milne, andBodenhausen (1994). In their work, they asked participants to remember a list ofcharacteristics of people that were flashed on a computer screen. Theparticipants were simultaneously asked to remember information on anunrelated topic from a recorded message. The researchers were attempting to taxthe participants' ability to process all the information they were seeing andhearing. The researchers wondered if having category labels would be helpful inhelping the participants' memory. To test this, half of the participants wereshown a category label that might help them remember some of thecharacteristics on the list of names they were supposed to remember. Forexample, "Julian" was labeled as an artist, and then characteristics like "creative,""temperamental," and "sensitive" were flashed on the screen, to go along withour general stereotype of artist. Participants also saw characteristics that werenot necessarily related to the category label, like cordial and generous. The otherhalf of the participants saw the same names and characteristics, but they werenot shown a category label such as "artist." When all the participants had seen allthe different names and characteristics, the researchers quizzed them on howmany of the characteristics they remembered for each name. They also quizzed the participants on how much they remembered aboutthe unrelated recorded message.
Did having a category label help participants remember more of the category-related words? Participants who saw a category labelremembered 4.42 category-consistent words, on average, while those who did not see the label remembered only 2.08. This shows thatthe label helped people remember things related to the label. In addition, the participants who saw a label also did better on the quizabout the unrelated message they heard. This suggests that being able to categorize freed up energy to listen to and process the unrelatedmessage. Categories help us by saving us cognitive energy and allowing us to process more information. Therefore, we use categoriesliberally. That might not be a problem if all we did was categorize people, but it turns out that along with quickly and easily developingcategories, we use them to make later decisions (Tajfel, 1970).
Test Yourself
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· How are categories helpful to people?
Ingroup Favoritism
In 1970 Tajfel published some surprising research results. For his study, he brought boys age 14 and 15 into a psychological researchlaboratory. The boys were shown slides that had dots on them and were asked to estimate the number of dots. The boys were then toldthat they were either over estimators of dots or under estimators. In reality, the boys were assigned these two labels randomly. Later, theboys were asked to assign money to other participants, they assigned more money to those who shared their group membership. Thistendency to show preferential treatment toward members of one's own group is called ingroup favoritism. A group that you are a partof is called your ingroup. Ingroups might include gender, race, or city or state of residence, as well as groups you might intentionally join,like Kiwanis or a bowling league. A group that you do not identify with is called your outgroup.
In later work, Tajfel (Billig & Tajfel, 1973) found that even when participants were told that assignment to groups was random, theywould still show preferential treatment toward members of their own group. Ingroup favoritism appears to work even when the reasonfor group categorization is relatively arbitrary (being an over estimator or under estimator of dots) or simply random. Preference for aningroup is not found among all groups that are targets of prejudice and stereotyping. People who are overweight show similar negativeprejudice toward other overweight people as those who are not overweight (Crandall, 1994; Robin, Cash, Jacobi, & Bubb-Lewis, 1997).One reason for this might be that those who are overweight may be attempting to distance themselves from membership in an attempt toescape some of the stigma associated with their weight status (Puhl & Brownell, 2003).
We see evidence of prejudice and preference for relating to those who are similar to oneself in dating. For example, people are most likelyto form long-term commitments with those from a similar racial group (Blackwell & Lichter, 2004; Harris & Kalbfleisch, 2000). In the pastwe might have attributed this to lack of access to potential partners of other races because of geographic boundaries, but today theInternet allows people to meet individuals of diverse backgrounds. Even without the pressures of geography, people tend to prefer datingsomeone of their own race (Sweeney & Borden, 2009). Research suggests that even when we have equal access to individuals from otherracial groups, we tend to still be attracted to and form intimate relationships with those from our own group.
Outgroup Homogeneity Effect
Beyond viewing one's own group as more deserving than another group, individuals within a group tend to view their own group asmore varied than someone outside the group. Someone describing an outgroup will describe the members in that group as being morehomogeneous, or similar, than the members would describe themselves (Brauer, 2001; Ostrom & Sedikides, 1992). This effect is called the outgroup homogeneity effect. One explanation for this effect may be our tendency to describe an outgroup based on what we knowabout the primary characteristics of that group. However, when we are asked to describe our own groups, we access information aboutthe individual people within the group (Park & Rothbart, 1982). It is also possible that we simply know more people in our ingroup.Because we know more people as part of our membership with the group, we know more potentially different people; therefore, wejudge our ingroup as being more diverse than the outgroup (Linville, Fischer, & Salovey, 1989). This effect only happens for naturallyoccurring groups, not groups that are temporarily formed, like the groups supposedly formed because of dot estimation (Ostrom &Sedikides, 1992). Some circumstances can minimize the outgroup homogeneity effect. In one research study, White participants showedthe outgroup homogeneity effect for Black faces with neutral expressions. When the Black faces were shown with an angry expression,the participants were more accurate in differentiating between them (Ackerman et al., 2006). The outgroup homogeneity effect wasevidenced in neutral circumstances, but largely disappeared when the faces expressed an emotion that could signal danger to theindividual.
©Getty Images/Hemera Technologies/AbleStock.com/Thinkstock
Individuals tend to view outgroup members as being very similar to one another. Forexample, someone might describe all homeless people with words like "lazy" and "addicts."Members of the wealthy, upper class may be described with words like "greedy" and "self-serving."
Although categorization saves us cognitive energy there are dangers in these tendencies. Categorization denies the unique characteristicsof individuals. For example, Germans may typically value timeliness and be prompt, but Hans may defy the stereotype and arrive late. Ourjudgments about people may be skewed because of these tendencies. We may perceive and make judgments based on similarities that donot actually exist or place individuals in categories in which they do not actually fit (Dotsch, Wigboldus, & van Knippenberg, 2011; Kosic& Phalet, 2006). Although people might automatically categorize a 275-pound woman as overweight, lazy, unmotivated, and unathletic,when that woman is Sarah Robles nothing could be farther from the truth. Robles was a 2012 Olympic weightlifter who placed seventh inthe London Olympic games, overcoming a great deal of adversity to do so (Gregory, 2012).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· For what type of groups do people show ingroup favoritism?
.3 Societal Origins
Our prejudice and stereotypes come not only from the way we take in and process information but also from the world around us.Societal origins of prejudice involve the norms in the world around us, the competition that exists between groups, and the socialinequalities that exist in the world. Because categorizing happens naturally and is a helpful tool in many ways, all human cultures arelikely to have stereotypes. Ingroup favoritism leads to unequal treatment of those we have been categorized as part of the outgroup, andoutgroup homogeneity bias blinds us to the uniqueness among individuals within the outgroup. Our beliefs about the characteristics ofthose outgroups are largely determined by the culture in which we reside.
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We pick up prejudice and stereotypes from thenorms in our social groups.
Norms
Prejudice and stereotypes have origins in the norms of our social groups. Norms areour beliefs about what a group is thinking or doing. People learn negative attitudestoward groups by learning the norms of their social context (Sherif, 1936). We learnfrom our peers which stereotypes are appropriate. When participants in one studywere led to believe that their stereotypes were different from their peers, thosestereotypes were changed to be more in line with peer stereotypes (Stangor, Sechrist,& Jost, 2001). For example, participants who learned that their peers had morepositive attitudes toward people who are obese, increased the positive stereotypesabout this group and decreased their negative stereotypes. Information about theattitudes of others is particularly powerful when it comes from people in the ingroup(Puhl, Schwartz, & Brownell, 2005). When making judgments about others we tend togo along with the judgments of those in our ingroup, without critically evaluating thecontent of those judgments (Binning & Sherman, 2011). Employees might pick up astereotype about the salespeople from their own department but would discount orcarefully evaluate that same information if it came from another department. Overall,we seem to believe as others do, particularly those we identify with; we change ourstereotypes and prejudice to fit with that shown or expressed by our friends.
Norms and Dating Violence
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Norms can lead to negative attitudes and behavior.
Critical Thinking Questions
· How do norms influence violent behavior?
· What are some of the norms that influence yourbehavior?
If social norms are accurateindicators of prejudice, thenthere should be a correlationbetween existing prejudices,and what social normswould dictate. Crandall,Eshleman, and O'Brien(2002) found an almost perfect correlation between the norms about groupsand people's ratings of prejudice toward those groups. Social norms dictate thatwe dislike child abusers, terrorists, and members of the Ku Klux Klan, so thesegroups are ones toward which people feel the strongest prejudices. On the otherhand, norms dictate that farmers, family men, and those with physicalchallenges are people toward whom one should not have negative prejudice;therefore, people report less negative prejudice toward these groups. The levelof expressed prejudice toward different racial groups in the United States hasbeen parallel to the perceived acceptability of prejudice over the years (Dowden& Robinson, 1993). As society views prejudice as less acceptable, individuals areless likely to express prejudice. For example, as society has become more openand accepting of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people, individuals havebeen less likely to express prejudice.
Competition for Resources
When groups exist together in a society they may be at odds with one another in competition for resources, which can create prejudice(Butz & Yogeeswaran, 2011; Jackson, 1993; LeVine & Campbell, 1972; Sherif, 1966; Sherif & Sherif, 1953). Competition is at the heart of realistic group conflict theory. Realistic group conflict theory proposes that struggles between groups over scarce resources orconflicting objectives can create hostility and prejudice. Competition may center on economic interests, political or military advantage, oreven threats to the safety or status of the group. A strong factor in creating prejudice is anger. When in competition we may feel angrythat a rival group is taking away resources or prestige from our group. Individuals who feel angry are more likely to feel prejudice thanthose who feel sadness or more neutral emotions (Bodenhausen, Sheppard, & Kramer, 1994; DeSteno, Dasgupta, Bartlett, & Cajdric, 2004).For example, when people feel like their jobs may be threatened, they show more prejudice toward immigrants than if they feel no threat(Zárate, Garcia, Garza, & Hitlan, 2003). Competition can certainly enhance prejudice, but is not necessary for prejudice to occur. Peopletend to show the social cognitive factors for prejudice, such as ingroup favoritism and outgroup homogeneity effect, even whencompetition is not in play (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1991).
Expand Your Knowledge: United Nations Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice
To learn more about the international response toprejudice, read the United Nations Declaration on Raceand Racial Prejudice, approved in 1978.
The statement can be found here .
This competition between groups can lead to problems for groups likeimmigrants. When immigrants do well in their new country, theirsuccess may be seen as coming at the expense of those already in thecountry. This competition for resources, real or perceived, may createtension, prejudice, and hostility. For the immigrant, lack of successcould be just as problematic. An immigrant who requires socialservices or is not fully contributing to society may also be a target ofprejudice and hostility (Esses, Dovidio, Jackson, & Armstrong, 2001).Immigrants can also be scapegoats within a society. In European Unioncountries with struggling economies (low gross domestic product) anda high percentage of minorities, anti-immigrant sentiment is high(Quillian, 1995). When things are not going well, having a group that can be blamed for the problems may make people feel better aboutthemselves or their ingroup.
Social Inequalities
Social inequalities are maintained, to some extent, by legitimizing myths, beliefs, and attitudes that keep low-status groups in their place.Prejudice is created through a specific set of beliefs to support that prejudice. For example, the place of those of higher status mayemphasize some aspect of the lower-status group that, according to the stereotype, indicates a flaw or weakness. People might argue thatthe low socioeconomic status of a person from a particular racial group is the result of negative qualities found in that group (forexample, lack of intelligence or initiative). Such views justify stereotypes and prejudice (Fiske, 2001); individuals feel justified in theirprivileged position and the status quo in the social system is maintained (Jost, Banaji, & Nosek, 2004). Individuals who have morenegative stereotypes tend to view social and economic status differences between people as more justified than those with fewer negativestereotypes (De Oliveira & Dambrun, 2007).
Social inequalities are supported by the beliefs of people but also by the way they use language. At times, people in groups with highersocial standing will tell jokes that support the negative views they have of those of lower social standing. These jokes allow the dominantgroup to maintain and legitimize their position of power while supposedly simply being humorous (Hodson, Rush, & MacInnis, 2010). Tostop such talk is difficult because of the guise of humor and can result in ostracism of the challenger. Guerin (2003) argues that changingthis type of language must come from within the ingroup by, for example, interrupting the speaker with a different joke or story that isnonprejudiced, is natural, and holds attention.
Individuals who prefer more hierarchical power structures, what researchers call social dominance orientation, also tend to haveprejudiced and racist views (Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, & Malle, 1994). Hierarchical power structures support differences betweenpeople, with those at the bottom having less power and prestige than those at the top. Such power structures provide a reason, orperhaps more accurately an excuse, for discrepancies in what society expects of people and the freedoms they are allowed. Socialdominance orientation is related to prejudice and racism across cultures (Pratto et al., 2000). For example, Serge Guimond and colleagues(2013) found that greater social dominance orientation in both Canada and Germany was related to greater prejudice toward those oflower social status. However, Canada's greater national commitment to multiculturalism decreased the overall endorsement of socialdominance orientation than in Germany. Social dominance orientation interacts with realistic group conflict theory; when an economicdownturn occurs, creating a threat and therefore more perceived conflicts between groups, those who are high in social dominanceorientation are less supportive of policies that would benefit an outgroup (King, Knight, & Hebl, 2010).
Social Psychology in Depth: Blue-Eyed and Brown-Eyed
How can a teacher teach about prejudice in a classroom with little diversity? Jane Elliott, a third-grade teacher in a smallIowa town in the late 1960s was faced with this predicament. Shortly after the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.,Elliott decided to teach her students about the dangers of prejudice and discrimination by having them experience it. Elliotsaid
We've all been told those things. We know them, at least in the sense that we mouth them at appropriatetimes. Yet we continue to discriminate, or to tolerate it in others, or to do nothing to stop it. What I hadracked my brain to think of the night before was a way of letting my children find out for themselves,personally, deeply, what discrimination was really like, how it felt, what it could do to you. Now the time hadcome to try it. (Peters, 1987)
Elliot divided the class by the color of their eyes; blue-eyed versus brown-eyed students. On the first day the blue-eyedstudents were told they were smarter and better. Discriminatory policies were instituted for the brown-eyed children.Children with brown eyes got less recess time, were forbidden to use the drinking fountain, and could not play with theblue-eyed children. The next day roles were switched. The children quickly and easily joined in the game, and it swiftlybecame reality for them. A normally friendly, cooperative group of children were mean to one another and fought. Thelower-status children became sad, withdrawn, and angry. By the end of the second day the children had a taste of prejudiceand a sense of what discrimination feels like.
Since her lesson, Elliott has traveled around the world giving lectures and doing the same exercise with adults. The adults'reactions are similar to the children's reaction. Both the children in Elliott's class and the adults in her seminars reported aprofound long-term change in their understanding of prejudice and discrimination. Elliott received multiple awards for herwork and has been the subject of a number of documentaries.
Elliott's website contains additional information and materials: https://janeelliott.com/ .
Prejudice influences daily interactions between people. For example, research has shown that people desire less social contact withpeople who are overweight. Research participants have reported less of a desire to get to know or to become friends with, to work with,or do a favor for a person who is overweight (Brochu & Morrison, 2007). This effect varies depending on the type of prejudice. Explicitprejudice, such as reported prejudice toward those who are overweight, individuals from different racial groups, or toward those ofdifferent sexual orientations, tends to affect consciously controlled behavior, such as the words people say and the degree of comfortpeople report feeling in the interaction. Implicit prejudice, as would be measured through the Implicit Associations Test, is related tobehaviors that are less consciously controlled, such as nonverbal behavior. In one study, the explicit attitudes of White participantsindicated what they said and their self-reported friendliness toward an African American interaction partner. Implicit prejudice, however,was revealed by their nonverbal behavior, the ratings of observers, and the interaction partner (Dovidio, Kawakami, & Gaertner, 2002).Implicit prejudice seemed to be displayed in the nonverbal, less-consciously controlled behaviors, like how close people sat or thenaturalness of their movements and gestures. Because controlling our responses requires energy, interactions with a person from aminority group that is often the target of prejudice can leave a member of the majority group with lower self-regulatory capacity. Ifpeople are concerned about appearing prejudiced, they will use self-regulation and experience ego depletion, leaving fewer resources forsubsequent tasks (Richeson & Shelton, 2007).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· What is social dominance orientation and how is it related to prejudice?
6.4 Influences on Those Stereotyped
Don Mason/Photolibrary
Stereotype threat suggests that the fear ofconfirming or flouting a given stereotype can causeperformance anxiety, like a student driver failing atest.
Do stereotypes influence our performance? Imagine you had to take a test to assessyour performance that, based on the stereotype about your group, suggests you maynot perform well. For example, there is a stereotype that women are not as good atmath as men. If you are a woman and were thinking about the stereotype while youtook a math test, would that affect your performance? Research suggests it would.
Expand Your Knowledge: Stereotype Threat
The website ReducingStereotypeThreat.org wasdeveloped by two social psychologists to describe andprovide resources on the topic of stereotype threat. Thesite provides a very good introduction to stereotypethreat and describes situations where stereotype threatoccurs, the individuals who are vulnerable, theconsequences of stereotype threat, and the mechanismscontributing to stereotype threat. Some suggestions forreducing stereotype threat and some unresolved issueson the topic of stereotype threat are also provided.
In a classic study bySteele and Aronson(1995), theresearchers variedhow muchparticipants werethinking about aracial stereotype.The researcherstold one group ofAfrican Americanand Whiteparticipants thatthe test they wouldtake would bediagnostic ofintellectual ability, tapping into the stereotype for African Americans that they are notas intelligent as those from other racial groups. For a second group of participants, theresearchers emphasized that this test was not diagnostic of ability. The researchersfound that African American participants in the first group did worse than their Whitecounterparts, but in the second group, African Americans and Whites did equally well(see Figure 6.1). Obviously, the African American participants were capable of doingjust as well on the test as the White participants, so why the difference? Steele and Aronson explain that the possibility that one is goingto be evaluated on an ability about which others show a stereotype creates anxiety. This anxiety distracts people from doing as well asthey might truly be capable of doing. The researchers named this phenomenon stereotype threat. Stereotype threat refers to the threatpeople feel when they think they may be at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about their group. The stereotype predicts poorperformance, so the person has to deal with the possibility of confirming that stereotype. Awareness that one is being evaluated based onmembership in a stereotyped group can, therefore, interfere with performance.
Figure 6.1: Effects of stereotypethreat
African Americans primed with the stereotype threat—that the test was a measure of intellectual ability—scored lower on the test than African Americans whowere not primed with the stereotype threat.
From Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectualtest performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology, 69, 797–811. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797. Copyright ©1995by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.
Expand Your Knowledge: Test Yourself for Hidden Bias
The Southern Poverty Law Center provides a solidexplanation of prejudice, focusing most thoroughly onimplicit prejudice, or what they term hidden bias. One oftheir resources for professional development is an articlecalled "Test Yourself for Hidden Bias". This articledescribes the connection between hidden bias andbehavior, as well as how prejudice and stereotypes affectpeople. It also provides some suggestions of what one cando about hidden biases. Learn more at http://www.tolerance.org/ .
Stereotype threat is not just present for African Americans onintelligence tests. Women college students perform worse on tests ofmathematics when in the presence of men (Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev, 2003).Huguet and Regner (2007) found similar results in sixth- and seventh-grade girls (girls 11 to 13 years old). Stereotype threat is also realizedin athletic performance (Stone, Lynch, Sjomeling, & Darley, 1999).When the stereotype was presented that White men do not have thesame athletic ability as African Americans, the White men did muchworse when they thought their natural athletic ability was being tested.Similarly, Latinos showed poorer intellectual performance undersituations of stereotype threat (Gonzales, Blanton, & Williams, 2002).Also, individuals who are overweight show a stress reaction whenasked to do something that is related to weight stigma (Major, Eliezer,& Rieck, 2012). For example, women who are overweight may avoidexercise because of stereotype threat (Seacat & Mickelson, 2009). Aspart of various social groups, we all have the potential for ourperformance to be disturbed by stereotype threat.
Stereotype threat seems particularly strong when people have a vested interested in the area being tested. For example, women whodescribe math as being important will feel more stereotype threat than women who report math is not important (Aronson et al., 1999;Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev, 2003). Dealing with stereotype threat leaves people with less self-control, causing the effects of the stereotype to spillover into other aspects of life. Individuals who experience stereotype threat may engage in risky behaviors such as risky decision making,overeating or even aggression. Over the long term, these behaviors can be detrimental to physical and mental health (Inzlicht & Kang,2010; Inzlicht, Tullett, & Gutsell, 2012).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· How does stereotype threat affect behavior?
· How does the effect of explicit prejudice differ from the effect of implicit prejudice on behavior?
6.5 Reducing Prejudice
How do we reduce prejudice and discrimination? During the civil rights movement in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s, thefederal government instituted policies of desegregation in schools and in the military. One hope of such a policy was that putting peopleof different groups together would reduce prejudice, an idea called the contact hypothesis. While contact might increase prejudice insome situations (Allport, 1954), under certain conditions contact is more likely to reduce prejudice (Dixon, Durrheim, & Tredoux, 2005).Here are some of the conditions found by researchers to reduce prejudice:
· People or groups are at equal status
· Common goals
· Intergroup cooperation
· Support by the larger social context (e.g., authorities)
When these conditions are met, contact with different people is most effective in reducing prejudice. Yet even when the conditions are notmet, contact can still reduce prejudice (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006). One of the big determining factors in the success of prejudice reductionis the level of anxiety individuals feel when interacting. When we feel anxious and uncertain about how we should act, it is difficult for aninteraction to go well (Brown & Hewstone, 2005; Stephan et al., 2002).
One interesting extension of the work on contact has been studying the effects of indirect intergroup contact. Even if people have no realcontact with people from another group, their own prejudice can be reduced if they have a friend who does have contact with peoplefrom that group (Wright, Aron, McLaughlin-Volpe, & Ropp, 1997). It seems that even imagined contact is sufficient to reduce prejudice(Turner & Crisp, 2010). Research participants who were asked to imagine interacting with an older adult for two minutes showed lessprejudice toward older adults than those who did not imagine such an interaction. Although imagined interactions do not have as strongan impact on reducing prejudice, the effect was still a positive one for such a low investment.
Common goals have long been viewed as important for the reduction of prejudice and conflict between groups. In the 1950s, MuzaferSherif and his colleagues studied the effectiveness of shared goals—what he called superordinate goals—on the reduction of intergroupconflict (Sherif, 1958; Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood, & Sherif, 1961). Superordinate goals are goals held by both groups in a conflict thattranscend the conflict, providing a common aim. Sherif's study brought two groups of boys to a summer camp setting. For a week eachgroup did not know the other group existed. As you might imagine from the previous discussions of categorization and ingroupfavoritism, each group of boys quickly and easily bonded as a group. When the groups discovered that another group was at the camp,conflict between the groups quickly escalated. The researchers then provided both groups of boys with problems they could solve only ifall of them worked together. In one such instance, researchers caused the camp's water supply to be cut off. The two groups of boys hadto work together to fix the problem and restore water to the camp. After several such events, conflict between the groups reducedsignificantly and the boys became friends without respect to the original grouping. The superordinate goals of solving problems helpedreduce the initial prejudice the boys felt toward one another.
Big Cheese Photo/Thinkstock
Jigsaw classrooms encourage children to collaborate in diversegroups and rely on each other to carry out a project, aiming toreduce prejudice.
Cooperative learning experiences in the classroom have also been shownto reduce prejudice. Learning can provide a superordinate goal that thegroup can only reach if it works together. One technique that incorporatescooperative learning is the jigsaw classroom. A jigsaw classroom is aclassroom in which different students have access to different pieces ofthe material to be learned. For example, if an elementary school classwere learning about cells, one group of students might learn about thenucleus, another about mitochondria, another about ribosomes, andanother about golgi body. Groups need to work together to gain expertisein each aspect of the material. The expert groups disperse and share theirexpertise with a new group, each student presenting his or her own areaof expertise (Aronson, Blaney, Stephan, Sikes, & Snapp, 1978). In a studyof Australian school children who used the jigsaw method while learningabout nutrition, researchers found that children in classrooms using thejigsaw method showed greater liking for their outgroup and lessstereotyped views of children from other ethnic groups (Walker &Crogan, 1998).
On the individual level, reducing prejudice is, in part, dependent on committing to thinking about and approaching the world in a waythat honors individuality and diversity. The more interaction we have with a variety of people, the better off we are likely to be. Peopleare motivated to learn about others when it is important to living successfully in the world (Fiske, 2004). Placing ourselves in situationswhere interactions with others are inevitable and necessary may help us to learn about those in our outgroup, and reduce the prejudiceswe might have about them. The more the norms of a social group also focus on inclusivity, the more individuals will do the same (Fiske,2004). It also helps to realize that all people are part of a variety of social groups. For example, someone might be a woman, a KoreanAmerican, an artist, and a runner. By thinking about this person not just based on gender, with the stereotypes and prejudice that maycome with that, but also her race, occupation, and hobby, one may be inclined to show less prejudice and be more tolerant (Brewer,2000).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· What are the factors of contact that need to be present for the contact to reduce prejudice?
· What is a superordinate goal?
Conclusion
We all live with prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination every day. Although we naturally form the categories that lead us to formstereotypes; show discriminatory behavior toward those outside of our groups; and are part of societies that, intentionally or not, supportprejudice and discrimination, we can still work hard to reduce prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination through our interactions withothers.
Chapter Summary
Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination
Prejudice includes the attitudes we have about individuals of a particular group based on their group membership. Bias leads us to formjudgments about people based on their membership in a group. Stereotypes are the beliefs we hold about individuals based on theirgroup membership. Discrimination involves actions toward individuals or groups based on group membership.
Social/Cognitive Origins
Our cognitive systems naturally categorize others. This categorization saves us cognitive energy. When we categorize others as membersof our ingroup, we show ingroup favoritism. We see members of the outgroup as all similar, while we acknowledge that members of ouringroup are quite different from one another.
Societal Origins
Societies support stereotypes and prejudice, and therefore discrimination, through norms. All members of a group generally learn thosenorms. Groups develop negative views of one another when they are in conflict over resources. Groups in power maintain the socialinequalities through legitimizing beliefs that justify their superior position.
Influences on Those Stereotyped
Stereotypes can interfere with performance. When people perform a behavior knowing their group is stereotypically not very good at thatbehavior, their performance may be less than their best. This phenomenon is called stereotype threat. Stereotypes and prejudice alsointerfere with positive interactions between people.
Reducing Prejudice
The contact hypothesis proposes that contact between members of groups that hold prejudice against one another may reduce prejudice.Contact can reduce prejudice when a number of conditions are satisfied. Common goals, called superordinate goals, are particularlyhelpful in bringing groups in conflict together.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Humans naturally categorize; it is good for memory and saves cognitive energy. But categorization also leads to stereotyping. If wecould somehow reverse our tendency to categorize, should we? What are the tradeoffs?
2. Have you seen ingroup favoritism or the outgroup homogeneity effect in your own experiences?
3. What effect would changing societal norms have on stereotypes and prejudice?
4. In your environment, in what ways do you see a justification of a social system to maintain status for the privileged and keep thosewith lower status in their place?
5. Everyone is part of a social group that has certain stereotypes that go along with it. What stereotypes exist for your social groups?How might that affect your performance?
Key Terms
Click on each key term to reveal the definition.
realistic group conflict theory
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jc5XQSVeQ2c
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Chapter 7
Persuasion
Dorling Kindersley RF/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
· Describe the characteristics of communicators that make them more persuasive
· Describe what characteristics of a message make it more persuasive
· Describe how culture, age, and self-esteem affect persuasion
· Differentiate the central route from the peripheral route to persuasion within the elaboration likelihoodmodel
· Describe the persuasion techniques involving initial small requests
· Describe the use of reciprocity as a persuasion technique
· Explain techniques that begin with a large request
· Explain persuasion techniques that use scarcity
· Describe techniques that involve changing attention
Chapter Outline
7.1 Who—Characteristics of the Persuader
· Credibility: Expertise and Trustworthiness
· Attractiveness and Likeability
7.2 What—Characteristics of the Message
· Emotion
· Framing
· One-Sided and Two-Sided Messages
7.3 To Whom—Characteristics of the Audience
· Culture
· Age
· Self-Esteem
· Elaboration Likelihood Model
7.4 How—Persuasion Techniques
· Foot-in-the-Door Technique
· Lowball Technique
· Legitimization-of-Paltry-Favors
· Reciprocity
· Door-in-the-Face Technique
· That's-not-all Technique
· Scarcity
· Pique Technique
· Disrupt-Then-Reframe Technique
Chapter Summary
* * *
Every day, other people try to persuade us. Advertisements on television, the Internet, or the radio attempt to persuade us tobuy a product. Family members, friends, and employers ask us to do them a favor. Some of these messages we quickly dismiss,but others convince us to buy the extra absorbent paper towels, or bake cupcakes for that fundraiser.
Imagine watching an infomercial for an exercise machine. The product is described by an attractive and trim fitness expert to amildly skeptical person in front of an enthusiastic studio audience. The machine is demonstrated, the positive benefits and easeof use of the machine are touted, and viewers are offered the product at a low, low price. By the end of the infomercial theskeptic is convinced of the machine's miraculous powers and you find yourself picking up the phone to order one for yourself.What makes such communications persuasive? Social psychology can help us find the answers to these questions by applyingthe scientific method to different aspects of persuasion—the persuader, the message, and the audience—as well as investigatingspecific persuasion techniques. Knowing more about persuasion may allow us to better resist being persuaded in the future.
Persuasive communication can be divided into four parts: the communicator, the message, the audience, and the technique (seeFigure 7.1). First we will deal with what characteristics of persuaders make people more likely to be persuaded. Next, we willthink about characteristics of the message that lead people to change. Then, we will explore what characteristics of theaudience can lead them to be persuaded. Finally, we will cover a variety of persuasion techniques advertisers, charities, friends,or relatives might use to persuade.
7.1 Who—Characteristics of the Persuader
Persuasive messages come from a source. The source may be someone you respect or someone you dislike—someone who knows a lotabout a topic or someone who knows little. This someone could be a friend or a stranger. Depending on the characteristics of thepersuader, people may be easily persuaded or skeptical of the claims of a message. Characteristics that have received a great deal ofattention from researchers are credibility, attractiveness, and likeability.
Figure 7.1: The who, what, to whom, and how ofpersuasion
The four variables that affect persuasion are the person doing the persuading,the message being transmitted, the audience receiving the message, and thetechniques used by the persuader.
Credibility: Expertise and Trustworthiness
PNC/Photodisc/Getty Images
Lawyers often retain expert witnesses to help strengthen theirclient's case in favor of the jury.
As you watch an infomercial, a central communicator is likely to offerarguments for the product. Whether or not you listen to this person likelydepends on how credible you view that person to be. Credibility has twoaspects: expertise and trustworthiness (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953). Acommunicator with expertise is one who appears to have knowledge andis able to communicate it. A trustworthy communicator is one we believeis giving us accurate information.
Messages from expert sources are persuasive when the message includescoherent and high quality arguments from within that expert's field ofknowledge (DeBono & Harnish, 1988; Petty, Cacioppo, & Goldman, 1981).Messages that come from an expert source but are of low quality are lesspersuasive than messages coming from someone who is less of an expert,but who has strong arguments (Bohner, Ruder, & Erb, 2002; Tormala,Brinol, & Petty, 2006). However, an excess of confidence can sometimeslimit the effectiveness of the persuasion. For example, in court an expertwith a moderate level of confidence appears to be most persuasive,perhaps because a very high level of confidence is viewed as arrogant or unrealistic (Cramer, DeCoster, Harris, Fletcher, & Brodsky, 2011).Expert opinion is generally only persuasive within that expert's domain of expertise. For example, you might believe what fitness expertssay about exercise, but not what they say about cake decorating. An exception to this would be involving children, due to their place insociety. For example, using children to demonstrate the safety features in a new vehicle may resonate with an adult's perceived role asprotector and nurturer (Pratkanis & Gliner, 2004).
Expand Your Knowledge: Propaganda
Governments, political parties, organizations, andindividuals have all used persuasive communications in an effort to sway the public. The website Propaganda Critic from the Institute for Propaganda Analysis, offers alook at propaganda, including a page on why investigatingpropaganda matters and analysis of a number ofpropaganda techniques.
At times, we may receive a message and not have the time or energy tothink carefully through the arguments. In those instances thetrustworthiness of the communicator can serve as a cue regardingwhether we should trust the message. If we perceive that thecommunicator is providing us with accurate information, we may notfeel it necessary to carefully examine the message itself. When weperceive the communicator to be less trustworthy, we may carefullyexamine the message to determine if we can trust it. A message can, inthis instance, still be persuasive if it contains strong arguments. Anonexpert who cites a study by the American Heart Associationshowing that the exercise equipment improves heart health in 90% ofusers has a strong argument, despite lack of expertise. An expert whopoints out that the stainless steel frame of the equipment will matchany decor has a weak argument. Strong messages from non-expert sources can be persuasive because people carefully examine thearguments (Priester & Petty, 2003). Such careful examination creates stronger and more long-lasting attitude change.
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
· What are the two aspects of credibility?
Attractiveness and Likeability
The attractiveness of the communicator is another factor in the persuasiveness of the message. In general, physically attractivecommunicators are more persuasive than less attractive communicators (Chaiken, 1979; Debevec, Madden, & Kernan, 1986; DeBono &Telesca, 1990). Physically attractive communicators may be more persuasive because they are viewed as more trustworthy than lessattractive communicators—research has shown that we stereotype physically attractive people as having other positive qualities such asintelligence and honesty (Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijani, & Longo, 1991; Langlois, et al., 2000). We also tend to like physically attractivepeople more and want to interact with them (Reingen & Kernan, 1993). Even when a product is unrelated to attractiveness, we findattractive communicators more persuasive than less attractive communicators (Praxmarer, 2011).
Individuals we like are also more persuasive to us. You might buy Girl Scout cookies from the neighbor who you know and like, but youare likely to buy fewer cookies from the Girl Scout across town. For this reason, advertisers have found tricky ways to make it appear thatan appeal is coming from someone we know and like. An envelope that appears to be addressed by hand and have a note inside is morelikely to be opened and read than one that is clearly mass produced. In one study of this idea, a number of car owners in Dallas weresent an ad for car wax that appeared to have been ripped from a magazine, with a handwritten sticky note attached; if the recipient wasnamed Mary, for example, the note would read "Mary—Try this. It works!—J," with "J" being the supposed sender. The ad contained amail-in card for a free sample of the car wax. The ad was sent in an unmarked white envelope, hand-addressed, with a first-class stamp.Another set of car owners were mailed the same ad, but in a typed envelope sent through metered mail, and the ad inside was simplyprinted on a sheet of paper with no note attached. When the message in the ad was strong and it appeared to come from someone theyknew, almost double the number of car owners requested a free sample than if the message appeared to be mass produced (Howard &Kerin, 2004). A note from someone we might know is more persuasive than a message from a faceless company.
Should the communicators make their desires to persuade explicit? To maintain credibility and avoid reactance, advertisers generallyavoid stating that they are trying to persuade; however, in some contexts such information can be helpful. You would likely attributeselfish motives to the fitness expert who is trying to sell exercise equipment he designed. But your doctor presumably has your bestinterests in mind, so his or her obviously persuasive message about exercise may be received well (Campbell & Kirmani, 2000; Eagly,Wood, & Chaiken, 1978). Researchers have found that physically attractive communicators do well if they make their desire to persuadeexplicit. Unattractive communicators are not very successful in this instance (Messner, Reinhard, & Sporer, 2008). For the less attractive,keeping persuasive intent hidden is a better strategy. Similarly, disliked sources should conceal persuasive intent, while liked sources aremore persuasive when they are open about persuasive intent (Reinhard, Messner, & Sporer, 2006).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· Who is more persuasive, an attractive communicator or an unattractive communicator?
· What types of communicators should make you aware of their intent to persuade you?
7.2 What—Characteristics of the Message
When making persuasive appeals, communicators must carefully consider the message they want to portray and how they want to sharethat message. A persuader might try to scare you so you will adopt a healthy behavior. Should the message be terrifying, or just a littlefrightening to motivate you? Communicators must also consider whether sharing the other side's arguments is helpful. If a phonecompany knows that a rival phone has a feature that its own product does not have, should it make a mention of it in the advertising? Aswe discover in this section, how a message is constructed makes all the difference in how persuasive it will be.
Emotion
Within a persuasive appeal, a communicator might attempt to elicit an emotion. Emotions contain both physiological and cognitiveelements. For example, when you are frightened your blood pressure and your heart rate increase. The same bodily state may beinterpreted differently depending on the context. You might feel fear if you are in a dark alley and a stranger approaches. In the context ofa thrilling video game, that same racing heart could be interpreted as excitement (Schachter & Singer, 1962). Advertisers may capitalizeon this fact to help sell their products. A beer commercial with a lot of beautiful, scantily clad women may excite the men watching it—excitement that could transfer to the brand of beer the company is selling. When a camera follows a car down a curvy road through amajestic mountain landscape, we may feel a bit of awe at the beauty of the scenery, and we may transfer this sense of amazement to thecar.
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A graphic warning label such as this might scarepeople into rethinking their smoking habits.
One way persuaders may use emotion to convince us to do something is to draw onthe "appropriate" emotions from our culture and social context. We learn from thosearound us what emotions are appropriate to feel (Averill, 1980). For example,convinced by your peers or the media that your home should be clean and smell likeflowers, you buy a scented candle and spend more time cleaning to avoid feelingembarrassed. Or, having learned from an advertiser that a new car will make youhappy, you purchase a new vehicle.
Persuaders elicit specific emotions, such as fear, to motivate people to act. If a healtheducator were trying to convince smokers to quit smoking, would scaring them aboutthe potential consequences of continuing to smoke be effective? Researchers have longbeen interested in how persuasive messages that induce fear, what might be known asscare tactics, influence persuasion (Hovland et al., 1953, is an early example). Therelationship was hypothesized to follow the pattern of an inverted U, with littlepersuasion at low levels of fear, the greatest persuasion at moderate levels of fear, andlow persuasion at high levels of fear (see Figure 7.2). At low fear levels persuasionwould be low because there is not enough motivation to change. At a moderate rate offear, persuasion should be highest; here people would be motivated to make a changebut not so scared that they become paralyzed. At high levels of fear, according to thishypothesis, persuasion once again becomes less likely, as people become toofrightened to process the information and respond to it. At this level, individuals maybecome defensive and ignore the content of the message. At a low level of fear, anantismoking message may not motivate smokers to change; the consequences may notseem dire enough to make the effort of quitting worth it. At a high level of fear,smokers may dismiss a message or become defensive about their habit. When amessage induces a moderate level of fear smokers may be able to process the messagerather than becoming defensive and be motivated to change.
Yet this hypothesis is problematic because the supporting research is inconclusive(Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Janis & Leventhal, 1968). Some degree of fear is motivating,so messages that make it clear that the target is susceptible to the consequences of a threat are most effective (Maloney, Lapinski, &Witte, 2011). However, the most important predictor of behavior when confronted with scare tactics seems to not be the level of feararoused, but the belief of individuals in their ability to engage in actions that will allow them to avoid the feared consequence (Ruiter,Abraham, & Kok, 2001). Smokers might be exposed to a message that evokes a great deal or just a little fear about lung cancer, but if theydo not believe they can quit, thereby avoiding cancer, the level of fear in the appeal does not seem to matter much (Hoeken & Geurts,2005; Timmers & van der Wijst, 2007; Witte, 1998).
Figure 7.2: The inverted-U model
In Hovland's study, the relationship between fear and persuasion was hypothesized to resemble an inverted U.
Some persuasive appeals may use guilt to attempt attitude change. Charities,for example, might describe people who are hungry or sick or homeless in anattempt to persuade someone to give money or time. Guilt appeals can besuccessful; the more guilty people feel, the greater their intention to donate.However, if recipients are generally skeptical of emotional appeals and believethe communicator is manipulative, they will not feel as much guilt andtherefore not be as likely to donate (Hibbert, Smith, Davies, & Ireland, 2007).
Rather than working to generate certain emotions, advertisers can also appealto consumers by tapping into their current emotional experience. Happyholiday shoppers are likely to be persuaded by a happy message. The sweetand sappy commercials for engagement rings will do well with those who arein love and feeling sweet and sappy toward their significant other. A matchbetween the emotional state of the person and the emotional overtones of thepersuasive message is the most effective (DeSteno, Petty, Rucker, Wegener, &Braverman, 2004).
The complexity of the emotion presented in the message also influences persuasion. When people do not have a lot of time or energy todevote to processing a message, their resources are low. Sadness and happiness are relatively simple emotions, and can be quicklyprocessed by the individual. When the resources of the person are low and they are presented with an ad with simple emotions likehappiness or sadness, they are more persuaded. If resources were low and the effectiveness of the message relied on the emotion ofanxiety, a relatively complex emotion, the message would be less persuasive. For individuals with more time and energy to process themessage, anxiety within a message could be more persuasive than a simple emotion within that message (Lau-Gesk & Meyers-Levy,2009).
To generate an emotional response, persuaders might tell a story. Researchers have found that individuals are persuaded by stories if thestories are good, even when arguments themselves are weak. One element in persuasive stories is something called transportation. Inthe context of story, transportation is the joining of feelings, attention, and thoughts (Green & Brock, 2000). The listener joins thestoryteller on a journey, and, for the time being, focuses on the teller's thoughts, feelings, and experiences. As a result, the listener comesaway with a new or more informed perspective. On the other hand, when a message is shared not in a story but as a rational appeal, onlystrong arguments lead to attitude change (Escalas, 2007). People presented with personal narratives of a health risk viewed themselvesas being more at risk and said they were more likely to get tested than those presented with statistical information on that health risk(deWit, Das, & Vet, 2008).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· What are the key elements to making a fear appeal persuasive?
· Are messages that have happy messages persuasive?
Framing
Messages can vary in whether they emphasize gains or losses. A message that focuses on benefits is described as being gain framed. Ifyou were buying a vehicle, for example, the message that buying this car will keep you safe in a crash with all of its safety featuresemphasizes the things you would gain. A message that focuses on losses is loss framed. For example, a salesperson might suggest that ifyou do not buy this car with all of its safety features, your likelihood of experiencing major injury in a crash is increased. By emphasizingwhat you would lose, the message becomes loss framed. Framing can influence responses to persuasive messages.
When dealing with prevention behaviors, such as exercising, gain-framed messages tend to be more effective. When encouraging detectionbehaviors, such as going to the doctor for a cancer screening, loss-framed messages tend to be more effective (Ferrer, Klein, Zajac, Land, &Ling, 2012; Rothman, Bartels, Wlaschin, & Salovey, 2006). When people are faced with a message and experiencing an emotion like fear,loss-framed messages are more persuasive. Fear is an emotion that leads to behavioral inhibition, or movement away from action. Angerand happiness are part of the behavioral approach system, motivating movement toward action. When people are angry or happy gain-framed messages are more persuasive (Gerend & Maner, 2011; Yan, Dillard, & Shen, 2012).
Social Psychology Applied
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The findings of social psychology regarding theway messages are framed can influence publicpolicy and personal conviction.
Critical Thinking Questions
· What are some other ways that the research ofsocial psychologists can influence public policy?
· How does framing encourage someone to engagein prosocial behavior?
Gain-framed messages create more positive emotions than loss-framedemotions. However, researchers have also found that, while being in a positivemood due to a gain-framed message leads to persuasion, being in a negativemood as a result of a loss-framed message may motivate people to dosomething about the threat (Van'T Riet, Ruiter, Werrij, Candel, & De Vries, 2010).Being happy because you realize from the infomercial all you might gain frombuying this exercise equipment might persuade you that purchasing theequipment is a good idea. Or, being sad because you realize from the infomercialall the terrible things that could happen if you do not buy the equipment andbegin exercising may actually get you to pick up the phone and make an order.
When presenting a persuasive message, it is important for the communicator toavoid making the audience defensive. Affirming what others believe andvalidating their concerns can increase message scrutiny and lead to a change inbehavior (Correll, Spencer, & Zanna, 2004). When students' concerns aboutavailability of recycling containers were validated ("we know it's a long walk but. . ."), and they were encouraged to use the containers that were available, evenif it was inconvenient, their recycling behavior increased and lasted longer(Werner, Stoll, Birch, & White, 2002). Reactance, the tendency to reassert one'sfreedom in the face of demands from others, can be reduced by affirming whatthat person believes. Acknowledging concerns works by reducing criticism of apersuasive message, opening the individual up to consideration of the message(Werner, White, Byerly, & Stoll, 2009).
Another way to frame messages is by focusing on the long-term or the short-term consequences of an action, called temporal framing. A message encouraging colonoscopies might emphasize the peace of mind onewould feel knowing that any potentially cancerous polyps have been removed. By focusing on current feelings or consequences, suchmessages use a short-term framing of a message. A colonoscopy message that uses a long-term frame might emphasize how removal ofpotentially cancerous polyps could provide years of life without colon cancer. When a message is about a health risk and focuses onshort-term consequences, the risks of not engaging in the behavior are perceived as being more concrete (Chandran & Menon, 2004).Temporal framing can influence the persuasiveness of gain-framed messages. College students receiving gain-framed messages thatemphasized short-term consequences of drinking showed less drinking than those who received loss-framed messages emphasizing short-term consequences or those that described long-term consequences (Gerend & Cullen, 2008). Some people are more sensitive to short-term consequences of their actions and are, therefore, more persuaded by temporal frames that emphasize immediate consequences ofactions (Orbell & Hagger, 2006; Orbell & Kyriakaki, 2008).
Test Yourself
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One-Sided and Two-Sided Messages
Is presenting both sides of an argument advantageous or does it weaken the message? For example, if a car salesperson wanted toconvince someone to buy an electric car, would just presenting the positive features of the car be best, or should the salesperson pointout both the positive and negatives of owning an electric car? A communicator must also decide whether to simply describe the alternateposition or also refute it. Should the electric-car salesperson simply mention the drawbacks of owning such a vehicle (the fully chargedvehicle goes only 100 miles), or also explain why those drawbacks are not of great concern (most trips people take are well under thisdistance)?
For the most part, two-sided messages are more persuasive when they provide a refutation of the option the communicator is arguingagainst. If both sides are simply offered, with no refutation, one-sided messages are more persuasive (Allen, 1991; Buehl, Alexander,Murphy, & Sperl, 2001). In the exercise equipment infomercial, this means that the communicator should discuss the drawbacks ofowning one's own equipment and those drawbacks should be refuted. Owning one's own equipment, for example, means taking care of itand storing it, but, the fitness expert might argue, this equipment takes almost no care and can easily be stored in the corner of a room.
When in court, defense lawyers must decide whether to present potentially incriminating evidence the prosecution might reveal.Presenting information that is potentially harmful before the prosecution does can allow the defense to take away some of the shockvalue that information might otherwise have. The name of this tactic is stealing thunder. Within the courtroom, stealing thunderincreases the credibility of the defense and changes the way jurors think about the incriminating evidence (Dolnik, Case & Williams,2003; Williams, Bourgeois, & Croyle, 1993). By presenting evidence that might otherwise be condemning, the defense shows that it hasdone its research and is aware of the circumstances. By presenting the evidence, the defense is then able to take it apart for the jurors,showing them why it is not condemning. This helps sway the opinion of the jurors, who might have otherwise formed a different opinionif the prosecution had framed the evidence. This tactic has been found to be more effective when jurors are trying to make quickdecisions or are distracted or overwhelmed by the evidence. When jurors carefully consider the evidence, it has less of an effect (Howard,Brewer, & Williams, 2006).
Test Yourself
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· Are one-sided or two-sided messages more persuasive?
Generally, messages are most persuasive when they are first encountered. Over time the effect of a message gradually declines. Forinstance, you might be quite motivated to exercise after your doctor tells you about the importance of exercise. A few months later,however, you find your gym clothes collecting dust in the corner. However, in some instances messages become more persuasive withtime, a phenomenon known as the sleeper effect (Peterson & Thurstone, 1933/1970). For the sleeper effect to occur, individuals need tospend enough time thinking about the message that the message remains in memory (Priester, Wegner, Petty, & Fabrigar, 1999). Peoplemay discount a message when they first encounter it, but over time, forget their reasons for doing so, leading to their persuasion(Kumkale & Albarracin, 2004). If an unreliable source tells you a story you may at first discount the story because of theuntrustworthiness of the source. After some time, however, you may remember the story but forget who told it to you, making the storymore persuasive a month after it was told to you. Some of the power of narratives may be due to the sleeper effect. The impression madeby a narrative is retained, and any reasons for discounting it (it was just a fictional story) may be lost with time (Appel & Richter, 2007).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· If your arguments are weak should you use a narrative appeal or a rational appeal?
· Are messages you initially discount ever persuasive?
7.3 To Whom—Characteristics of the Audience
The audience of a persuasive message is vitally important. Characteristics of the audience may impact how a message is received. Peoplefrom different cultures think about and respond to messages differently. Individuals of different ages and levels of self-esteem may alsodiffer in how easily they are persuaded. In this section, we will explore how the characteristics of the audience affect reception of amessage.
Culture
A large-scale difference in audiences for persuasive messages is the cultural background of the audience. In Chapter 3, different ways ofviewing the self were discussed. People from Western cultures, like the United States, most often view themselves as independent andunique individuals; they are part of an independent culture. People from many Asian cultures, such as Korea, have a more interdependentview of themselves; they are part of an interdependent culture. In interdependent cultures, people see themselves as enmeshed within asocial context, with the sense of self arising out of social roles and relationships.
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Western values usually emphasize independence and uniqueness, while Asian values oftenfocus more on social roles and ingroups.
Persuasive messages follow this pattern across cultures. For example, persuasive messages in the United States focus more on uniquenessand individual preferences. In Korea, advertisements and other persuasive messages are more likely to focus on harmony with others,particularly family or other ingroups (Han & Shavitt, 1994). For example, an advertisement in Korea might describe a product aspromoting family unity or the happiness of others. Recent research has shown that this difference can vary depending on generationwithin a culture. Affluent Generation X consumers in China were more persuaded than older Chinese consumers by an advertisement fora car that emphasized uniqueness, an independent culture value (Zhang, 2010). These advertisements described the car as allowing oneto break away from the pack rather than being a car a family could depend on. With greater exposure to Western values, these youngpeople in China were more persuaded by advertisers who emphasized values of uniqueness rather than family.
Age
Between ages of 3 and 5, children develop the ability to understand that what is in their mind is different from what is in the minds ofothers, a concept called theory of mind. They also come to understand that others can be persuaded. As long as children believe thatothers think exactly as they do and know what they know, there is no need to persuade (Slaughter, Peterson, & Moore, 2013). Whenchildren learn they can persuade others they also realize that others may be trying to persuade them. Because of this, children under theage of 5 do not recognize that advertisers are attempting to persuade them (McAlister & Cornwell, 2009).
In looking at persuasion for younger, middle-aged, and older adults, a paradox emerges. Younger adults tend to have fluid attitudes thatsolidify and remain the same through middle and older adulthood. For example, although young adults may dramatically change theirpolitical attitudes, once established these attitudes tend to remain the same after young adulthood (Alwin, Cohen, & Newcomb, 1991;Culter & Kaufman, 1975; Krosnick & Alwin, 1989). However, in a research setting, participants of different ages show approximately equalpropensity for persuasion, sometimes even more so for older adults (Wang & Chen, 2006). Why might attitudes remain the same over alifetime, but show evidence of malleability in a laboratory setting?
Over their lifespan, people seem to be equally likely to change their attitudes. What many young adults have that most middle-aged andolder adults do not have is a lot of new life experiences. When middle-aged and older adults experience new things, they are as likely tochange as younger adults (Tyler & Schuller, 1991). What, then, seems to be driving the greater flexibility in young adulthood is not agebut experience. Older adults may be slightly more vulnerable to persuasion in laboratory persuasion tasks. This increased susceptibilitycan be traced to a decline in processing capacity with age. Older adults do not have quite as much working memory capacity as youngeradults, and therefore, tend to be more persuaded by simple cues, like the number of arguments there are for a particular option (Wang &Chen, 2006).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· Do older adults and middle-aged adults have the same capacity to be persuaded as younger adults?
Self-Esteem
Individuals' level of self-esteem can influence how easy it is to persuade them. When it comes to differences among people, WilliamMcGuire (1968), an early researcher of persuasion, proposed that persuasion depended on both receptivity and yielding. Receptivitymeans that one has the ability and willingness to pay attention and understand a message. Yielding means that the individual changes hisor her mind as a result of the message. In order for a message to be considered persuasive, the individual must both be receptive to themessage, and yield to it.
When evaluating the effect of self-esteem on persuasion, both receptivity and yielding are important (Rhodes & Wood, 1992). Individualswith low self-esteem who do not trust their own opinion are likely to yield to what others say. But those with low self-esteem lackreceptivity: they are less likely to pay attention and remember a message. On the other end of the spectrum, receptivity is high amongthose with high self-esteem. Individuals with high self-esteem are likely to pay attention to and remember a message. Those with highself-esteem, however, are confident in their own judgments and therefore, less persuaded by what others say. Those with moderate self-esteem are likely to have the combination of receptivity and yielding that makes persuasion likely. While research findings support thisclaim, there are many variables that interact with self-esteem; given the right circumstances, individuals with high or low self-esteem aremore persuadable (Sanaktekin & Sunar, 2008).
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
· How do receptivity and yielding relate to self-esteem?
Elaboration Likelihood Model
One model that brings together persuader, message, and audience variables is the elaboration likelihood model (Petty & Cacioppo,1986). According to this model, people differ in their motivation and ability to process a persuasive message (see Figure 7.3). Whenpeople are motivated and able to process a message, they will take more time to think about and evaluate the message. "Elaboration"refers to this engagement with the message. Those high on the spectrum of being willing and able to process a message will use whatresearchers have named the central route to persuasion. When using the central route, individuals spend time and energy thinkingabout a message, evaluating the strength of the persuasive arguments. If messages are strong, people are likely to respond with positiveattitude change, leading to behavior that is reflective of that change (Wu & Shaffer, 1987). Stronger attitudes tend to last longer and areless likely to be changed when attacked (Haugtvedt & Petty, 1992; Wu & Shaffer, 1987). But when arguments in a message are weak,those taking this route to persuasion may reject the message.
Figure 7.3: The elaboration likelihood model
According to the elaboration likelihood model, level of processing depends onmotivation and ability to process the message.
Based on Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 123–205). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
We tend to elaborate when a message is relevant to us and we have the time and energy to process it (Petty & Brock, 1981; Petty, Wells,& Brock, 1976). For example, if a commercial for exercise equipment were shown during a television show you were watching, you mightlisten closely if you were thinking about buying such equipment and you had the time to listen. If you had a gym membership and werehappy with your exercise routine, you might largely ignore the message. Our elaboration of a message can also depend on how much wefeel the need to evaluate aspects of our lives in general. Need for cognition is a term researchers use to describe differences betweenindividuals concerning their desire to engage in, and tendency to enjoy, thinking (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982). In a scale to assess need forcognition, research participants are asked about their agreement with statements such as "I really enjoy a task that involves coming upwith new solutions to problems" or "I would prefer a task that is intellectual, difficult, and important over one that is somewhatimportant but does not require much thought." (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982, p.120). Whether or not something is personally relevant, peoplewho are high in need for cognition tend to take the central route to persuasion (Cacioppo, Petty, & Morris, 1983).
Social Psychology in Depth: Word of Mouth and Persuasion
When making decisions about products to buy, restaurants to visit, or movies to see, we often ask our friends and relatives.A friend who raves about a new movie is probably more likely to get you to the theater than an advertisement on television.This passing of information about products or services through informal social networks is known as "word of mouth."Traditionally, word of mouth has its strongest impact when a relationship is close and the message is rich or vivid (Brown &Reingen, 1987; Kisielius & Sternthal, 1984; Sweeney, Soutar, & Mazzarol, 2008).
A new frontier for persuasion through word of mouth is the Internet. Websites like Amazon.com offer customer reviews ofthe products they sell. These reviews, known as "electronic word of mouth" or "e-word" of mouth, can significantly affectpopularity and sales (Ye, Law, Gu, & Chen, 2011; Zhang, Ye, Law, & Li, 2010). E-word of mouth is different from traditionalword of mouth because many of the comments or reviews one might read about a product or service are from strangers,not friends or relatives.
Online shoppers tend to use certain clues to evaluate e-word of mouth. While considering the e-word of mouth for aproduct, shoppers look at the agreement among evaluations. If all reviewers are in agreement, all positive or all negative,that may sway a shopper (Chiou & Cheng, 2003). If the reviews for a camera you were considering purchasing wereuniformly negative, would you buy the camera? Probably not. One bad review among many, however, will not necessarilyscare off a shopper. A set of perfect reviews may be seen as suspicious, too good to be true (Doh & Hwang, 2009). Overall,the greater the ratio of positive to negative reviews, the more positive the attitude of the shopper and the greater theintention to buy the product (Doh & Hwang, 2009).
Online reviews of products may be evaluated differently depending on the shopper. Online shoppers high in need forcognition were more persuaded by reviews that were understandable, objective, and supported by relevant facts than bythose that were of lower quality. The quality of the review has no impact on persuasion for those with low need forcognition (Lin, Lee, & Horng, 2011). A large number of reviews is more convincing to those low in need for cognition butdoes not affect persuasibility for those high in need for cognition (Lin et al., 2011). Individuals who are largely unfamiliarwith a product are also more swayed by the number of reviews for a product. Expertise of reviewers, not number ofreviews, is more important to those who know more (SanJose-Cabezudo, Gutierrez-Arranz, & Gutierrez-Cillan, 2009).
The way individuals engage in e-word of mouth may be different in different countries. In a study of discussion boards inthe United States and China, Chinese participants were more concerned about the country of origin, as opposed to thequality, of the products they were investigating. Researchers also found greater information seeking but less informationprovision by the Chinese than the U.S. participants (Fong & Burton, 2008).
Prior knowledge of a subject can influence people in a similar way. If you knew a great deal about exercise equipment, you would have aneasier time processing the infomercial. In this instance, you would likely perceive a message with strong arguments as more convincingand quickly dismiss one with weak arguments or only an attractive communicator to recommend it (Wood & Kallgren, 1988). As withneed for cognition, even when a topic is not personally relevant, someone with prior knowledge is still more likely to use the centralroute to persuasion (Chebat, Charlebois, & Gelinas-Chebat, 2001). Even if you are not presently in the market for exercise equipment, ifyou stumble across an advertisement for such equipment and have knowledge about equipment, you are likely to pay attention.
When people are less motivated or do not have the time or energy to process a message, they use the peripheral route to persuasion.With this route, individuals use other cues to evaluate the persuasive arguments. Some cues include: the number of arguments presented,the supposed credibility of the source, and how many other people seem to be persuaded (Maheswaran & Chaiken, 1991; O'Keefe, 2002;Petty, Caciopppo, & Schumann, 1983). For example, an online shopper using the peripheral route might be persuaded by the number ofreviews for a product rather than the quality of those reviews (Sher & Lee, 2009). We are more likely to take the peripheral route topersuasion when our level of self-control is depleted due to prior use (Fennis, Janssen, & Vohs, 2009). For example, if you studied hard fora test, using all of your self-control to keep working through class material, an advertisement with an attractive communicator would bemore persuasive to you, regardless of the strength of that communicator's arguments. Recall from Chapter 2 that ego depletion creates aproblem for later volitional acts. The peripheral route is used when we do not have the time or energy to consider a persuasive messagecarefully—when the ego is depleted.
The persuasive message itself can influence what route we would take. Personalization in websites is one way online retailers havesought to influence the buying public (Tam & Ho, 2005). Many companies that sell products online now keep track of where consumerslook on their sites, what they click on, and what they eventually buy. With all of that information, the retailer is able to make suggestionsfor an individual site visitor or for the general shopper who visits and shows interest in a product. You may have visited a website that,after you purchase or even just click on a few products, offers suggestions of other products you might be interested in; that site is usingpersonalization strategies. Because personalization makes messages relevant to individuals, according to the elaboration likelihood modelit should lead to greater central route processing, and, when a product is good, potentially more purchasing of that product.
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· What is the relationship between need for cognition and the two different routes to persuasion?
7.4 How—Persuasion Techniques
Watching a series of infomercials or a shopping channel, you may have noticed that some phrases keep coming up. Most offers are "for alimited time only." The shopping channel may show you how many of the products are left and count them down until they are all gone.Some infomercials ask you to send no money now or offer you a full refund if you are not completely satisfied. Others offer the productand then let you know that if you order now you could get a free gift. All of these advertisements are based on persuasion techniquesresearched by social psychologists and others.
In this section, we will discuss several persuasive techniques. The foot-in-the-door technique begins with a small request, and then movesto a larger request. With the lowball technique, a request is made and accepted before the full cost is revealed. The legitimization-of-paltry-favors technique validates small contributions. Later in this section we will look at persuasion techniques involving reciprocity,large initial requests, scarcity, and changing the focus of attention.
Foot-in-the-Door Technique
If you have ever bought a car, you may have found yourself visiting a lot of dealerships or used-car lots. At a dealership you might beasked to sit in a new car or offered a test drive.
In doing all of this the salesperson might say that there is no obligation, but is that really true? With the foot-in-the-door technique, asmall request is made and agreed to, followed by a larger request. The salesperson might first ask if you would like to take a test drive,and only after the test drive ask if you would like to discuss financing options. Because people have said yes to the first request (testdrive) they are more likely to say yes to the second request (discussing options and potentially moving to buy the car). The secondrequest is really the target for the salesperson (Freedman & Fraser, 1966). Depending on the situation, this technique has been known tobring 15% to 25% compliance with the second request (Dillard, 1991).
Expand Your Knowledge: Influence by Cialdini
Persuasion researcher Robert Cialdini has spent decadesstudying influence. His books are very accessible, andmay be particularly interesting if you are planning towork in business or sales. His books are titled Influence:Science and Practice, Influence: The Psychology ofPersuasion, and Yes!: 50 Scientifically Proven Ways to BePersuasive.
Cialdini's website: http://www.influenceatwork.com/ .
Use of the foot-in-the-door technique requires a delicate balancing act.The first request needs to be small enough to be accepted, but thelarger the first request, the more likely individuals will say yes to thesecond request (Seligman, Bush, & Kirsch, 1976). One explanation forthe foot-in-the-door technique's success is related to self-perceptiontheory. Self-perception theory involves attitude formation; when wewant to know what our attitudes are, we look at our behavior. Withfoot-in-the-door, the same process might be happening as people lookto their initial behavior (agreeing to a small request) to determinewhat they should do for another behavior (agreeing to the larger, targetrequest) (Burger, 1999; Burger & Caldwell, 2003). Foot-in-the-doortechnique is also applied outside of commercial purposes. Whenindividuals visit a website for a charitable organization, those whoagree to sign a petition are more likely to donate money than thosewho are not asked to sign (Gueguen & Jacob, 2001). In another study, researchers found that young women were more likely to agree tohave coffee with a young man if they were first asked to give him directions or light his cigarette (Gueguen, Marchand, Pascual, & Lourel,2008).
Lowball Technique
Seeing a commercial on a website for a laptop at a low price, you click on the ad. You are in the market for a new laptop computer so youknow this price is a good one. You quickly decide on this computer and, excited about your potential purchase, begin the orderingprocess. Partway through providing your name, address, credit card information, you realize that the color you had wanted was going tobe $30 extra. Then you are offered a lengthened power cord that will be able to reach more outlets, as opposed to the shorter one thatcomes with the laptop, for an additional $45.99. Then you are offered antivirus software for only $39. By the time you pay the addedshipping and processing fee, you have spent almost $150 more on the laptop than you originally intended.
This is an example of the lowball technique. An initial, reasonable request is made, but after the person agrees, additional items areadded that make the overall request less reasonable. Because individuals have already made a commitment to the item (e.g., thecomputer) they are reluctant to walk away. If they had known about all of the costs initially, however, it is unlikely they would haveagreed (Cialdini, Cacioppo, Bassett, & Miller, 1978; Gueguen, Pascual, & Dagot, 2002). This tactic also frequently occurs outside of sales.Someone might ask you to hang up posters for an upcoming event as a favor. If you agreed, and then later found out you also needed topick up the bulky, heavy posters from a location 10 minutes away, and transport them to where you are to hang them up, you might stilldo it, even though you might not have had you known all the details in the first place (Burger & Petty, 1981).
Unlike foot-in-the-door, with lowball the initial request is the target request. The initial request is small, or at least reasonable, and it isonly when the full cost is revealed that individuals realize the large commitment they have made. With this technique, the persuaderneeds to be careful to offer the initial product at a price people will be interested in and then make the additional requests reasonableenough so that the agreement continues as the deal becomes less of a deal. Comparing the foot-in-the-door and the lowball technique,researchers have found that the lowball technique seems to work better at persuading people to comply than the foot-in-the-doortechnique (Joule, 1987).
Legitimization-of-Paltry-Favors
A neighbor child comes to your door, collecting money for a well-known charity. Your budget is tight and you already gave elsewhere, soyou are about to respond with a polite no when the child says, "Even a penny will help." You have a penny, right in your pocket, so youcan't really say no to the request. But you do not feel right about contributing just a penny. Reaching into your wallet, you pull out acouple of dollars and hand them over. Congratulations, you have just been persuaded by the technique called legitimization-of–paltry-favors.
As the name implies, the legitimization-of-paltry-favors technique catches us by making a very small contribution acceptable (Andrews,Carpenter, Shaw, & Boster, 2008). It is difficult to refuse when even a very small amount is described as legitimate. But few would give apaltry amount even if it is acceptable, so we give more than just that penny. Notice that a penny was not suggested, but legitimized. Withthis technique, it should be clear that while a very small amount is okay, it is certainly not desired. Such a technique tends to increase thenumber of people who give while not affecting the amount each individual gives (Cialdini & Schroeder, 1976).
Test Yourself
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Reciprocity
Wandering through the supermarket, you come upon a small table that is offering free samples of granola bars. You are hungry and thesamples look good, so you take one. Smiling you thank the person offering the samples, and you reach for a box of the bars. Consideringthat granola bars were not on your shopping list and you may not have known this brand even existed before your encounter with thesample, why would you buy this product?
Corbis/SuperStock
After sampling free food at a supermarket, you may feel inclinedto purchase that food in reciprocation of the free sample. Thesupermarket has persuaded you to buy via reciprocity.
The technique being used here is reciprocity. Reciprocity is considered arule of social behavior that appears to be present in most cultures, if notall. When others do something for us, we feel obligated to do somethingfor them (Gouldner, 1960; Wright, 1994). Communicators use our naturaltendency toward reciprocity to get us to do what we otherwise might not.When provided with something we did not ask for, we tend toreciprocate, at times giving more in return than was invested in theoriginal gift. In one study published in the 1970s, some researchparticipants were given a 10-cent soda. Later in the study, when theparticipants were asked to buy 25-cent raffle tickets, the ones who hadbeen given the soda were more likely to buy the raffle tickets than thosewho had not been given a soda (Regan, 1971). In another example ofreciprocity, researchers have found that food servers who provide theircustomers with mints or candy get increased tips (Lynn & McCall, 2000).Although reciprocity will be slightly higher in a public context, we stilltend to reciprocate, even when our behavior is private (Whatley, Webster,Smith, & Rhodes, 1999).
Even an offer of reciprocity that is refused is helpful. In a field study in France, researchers asked smokers on the street for a cigarette.When the researchers offered a small amount of money in exchange the money was usually refused, but the smokers were more likely togive up a cigarette (Guéguen & Pascual, 2003). Reciprocity is so natural for humans that those who are persuaded do not alwaysrecognize reciprocity as the reason for their change in attitude or behavior (Cialdini, Green, & Rusch, 1992).
Test Yourself
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· If someone gives you a free sample, are you more likely to buy the product?
Social Psychology in Depth: Resistance to Persuasion
Persuasive messages are designed to change our minds but we are not without defense. In the battle for our wallets andour minds, resistance to persuasion plays a part. One way in which we resist persuasive messages is through arguing ourown point of view, called counterarguing. Hearing a message you do not agree with, you come up with a number ofarguments why your position is right and the alternate position is wrong. Such an activity will have an effect on your initialattitude. When people counterargue successfully, they become more certain of their initial attitude, particularly when theother message comes from an expert source (Tormala & Petty, 2004a; Tormala & Petty, 2004b). However, when peoplebelieve they have done a poor job at counterarguing, they may actually become less certain of their attitudes. The attitudesthemselves may not change, but they are now more vulnerable to future attacks and are less likely to predict behavior(Tormala, Clarkson, & Petty, 2006).
At times we resist persuasion not because of well-thought-out arguments but simply because we are reacting tomanipulation. Reactance is our response to threatened freedom; we do the opposite of what someone wants us to dobecause we want to reassert our right to make our own decisions. If a high-pressure salesperson is advocating a particularproduct, we may choose another because we want to assert our freedom to make our own choices. We generally think ofreactance as a simple knee-jerk reaction to a threat to freedom, but reactance can also lead us to the kind of counterarguingdescribed in the first paragraph (Silvia, 2006).
While we can and do resist persuasive messages, our view of our vulnerability to persuasion is distorted. We believe we areless vulnerable to persuasion than others (Douglas & Sutton, 2004). While we tend to judge the vulnerability of othersaccurately, we judge ourselves as being less vulnerable to persuasion than we really are. When our attitudes do change, weunderestimate the degree of change (Bem & McConnell, 1970; Markus, 1986). For example, if a salesperson convinced us tobuy a product, we might say we were leaning toward that choice already even if we were not.
When it comes to resistance to persuasion, our vulnerability is higher when we have exerted self-control. Previousexperiences that have resulted in ego depletion, such as controlling our emotions, making decisions, or engaging in anundesired task, make us more vulnerable to persuasive messages. With depleted resources we are less able to counterargue(Burkley, 2008; Wheeler, Brinol, & Hermann, 2007). The reverse also appears to be true: Engaging in resistance topersuasion makes us less able to engage in tasks requiring our self-control (Burkley, 2008).
Door-in-the-Face Technique
As you watch an infomercial for exercise equipment, the advertiser shows four different machines and the price for each. As youcontemplate the expense of such equipment, you quickly reject the idea of ever owning exercise equipment. A request to buy fourdifferent machines is too much. But wait, the advertiser says, you can afford exercise equipment. The advertiser then displays a machinethat will do everything the first four machines can and is small and relatively inexpensive. Relieved that there is a product you can afford,you pick up the phone to order one of your own.
Unlike foot-in-the-door, where a small request is followed by a larger request, the target request, the door-in-the-face technique beginswith a large request. When the message recipient says no to the first request, the persuader follows with a second, more reasonablerequest, the actual target of the communication. In the original study on the technique, college students were asked if they would bewilling to counsel juvenile delinquents for 2 hours a week for 2 years. The students declined. Then, those students and others were askedif they would be willing to take the juveniles to the zoo for a day. Of the students who had not been previously asked to make a 2-yearcommitment, about 17% agreed to chaperone the kids. Of the students who had been asked and refused the 2-year commitment, 50%agreed to the chaperoning (Cialdini et al., 1975).
One explanation for why this technique works has to do with the discomfort we feel when we refuse someone's request. In the secondrequest the persuader makes a concession, so we feel as though we should make a reciprocal concession (Turner, Tamborini, Limon, &Zuckerman-Hyman, 2007). Wanting the students' help with juveniles for 2 years, the persuader appears to be making a concession withjust a day at the zoo. Wanting to do nothing, the students make a concession from nothing to a day at the zoo. Further research has foundthat emphasizing the concession made by the person making the request increases persuasion or feelings of obligation (Abrahams & Bell,1994; Ebster & Neumayr, 2008). Perhaps because of this, compliance is highest when requests are close to one another in time (ideallywithin the same interaction), and are made by the same individual (Cann, Sherman, & Elkes, 1975; Guéguen, Jacob, & Meineri, 2011;O'Keefe & Hale, 2001). It seems the person needs to see a clear connection between the first request and the second request in order tofeel a need for reciprocal concession.
As with the foot-in-the-door technique, there needs to be a balance between the levels of demand of the requests. In the initial study onthe technique, the first request was a very demanding request that everyone was expected to refuse (counseling juveniles 2 hours perweek for 2 years). When moderate initial requests are used, compliance actually declines in some studies (Even-Chen, Yinon, & Bizman,1978). In a meta-analysis of studies on the technique, researchers found that the technique works better in gaining verbal agreementrather than persuading people to behave differently (Feeley, Anker, & Aloe, 2012).
Studies comparing the amount of persuasion found for the door-in-the-face technique in contrast with the foot-in-the-door technique findthat the door-in-the-face technique tends to be more effective (Pascual & Guéguen, 2005; Rodafinos, Vucevic, & Sideridis, 2005). Forexample, in one study researchers were able to get children to do more academic work by using the door-in-the-face technique than theygot when they used the foot-in-the-door technique, or simply asking the children to do the work (Chan & Au, 2011). In another study,when comparing the foot-in-the-door, door-in-the-face, and the lowball technique, the door-in-the-face technique once again came out ontop. The door-in-the-face technique resulted in the most donated money in comparison with the other two techniques (Wang, Brownstein,& Katzey, 1989).
That's-not-all Technique
On late-night television you might find an infomercial that explains an exercise machine and the wonderful things it does. After offeringthe product and telling you the price, the announcer says, "and that's not all" and offers some deluxe exercise towels that you will getwith your purchase. When sellers offer a product and, before the customer can respond, offer something else with the sale or offer tolower the price, they are using the that's-not-all technique.
This technique might be effective due to reciprocity. The seller is seen as willing to negotiate the sale of his or her product, so the buyershould reciprocate that flexibility by buying. Another factor may be a concept known as anchoring. The initial price for the individualpiece is seen as the anchor. When the price is lowered or additional things are added, the consumer sees this as a good deal. If originallyoffered the entire package at the lower price, consumers take that as the anchor and do not view it as a good deal (Burger, 1986).
The that's-not-all technique seems to work best when the initial request is reasonable (Burger, Reed, DeCesare, Rauner, & Rozolis, 1999).This means that when using the technique, sellers need to be careful in setting the initial price. A high initial price can shock people intoconsidering whether they really need the product or really need to spend that much money. High initial prices tend to lead to greaterrefusal when the that's-not-all technique is used. Adding additional items to the initial offering may not alleviate that initial shock(Pollock, Smith, Knowles, & Bruce, 1998).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· Why does an initial refusal with the door-in-the-face technique lead to later persuasion?
· How does the that's-not-all technique work?
Scarcity
Often advertisements for products will emphasize the fact that the item is only available for a limited time. Deals available on the dayafter Thanksgiving are sometimes only available for a few hours after the store has opened. Why do advertisers limit the time frame forsuch bargains? Overall, people do not like it when their freedom to act is restricted. When products may not be available for long, wetend to buy those products so we can access them if we want. This type of behavior is called reactance. Reactance is acting in a way thatprotects one's freedom. Although we may have never intended to buy a certain product in the first place, if we think it will no longer beavailable we may purchase it. Researchers have found evidence of reactance in a wide variety of circumstances. When we feel like othersare restricting our freedom in a parking lot by waiting for our parking space, we may actually stay in the space longer than if no one waswaiting (Ruback & Juieng, 1997).
Limited-time offers are not the only type of offers for which we have this reaction. We may also buy when we believe there are only a fewof the product in existence, in other words, when the number of items is restricted. Any advertisement that refers to the product as beinga limited edition or in short supply leads us to a similar reaction. This reaction may rely in part on our need for uniqueness (Lynn, 1991).We do not want to look like or have the same things as everyone else, so we buy rare products to express our individuality. Whencommercials offer a product for a limited time or describe the limited number available, the advertisers are using scarcity.
When products are seen as available for only a limited time, it is possible that respondents actually increase their scrutiny of thepersuasive message. Knowing the product may only be available briefly provides motivation to think about the merits of the message(Brannon & Brock, 2001). Scarcity works particularly well in romantic contexts (such as when watching a romantic movie) but canbackfire when in the context of fearful events (such as when watching a scary movie). Romantic situations remind us how scarceopportunities can be; after all, how often does Mr. or Ms. Right come along? In these situations you want to stand out from the crowd soyou can be noticed by that potential significant other or impress the partner you have. When we are thinking of romance, therefore, acommercial that tells us to get one of the few products available is more likely to be persuasive (Griskevicius et al., 2009).
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Pique Technique
Within some contexts, we automatically refuse anyone's attempts to persuade us. When encountering a panhandler, for example, themajority of people walk on by and do not give any money. Two techniques involve disrupting that automatic tendency toward refusal,making compliance more likely—the pique technique and the disrupt-then-reframe technique. The pique technique works by disruptingattention with an odd request. Rather than asking passersby if they could spare some change, a panhandler might ask if the person couldspare 37 cents. Imagine your own response to such a request. Though you might have simply kept going the odd request makes you stopand perhaps ask why the person wants exactly 37 cents. In research on the technique, unique requests resulted in an almost 60%increase in compliance (Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994).
Does the reason for wanting 37 cents matter? When a person asking for 37 cents gave either a specific reason ("that's all I need to haveenough for the bus fare"), or a vague reason ("I need to buy something"), the amount of compliance with the request did not change.Although people did give more money when they asked a question rather than if the requester just used the pique technique, whetherthere was a specific reason given or a vague reason the average amount of money given was essentially the same (Burger, Hornisher,Martin, Newman, & Pringle, 2007). It seems that the actual reason does not matter, only that the passerby was intrigued enough to askabout the request.
Disrupt-Then-Reframe Technique
Another technique relying on disrupting the general tendency to refuse requests is the disrupt-then-reframe technique. With thistechnique, a request is made in an unusual way and then the requester reframes that request. For example, in door-to-door sales ofChristmas cards, women described that they were selling the cards to raise money for a school for the developmentally disabled. If peoplesaid they wanted to know the price of the cards the woman said "They're 300 pennies. . . that's $3. It's a bargain." The odd way of statingthe price, 300 pennies, changed the way people thought about the request, and then, by stating such a price is a bargain, the 300-pennyprice was reframed (Davis & Knowles, 1999).
One hypothesis for how this works is that the unusual request interrupts usual thinking processing so people do not have a readyresponse. The reframing then provides them with an easy response. "It's a bargain" gives people something to latch on to while they aretrying to process what 300 pennies really means and whether 300 pennies for a few Christmas cards is a good or a bad deal. Althoughthe technique works in both requests related to charity and in sales settings, it is more effective in charity related contexts (Carpenter &Boster, 2009; Fennis, Das, & Pruyn, 2006).
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
· How does a communicator pique attention using the pique technique?
|
able 7.1 Persuasion techniques: Definitions and examples |
||
|
Technique |
Definition |
Example |
|
Foot-in-the-door |
An initial small request is madeand accepted. A large request, thetarget request, is then made. |
You are asked to sign a petition to support blooddonation. After you sign, you are asked to donateblood. |
|
Lowball |
An initial request, the targetrequest, is made, but only laterare the full costs are revealed. |
You are asked to volunteer 20 minutes of your time.Only later is it revealed that the time will involveblood donation, with accompanying needles andslight pain. |
|
Legitimization-of-paltry-favors |
Small favors are described asacceptable, although not desired. |
A small donation to support blood drives, just 25cents, is acceptable, although a larger donationwould be appreciated. |
|
Reciprocity |
A request is made after a gift hasbeen given. |
After receiving a cookie you are asked if you wouldbe willing to donate blood. |
|
Door-in-the-face |
A large request is made andrefused. Then the target requestis made. |
You are asked if you could volunteer 2 hours a weekfor the next year. When you refuse, you are asked ifyou could spend just a half hour now donatingblood. |
|
That's-not-all |
A large request is made, butbefore the individual can refuseadditional incentives are added. |
You are asked to donate blood, but before you say noyou are told you will get a cookie and a sticker andyour name will be published in the paper. |
|
Scarcity |
Products or opportunities arepresented as being limited innumber or as only available for alimited time. |
The blood bank tells you the special post-donationcookies are only available today for the first 20people who give blood. |
|
Pique |
Attention is disrupted by an oddlyframed request. |
You are asked if you want to save the lives of threechildren today. |
|
Disrupt-then-reframe |
An unusual request is made andthen framed in a positive way. |
When asked to give blood you are told it will onlytake 3,600 seconds, a very short time to give. |
Conclusion
In evaluating persuasion we need to take into account where the message comes from, what the message contains, and the intendedaudience. All of these factors interact with one another, so a particular communicator may be quite persuasive using a certain type ofmessage with a certain audience but less persuasive when conditions change. Persuaders have a large and varied bag of tricks. Eachpersuasion technique can affect behavior or attitudes when used carefully and correctly.
Jupiterimages/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
· Explain Solomon Asch's study of conformity
· Differentiate injunctive norms from descriptive norms and normative influence from informational influence
· Describe how conformity may result in either acceptance or compliance
· Explain the power of minorities
· Describe Milgram's study of obedience and the factors that make obedience more or less likely to occur
· Explain factors that predict disobedience
· Describe the ethical issues with Milgram's study and Milgram's response to those concerns
· Define leadership and differentiate the three main types of leadership
· Define implicit leadership theories
Chapter Outline
8.1 Conformity
· Norms
· Normative and Informational Influence
· Minority Influence
8.2 Obedience to Authority
· What Predicts Obedience?
· Disobedience
· Ethics of Obedience Research
8.3 Leadership
Chapter Summary
* * *
In 1956, Jim Jones, an untrained but charismatic pastor, started the "People's Temple," a racially integrated, socially mindedchurch in Indiana. Ten years later, he and his congregation moved to California and grew in size and power. Here, pressurestoward conformity helped align individuals' behavior with group expectations. Jones used social influence in services to punishmembers for undesirable behavior, bringing members up during gatherings and publicly shaming them for their actions.Church members were expected to obey Jones' edicts without question. Feeling persecuted for the good work he was doing Jonesmoved his entire church to Guyana, in South America, to a settlement he named Jonestown. He dreamed of creating a utopiancommunity, where young and old were treated with dignity and respect and the color of one's skin did not matter. But Jonesbecame increasingly paranoid and controlling. Members worked long days, often listening to Jones speak over the loudspeaker,and were not allowed to leave. Concerned families back home asked U.S. Representative Leo Ryan to check out the situation.
In November 1978, Ryan, some of his staff, and a news crew traveled to Guyana to meet with Jones and members of thePeople's Temple. Some of the Jonestown residents decided to leave with the congressman and as they waited for the planes tobe readied other members of Jonestown attacked the group, killing the congressman and several others. Fearing retaliationJones asked his followers to commit suicide in what he called a revolutionary act. They mixed up vats of flavored drink lacedwith cyanide and gave it to the children first, then the adults. Those who refused were encouraged by guards with guns. In theend, 918 people died, either in the attack at the airport or in the mass suicide. Jones died of a gunshot to the head (Hall, 1987).The People's Temple relied on pressure from the group and obedience to authority to do its work and to grow. The story ofJonestown is a dramatic example of the power of conformity and obedience, forces we will explore in greater depth in thischapter.
8.1 Conformity
You have been invited to be a participant in a research study. When you show up, you find that seven other participants have alreadyarrived. All of you are seated around a table and are asked to be part of a study that, at least by appearances, is investigating visualperception. You are shown a line, called the stimulus line, and are asked which of three other lines the stimulus line matches. This looksto be a simple task; you expect to be a little bored. For the first couple of rounds, the study goes as expected, with each person aroundthe table choosing the line that obviously matches the stimulus line. Then something odd happens. The first person chooses the wrongline. You are surprised; the line the person chooses is obviously not the right one. You wait for the second person to choose the right line.But the second person agrees with the first person. The third and fourth also agree. The fifth person chooses the same wrong line andthen the sixth. Finally, it is your turn. You need to decide whether to go along with the group, a group that is unanimous, or trust youreyes and choose what you perceive is the right line. What do you do?
Figure 8.1: Visual perceptiontest
Asch used this visual perception test.Participants were asked which comparison linewas the same length as the standard line. Theparticipants were unknowingly mixed withconfederates. The confederates purposefullyagreed on the wrong answer. Asch measuredhow many participants agreed with theconfederates (even though they were wrong)and how many did not.
From Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. ScientificAmerican, 193, 31–35. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican1155-31
Figure 8.2: Participant conformityrates with confederate(s)
When participants were grouped with a singleconfederate in Asch's study, they were generallyas accurate as if they had been alone. When theywere grouped with four confederates, theyagreed with the incorrect confederates morethan 30% of the time.
Adapted from Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193, 31–35. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1155-31
This scenario was experienced by participants in Solomon Asch's (1958) study ofconformity. Conformity can be defined as going along with a group's actions or beliefs. Thestudy was designed to pit individuals against a unanimous group to see whether peoplewould go along with the group or stick with what their senses were telling them was right.In this study, one third of judgments made by participants went along with the majorityopinion. Looking at how likely individual participants were to conform, Asch found that onequarter of all participants never went along with the majority. On the other side, one thirdof participants conformed 50% of the time or more. The rest of the participants showed atleast occasional conformity. Altogether, three quarters of participants conformed to thegroup judgment at least once. See Figures 8.1 and 8.2 for more on the specific test Aschused and the results.
Participants who did not go along with the group were not unaffected by the fact that theirjudgments were going against the group. Some seemed confused or hesitant in theiranswers, but persevered anyway. Even those who were more certain of their judgmentswere chagrined at their own deviance. Of those who went along with the group, somethought that the answers they and the group were giving were wrong, but neverthelesswent along with the group. Others came to believe that the group was right.
Asch followed up his original study with a few variations. When he varied the size of thegroup, he found that a unanimous group of one or two others was not as persuasive asthree, but there were only minimal gains after adding the third person. He also had avariation in which another person in the group gave an accurate judgment. The presence ofanother person who went against the group and gave the right answer decreasedconformity. Even when it goes against the majority opinion, having one other person aroundwho agrees with us gives us more confidence to express what we believe is right.
Conformity occurs in all cultures, although rates may be slightly different. In independentcultures, we generally find less conformity than in interdependent cultures (Bond & Smith,1996). One caveat to this is the rates of conformity in Japan. In a study using a similarconformity task to Asch's, rates of conformity were lower in Japan than in the United States,a surprising finding given that Japanese culture is more interdependent than U.S. culture(Frager, 1970). Later researchers found that in Japan, when the group was made up offriends, conformity was much higher (Williams & Sogon, 1984). It seems that in aninterdependent culture, people conform more to the ingroup but less to the outgroup.Conformity has declined slightly since Asch did his study in the early 1950s, perhapsbecause of a cultural shift increasingly emphasizing individuality and the questioning ofauthority (Bond & Smith, 1996).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· Did all of the participants in Asch's study go along with the group?
Norms
Even though most of us do not find ourselves in a room with a group of people answering targeted questions, we can still develop ideasbased on what the collective group is thinking or doing. For example, you might believe that the majority of people brush their teeth atleast twice a day, and that most people are against removing educational services for children with disabilities. These beliefs about whatthe group is thinking or doing are called norms.
Norms
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Both injunctive and descriptive norms caninfluence our behavior.
Critical Thinking Questions
· What is an example of an injunctive norm and adescriptive norm?
· Which type of norm do you think influences yourbehavior more?
Two types of norms may influence our behavior. Norms for what is approved ordisapproved of are called injunctive norms. Norms describing what mostpeople do are descriptive norms (Cialdini, Kallgren, & Reno, 1991). Sometimesthese two types of norms are in conflict; for example, a high school student maybelieve that the majority of people are not in favor of underage drinking(injunctive norm) but may also believe that the majority of teens engage inunderage drinking (descriptive norm). Often the injunctive and descriptivenorms are similar. Most people agree that we should not steal from one another(injunctive norm) and that most people do not steal (descriptive norm). We canalso be wrong about one or both of these norms. The high school student maybe right that most people disapprove of underage drinking but wrong that moststudents engage in it (Borsari & Carey, 2003).
One place we get information about norms is the environment itself. Forexample, if you are in a public place and see trash all around, the descriptivenorm the environment is providing is that everyone litters. This may lead you tolitter as well (Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990). If the injunctive norm againstlittering were more prominent, for example, if there were signs asking you notto litter and easily accessible trash cans were available, you may not litter(Cialdini et al., 1990; Reno, Cialdini, & Kallgren, 1993). Norms that come fromthe environment will differ from place to place and culture to culture.
©2008 Getty Images/Chris Clinton/Lifesize/Thinkstock
If recycling is a norm in your neighborhood, you might be morelikely to recycle.
Telling people about descriptive norms can be helpful in encouraging positivebehaviors. In astudy of energy consumption, households that used more than theaverage amount of energy reduced energy consumption when informed ofthe descriptive norm. However, households that were below the averagefor energy consumption actually increased consumption when told aboutthe descriptive norm, creating a boomerang effect. This can be moderatedby including the injunctive norm along with the descriptive norm.Households that were told they were lower than average in energyconsumption (told of the descriptive norm) and then praised for theirconservation (indicating an injunctive norm) maintained their low rate ofenergy consumption (Schultz, Nolan, Cialdini, Goldstein, & Griskevicius,2007). An advertising campaign in Montana that targeted drinking anddriving among 21-to-34-year-olds used information about social norms toencourage this age group to reduce drinking and driving, and encouragethe use designated drivers (Perkins, Linkenbach, Lewis, & Neighbors,2010).
General descriptive norms about positive behaviors are helpful for encouraging those behaviors, but more specific norms are even morehelpful. If you have stayed in a hotel recently, you have probably seen a sign about towel reuse. The hotel will replace your towel but, ifyou want to save water and electricity, you can choose to reuse your towel. Does it matter if you know what others do in this situation?When told that the majority of other guests in the hotel reuse their towels, guests were more likely to reuse their towels. But this can bestrengthened with greater specificity. When told that 75% of people who stayed in their specific room (e.g., Room 201) reused theirtowels, guests were more likely to reuse their towels than if they were told 75% of people staying in the hotel reused their towels(Goldstein, Cialdini, & Griskevicius, 2008). Greater specificity of a norm leads to greater conformity to that norm.
Social Psychology in Depth: Drinking Norms
Drinking on college campuses is an epidemic. Nearly 80% of college students report drinking. Despite a minimum legaldrinking age in the United States of 21, almost 60% of students aged 18 to 20 report drinking. Much of this drinking isbinge drinking, which involves consuming at least four drinks (for women) or five drinks (for men) in a 2-hour period. Morethan 40% of college students report binge drinking at least once in a 2-week period (National Institute on Alcohol Abuseand Alcoholism, 2011). In addition to alcohol poisoning, such behavior contributes to injuries, assaults, unsafe sex andsexual assault, academic problems, and vandalism (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010; National Institute onAlcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2011).
Alcohol use for college students depends, in part, on perceived injunctive and descriptive norms (Park, Klein, Smith, &Martell, 2009). Approval of drinking is an injunctive norm; the perception of how much drinking is being done is adescriptive norm. Not all norms are created equal. Researchers have found that people closer to a student are more likely toinfluence that student's behavior. Perceived approval for drinking (injunctive norm) by close friends and parents is moreimportant than the approval for drinking of typical students, even same-sex students (Lee, Geisner, Lewis, Neighbors, &Larimer, 2007; Neighbors et al., 2008). Similarly, students' beliefs about how much their friends drink has more of animpact than the perceived behaviors of others (Cho, 2006; Lee et al., 2007). Descriptive norms seen on social media(Facebook) predicted alcohol-related thinking patterns that are related to alcohol use (Litt & Stock, 2011). In other words,believing that others in one's social network are drinking makes you more willing to drink, have more positive attitudestoward drinking, and perceive your own use of alcohol as more likely.
Norms involve what we believe others approve of or are doing, but beliefs are not always accurate. In the case of normsabout drinking, U.S. and Canadian students overestimate the quantity and frequency of drinking by other students. Alongwith this, personal alcohol use is more influenced by the inaccurate norm than by the real norm for drinking on campus(Perkins, 2007; Perkins, Haines, & Rice, 2005).
Does correcting these misperceptions reduce drinking? Overall, yes. At schools where the perceived norm is more in linewith the lower actual norm, there is less problematic drinking (Perkins et al., 2005). Campaigns to change social norms tendto change perceived norms and bring down problematic drinking behaviors (Perkins et al., 2010). For binge drinkers, thedescriptive norms for friends influence behavior more than descriptive campus norms or injunctive norms. People whowere not binge drinkers were more influenced by campus descriptive norms (Cho, 2006). Unfortunately, interventions withthose most at risk, high binge drinkers, can backfire if students perceive the messages as restricting their freedom to do asthey like (Jung, Shim, & Mantaro, 2010).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· What is the difference between an injunctive and a descriptive norm?
Normative and Informational Influence
Why do we conform? Conformity may occur because we believe that a group has some knowledge we do not. Imagine yourself at the zoo.You walk up to the lion enclosure and notice there are a lot of people standing over on the right side, and no one is on the left. If youwant to see the lion, where do you go? Your best bet is to the right, where all the people are. It's likely that no one is on the left becausethe lion not there. The crowd knows something you do not–where the lion is–and so by following the crowd you are more likely to seethe lion. When we conform because we believe the crowd knows something, we are experiencing informational influence (Castelli,Vanzetto, Sherman, & Luciano, 2001). Conformity may also occur because we want to be liked and accepted by the group. In high school,you might have worn a certain style of clothing or acted in a particular way not because you believed it was the right thing to do butbecause you wanted to be liked and accepted. When we conform because we want to be liked and accepted by others, we areexperiencing normative influence (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955).
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Informational influence might compel you to join a crowd ofonlookers—these people may know something you don't.
These different forms of influence can lead to different types ofpersuasion. If you believed the group knew information, you would likelyact as the group does, as well as come to believe as the group does. If youwere in a theater and suddenly everyone started running for the exitsyelling "Fire!," you may follow the crowd, truly believing there is a firesomewhere, even if you have not seen any evidence of it. When we bothbehave and believe as the group does we have experienced acceptance ofthe social norm. We more often find acceptance in the case ofinformational influence. On the other hand, if you were in that theaterfollowing everyone as they rushed toward the exits but you did notbelieve there was a fire, you would be acting in a way that goes alongwith the group norms while privately disagreeing. Such action withoutbelief is called compliance. We find more compliance in the case ofnormative influence. In the case of the tragedy at Jonestown it seems bothof these were at work. Based on recordings made during the mass suicidein Jonestown it appears many of Jim Jones' followers truly believed in himand in his dire predictions, readily and willingly drinking the poisoned beverage. These people accepted the social norm. Others seem tohave drunk the cyanide while not truly believing that such an act was necessary (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1978).
Advertisers use conformity to their advantage. By telling us how many people switched their car insurance, an insurance company issuggesting that these other people know something we do not. If everyone else discovered cheaper insurance, perhaps we should jointhem and switch too; informational influence is at work. Another advertiser might show us a lot of happy people wearing a particularbrand of jeans, suggesting that if we want to fit in we should buy and wear these jeans. When we buy what others do to be liked oraccepted, we are conforming due to normative influence. There are times when we are more susceptible to conformity pressures. Forexample, individuals are more likely to go along with the crowd when they are in a good mood (Tong, Tan, Latheef, Selamat, & Tan, 2008)and are more involved with the topic at hand (Huang & Min, 2007). Normative influence can help self-managed teams in businesses tomanage themselves. Team members who feel they belong and are committed to the team can show greater productivity (Stewart,Courtright, & Barrick, 2012).
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
· How are acceptance and compliance related to normative and informational influence?
Minority Influence
So far, this chapter has discussed the ways in which norms can have a powerful influence on the individual, causing them to go along withwhat everyone else is doing. But individuals are not powerless. When an individual goes against the majority, that action can influence themajority. In the 1957 film 12 Angry Men, one juror persuades the other 11 jurors to his side of thinking. While, at the beginning of thefilm, he is the only one who believes in the innocence of the accused, by the end they all believe the young man accused of the crime isnot guilty. The majority is more likely to find a minority viewpoint persuasive if the minority viewpoint is distinct and the position is heldconsistently. When a minority holds one point of difference from the group but agrees with the majority on other points, this creates distinctiveness. If a friend shares your beliefs concerning school reform except for the use of student achievement for teacher evaluation,you might be more willing to entertain that friend's perspective and potentially be convinced by his arguments (Bohner, Frank, & Erb,1998). Consistently held positions are also more persuasive. If your friend waivered in his beliefs about teacher evaluations, you would beless willing to hear his arguments (Moscovici & Lage, 1976). Minorities can also become more persuasive when there are defections fromthe minority. If your friend were to convince someone who used to agree with you to now agree with his line of thinking, you would bemore likely to also change your opinion (Clark, 2001).
Whether or not minorities actually lead the majority to change beliefs, minorities do create greater creativity and complexity in thethinking of the majority (Legrenzi, Butera, Mugny, & Perez, 1991; Nemeth, Mayseless, Sherman, & Brown, 1990). The alternativeperspective of the minority causes the majority to consider other viewpoints and approaches to an issue. The minority viewpoint allowsthem to think about their ideas from other angles they may not have accounted for before. When minorities do change the opinion of themajority, that changed belief tends to be more stable and more resistant to future change (Martin, Hewstone, & Martin, 2008). In this way,minorities perform a service for the majority, even if they do not convince anyone in the majority to their way of thinking.
Having a group move from agreeing with you on an issue to disagreeing with you is an unsettling experience. Individuals who began inthe majority and maintain their opinion as the rest of the group joins the minority opinion tend to have hostile feelings toward the group.On the other hand, those who began in the minority and have a group adopt their opinion tend to like the group more and expect positiveinteractions with the group in the future (Prislin, Limbert, & Bauer, 2000). Being in the minority is an uncomfortable experience that canimprove if others come to see things as we do.
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
8.2 Obedience to Authority
It began like many other research studies. Having answered a newspaper advertisement, male research participants entered the researchlaboratory and were told they were going to be part of a study of performance and punishment. Each participant was paired with anotherparticipant, and both were told they would each be taking on the role of teacher or the role of learner. These roles were chosen randomly,from little slips of paper in a hat. The learner was brought to a separate room. Electrodes were connected to the learner's arm and thelearner was strapped to a chair. Learners were told, in the presence of the teacher, the shocks would be painful but they would cause nopermanent damage. The teachers returned with the experimenter to the other room and were told they would be teaching the learner aseries of words, using electrical shocks to punish the leaner for wrong answers.
Stanley Milgram
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The impact of Stanley Milgram's experiment.
Critical Thinking Questions
· What motivated Stanley Milgram's famousexperiment?
· What is a contemporary example of how authorityinfluences behavior?
As the teacher and learner worked through the word list, the teacher increasedthe shock level by 15 volts for every wrong answer, as instructed by theexperimenter. At first the experiment was uneventful, but at 75 volts the learneruttered an "Ugh!" after the shock. After several more of these sorts ofverbalizations from the learner at the 150-volt level, the leaner said "Ugh!Experimenter! That's all. Get me out of here. I told you I had heart trouble. Myheart's starting to bother me now. Get me out of here please. My heart's startingto bother me. I refuse to go on. Let me out" (Milgram, 1974, p. 56). When theteacher asked the experimenter what to do, the experimenter replied that heshould go on. After that, if the teacher continued the learner protested until the330-volt level. After the 330-volt level the learner fell silent, not providing anyfurther protests, but also not answering any questions. The highest shock levelpossible was 450, a level denoted with XXX, past the denotation of Danger:Severe Shock.
Before the study began, psychology undergraduates, adults, and psychiatristswere asked to predict how far on the shock generator the teachers would go.They predicted that only 1 in 1,000 would go all the way to the end of the shockgenerator, with about 4% even making it to the 300-volt level (Milgram, 1974).In the study, 62.5% of the participants (25/40) went to the end. Many teachersprotested along the way, showing signs of extreme stress, but continued to theend. None of the teachers dropped out before the 135-volt level, and 80%continued to give shocks until the 285-volt level, having given 18 shocks andheard 14 separate protests by the learner. What the participants did not know was that the learner was not getting any electrical shocks;he was working with the experimenter, his "random" assignment as learner was rigged, and his verbalizations throughout the study wererecordings. The study was designed to investigate obedience, and the primary interest of the researcher was whether the participant (theteacher) would obey, even when it meant harming another person.
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We are required to display obedience on a daily basis. Forexample, drivers are expected to stop at red lights and pedestriansmust wait for a signal before crossing an intersection.
Milgram undertook his study, in part, to try to better understand theevents that occurred in Nazi Germany, where many ordinary people wentagainst their own moral codes and their own ethics and participated inthe degradation, imprisonment, and killing of Jewish civilians and otherinnocent people (Milgram, 1963). Milgram argued that one reason forthat behavior was obedience. But could obedience be so powerful?Milgram's study suggests it is. Even given immoral orders to continue tohurt another person, people tend to obey. Many, including StanleyMilgram, the researcher, found these results surprising (Milgram, 1963).The findings of this study suggest that people are willing to harm anotherperson if told to do so by an authority. They may protest, expressdisapproval, and ask the authority figure to let them stop, but when theauthority figure says they should continue, they will.
Obedience is a deeply engrained tendency–one that we are taught earlyon in life. Most of the time, obedience is a positive behavior. Driving yourcar through an intersection at a green light, you hope that those stoppedfor the red light on the cross street will obey traffic laws and stop. Obedience to authority prevents many thefts, murders, andkidnappings. In fact, we may wish for more obedience in regards to violent and nonviolent crimes. But, as Milgram showed, and ashistory has taught us, there is also a dark side to obedience. This dark side can be clearly seen in the events at Jonestown. Jim Jonesdemanded obedience from his followers and, in the end, received ultimate obedience from many–they killed themselves on his command.
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· In Milgram's study, did most of the participants obey or did most disobey?
· Were the findings of Milgram's study expected by people asked to predict the results?
Social Psychology in Depth: Bad Apples or Vinegar Barrels?
When we hear about some of the bad events that happen in our world, we often describe the perpetrators as "bad people."Yet prominent psychologist Philip Zimbardo argues that we apply such terms too liberally, failing to recognize the capacityfor evil that we all hold, given the right set of circumstances (Zimbardo, 2004; 2008).
Take, for example, the Abu Ghraib prisoner-abuse scandal. In 2004, pictures began to emerge of U.S. prison guards (Armyreservists) at the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq abusing the Iraqi prisoners. The images were graphic. Prisoners were shownnaked, in humiliating poses, on leashes, and being threatened by dogs. Our initial instinct is to say the guards were badpeople–bad apples who should never have been allowed into the Army (Shermer, 2007). In making such a conclusion wemake a fundamental attribution error, ignoring situational factors and blaming dispositional factors for behavior.
Milgram's experiment shows us how powerful situational factors can be. Normal, ordinary Americans were willing to inflictgreat harm on another person simply because of the orders of a man in a white lab coat. If such behavior can be elicited ina relatively short period in a largely innocuous psychology laboratory situation, might even more brutal behavior beexpected over a longer period in a frightening and unfamiliar scenario?
Despite focusing on the situation in explaining evil events, Zimbardo does not advocate excusing bad behavior.Understanding the situation that brought about the behavior does not condone it. Those who do bad things should bepunished for what they have done. But without some attention to the situation, more people will engage in the behaviors,creating more pain and suffering in the world.
Zimbardo (2004) writes:
'While a few bad apples might spoil the barrel (filled with good fruit/people), a barrel filled with vinegar will always transform sweet cucumbers into sour pickles–regardless of the best intentions, resilience, and geneticnature of those cucumbers.' So, does it make more sense to spend our resources on attempts to identify,isolate, and destroy the few bad apples or to learn how vinegar works so that we can teach cucumbers how toavoid undesirable vinegar barrels? (p. 47)
What Predicts Obedience?
Milgram (1974) completed a variety of related experiments to learn what factors contribute to obedience. Unlike many studies in socialpsychology, Milgram used community members for his research, not college undergraduates. His participants were from a variety ofeducation levels, ranging from not completing high school to having obtained doctoral degrees, and varied from age 20 to age 50.Milgram's original studies used only male participants; when Milgram expanded his study to include women, though, he found noappreciable differences between men and women (Shanab & Yahya, 1977). Age does not seem to matter in level of obedience in this typeof study either. Children aged 6 to 16 years were about as obedient in a replication of Milgram's study, with no differences based on age(Shanab & Yahya, 1977).
Expand Your Knowledge: Zimbardo on Evil
Phillip Zimbardo described the social psychologicalfactors in destructive behaviors in his book The LuciferEffect. Although obedience is only a part of theexplanation, if you are interested in learning more aboutwhy people act in ways that hurt others, read this book.Zimbardo also wrote two shorter pieces on this topic: achapter in an edited book titled The Social Psychology ofGood and Evil: Understanding Our Capacity for Kindnessand Cruelty and a short article for the magazine Eye onPsi Chi. The book chapter explores what Zimbardo calls asituationist perspective on evil.
Zimbardo, P. G. (2008). The Lucifer effect: Understandinghow good people turn evil. New York: Random House.Information on the Lucifer Effect is available here .
Proximity of the Victim
Milgram found that the proximity between the learner (the victim) andthe teacher (the participant) was an important factor in obedience. Inone study, the learner was in another room and had no communicationwith the teacher, except in providing answers and, at the 300- and 315-volt level, banging on the wall. In this instance, obedience was raisedonly to 65% (26 out of 40 participants) from 62.5% in the first study.In another study, the learner was in the same room as the teacher. Inanother, the learner and teacher were next to one another. In thissecond experiment the learner had to touch a shock plate every timehe got an answer wrong. He eventually refused to touch the plate andthe teacher had to physically move his hand and force it down on theshock plate. In these studies, Milgram found that the closer the learnerwas to the teacher, the lower the obedience. When the learner was farremoved, obedience was very high; more than half of the participantsobeyed the experimenter. When the learner was in the same room asthe teacher, obedience declined to 40%, and it further declined to 30%when physical contact was required. When someone is ordered to hurtanother, the closer the victim is the lower the likelihood of obedience.
Would we harm those we know well? In one of Milgram's studies, participants brought a friend along. The friend was enlisted as theexperimenter's helper and fulfilled the role of learner, including giving all the protests the confederate learner had offered in the originalstudy. The researchers found much lower obedience in this condition. Only 15% (3 out of 20) of participants were willing to go all theway to the end of the shock generator when their friend protested (Rochat & Modigliani, 1997).
Proximity of the Authority
In another set of studies, the distance between the experimenter (the authority figure) and the teacher was varied. In one study, theexperimenter provided directions by telephone or through a prerecorded message. When the authority figure was distant, the participantswere less likely to obey. The legitimacy of the authority was also varied. Milgram moved the study to an office building in Bridgeport,Connecticut, out of the Yale University laboratory he had been using. Participants believed they were participating in a study for the"Research Associates of Bridgeport" and saw no connection of the study to prestigious Yale University. In this study obedience declinedsome, from 65% to 48%. Other researchers found similar results with an authority figure without legitimate authority (Mantell, 1971;Rosenhan, 1969). The implications are frightening: nearly half of participants still obey immoral orders from authority figures who havevery little legitimacy.
Expand Your Knowledge: Video Clips ofObedience
The Heroic Imagination project provides an interestingset of clips on obedience. The collection includes somearchival footage from Milgram's study and videos ofobedience in situations where the authority figure hadlittle authority, including an amusing Candid Camera clipasking people at a lunch counter to follow the directionsof a light for when they could and could not eat.
The appearance of authority can be enough to convince us to obey.Outside of the laboratory setting, this concept was demonstrated in astudy of nurses in a hospital in the 1960s. In this study, a physician,who the nurses on duty were not familiar with, called on the phoneand asked them to give a patient what they would have known to be anunsafe level of a drug. The study found 95% of the nurses obeyedbefore being intercepted on their way to give the drug (Hofling,Brotzman, Dalrymple, Graves, & Pierce, 1966). If a security guard askedyou to stand on the other side of a bus stop sign, would you do it?Even though the request was not part of the security guard's domain,most people asked by a uniformed person to do a simple act, did so(Bickman, 1974).
Compliant or Defiant Others
When groups of people were part of the study, Milgram found that compliant others led to compliant participants, and defiant others ledto defiant participants. In these studies Milgram had confederates who appeared to be other participants do a variety of teaching tasks. Inone study the participant watched as a confederate gave shocks. In this study 90% of participants were fully obedient. In another studytwo confederates and one participant were assigned to give shocks. At the 150-volt level, when the learner makes his first long protest,the confederate giving the shocks refused to continue. The second confederate was then given the job of giving shocks. At the 210-voltlevel this second confederate joined in the protest, getting up from his chair near the shock generator and refusing to continue the study.At that point the actual participant was asked to continue the study on his own. When the two other teachers (the confederates) quit,obedience declined significantly, to 27.5% (Milgram, 1965).
Culture
Culture can also contribute to obedience. In the United States, independence is a dominant value and parents tend to pass on those valuesto children through childrearing. For example, researchers found that when mothers encourage their children to recount a story, U.S.children are encouraged to describe events that illustrate their own opinions and qualities, while Chinese children are encouraged todescribe activities that they did with others or that relate them to others (Wang, 2006). Because social harmony is highly valued ininterdependent cultures like Chinese culture, children are more socialized to be obedient (Xiao, 1999). Even within cultures there arevariations in the value of obedience. Researchers find that middle-class parents in the United States are more likely to be concerned withemphasizing independence in their children, while working-class parents tend to focus more on obedience (Gecas & Nye, 1974; Xiao,2000). In cultures where authority is highly valued, we are more likely to see the kind of destructive obedience that Milgram studied–obedience without critical examination–that is evidenced in genocide and other violent human acts (Staub, 1999).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· What effect did the closeness of the learner/victim have on obedience in Milgram's study?
· In situations of obedience do we conform to the actions of others in their obedience to authority?
Disobedience
In Milgram's original study, 35% of participants disobeyed the authority figure and discontinued the study. There are times in life whendisobedience is a more just and moral choice than obedience. Can we predict who will disobey? In many ways, obedient and disobedientparticipants are indistinguishable. In later studies on obedience, no difference in stress levels were found–all participants showed physicaland psychological markers of stress as the study continued. As participants continued to be obedient, they tended to reach a point ofcompliant resignation, offering fewer and shorter disagreements and continuing to engage in the behavior. However, when the amount oftime people were part of the study was taken into account (disobedient participants obviously finished more quickly), the number ofdisagreements were no different between those who continued to be obedient and those that disobeyed. No differences in personalitywere found between obedient and disobedient participants (Bocchiaro & Zimbardo, 2010; Bocchiaro, Zimbardo, & Van Lange, 2012).
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In an act of civil disobedience, Vietnam veterans protest againstthe war.
Disobedience tends to occur at a critical juncture. In studies usingMilgram's paradigm, participants who disobeyed tended to do so whenthe confederate first protested or when the confederate's protestschanged in content or tone (Meeus & Raaijmakers, 1986; Packer, 2008).After disobeying, most participants believed they did what others wouldhave done. In other words, they did not see their behavior as unusual,showing false consensus, and were surprised that anyone would havecontinued to obey. Participants reported they made a quick decision whenthey chose to disobey; for some it was a moral or an ethical decision.These participants mentioned that it would not be right or fair tocontinue when the other person is clearly suffering. Other participantsworried about the other person, or felt empathy for his/her suffering.Others simply did not see the point of continuing within the situation(Bocchiaro & Zimbardo, 2010). Overall, it is difficult to predict who willdisobey and who will obey authority in these types of situations. Itappears decisions are made quickly at critical points within a situation,and are made for a variety of reasons. These reasons are not reflective ofpersonality differences, or differences in reactivity to stress. Futureresearch on obedience is needed to help us better predict disobedience.
One type of disobedience that occurs in response to potentiallyillegitimate authority is legal disobedience. Legal disobedience may takethe form of conscientious objection, civil disobedience, or outrightrebellion against a government or leader (Herr, 1974; Raz, 1975). This form of disobedience occurred as people in communist countriesin Central and Eastern Europe overthrew their governments in 1989 and in a variety of Arab countries in 2011, which came to be knownas the Arab Spring. Conscientious objections and civil disobedience helped free India from rule by the British Empire, bring about civilrights in the United States in the 1960s, and help end the Vietnam war in the 1970s. In such circumstances, people may feel anentitlement or a responsibility to disobey as an act of citizenship (Rattner, Yagil, & Sherman-Segal, 2003). In fact, people most committedto democracy are often those who are most likely to disobey in the face of potentially illegitimate authority (Passini & Morselli, 2011). Forthese people democracy provides both an opportunity and a responsibility to disobey when democracy is threated. This disobedienceprevents authoritarian governments to take hold, preserving or bringing about democratic rule.
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
· How are those who disobey different from those who obey authority?
Ethics of Obedience Research
The participants in Milgram's studies underwent an experience that was very stressful. According to an observer of the study:
I observed a mature and initially poised businessman enter the laboratory smiling and confident. Within 20 minutes he wasreduced to a twitching, stuttering wreck, who was rapidly approaching a point of nervous collapse. He constantly pulled onhis earlobe, and twisted his hands. At one point he pushed his fist into his forehead and muttered: "Oh God, let's stop it."And yet he continued to respond to every word of the experimenter, and obeyed to the end (Milgram, 1963, p. 377).
When entering into an experimental situation, research participants put themselves into the hands of the experimenter. After Milgram'sstudy, other researchers asked if placing unsuspecting people into these kinds of situations was ethical. The main problems identifiedwere that participants had a very stressful experience, and that they would have to live with the knowledge of the lengths to which theywould obey, all within a situation based on trust (Baumrind, 1964).
Milgram (1964) responded to these criticisms by noting that the findings of his studies and the reactions of the participants wereunexpected. When he asked psychologists and others what to expect, they did not believe participants would go all the way to the end ofthe shock generator and be as obedient as they were. At the end of the experimental session, the experimenter reunited the confederatewith the participant so the participant could see that he was not harmed in any way. The experimenter was supportive of whateverdecision the participant made in terms of obedience.
The study involved a great deal of deception. The participants were lied to about the purpose of the study, about the complicity of theother participant, and about what was actually happening. Critics of the study argued that this type of deception may have an impact onthe participants themselves, as they feel duped by the researcher. This form of deception in psychological experiments can potentiallyimpact the general public's view of psychological research. When researchers use deception a great deal, the public may becomesuspicious of all research studies, and wary of participating in research, even research that does not in fact involve deception. Milgram(1974) contacted participants after their participation to ask how they felt about the study. The vast majority said they were glad or veryglad to have been part of the study (83.7%). Only 1.3% of the participants reported being sorry or very sorry to have participated. Almostthree fourths of participants reported learning something of personal importance.
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· What were some ethical issues with Milgram's study?
· Did Milgram find any long-term negative effects in the participants who were part of his study?
8.3 Leadership
The influences of conformity and obedience sway our beliefs and actions. Cult leader Jim Jones expected obedience from his followers andused conformity to keep his followers in line. Leaders–good and bad–make a difference in what people think and do, contributing to orbreaking from conformity. Obedience to leaders has led to some of the most inspiring and heartbreaking events in history. Leadershipinvolves influencing a group and its members to contribute to the goals of the group and coordinating and guiding those efforts (Kaiser,Hogan, & Craig, 2008). If leaders are good leaders who make good decisions, then obedience is appropriate.
What makes a good leader? When are leaders most effective? A number of models for describing types of leadership exist. One modeloffers two main categories of leadership: transactional and transformational leadership. In transactional leadership, leaders can lead byoffering an exchange of rewards for effort from followers. By contrast, some leaders offer their followers a common purpose and ask thatindividual interest be put aside so the group can work together toward that goal. This leadership style is called transformationalleadership (Bass, 1985). An additional type of leadership, called laissez-faire leadership, is characterized by a hands-off approach, withthe leader simply allowing the followers to do what they would like without substantial input from the leader (Yammarino, Spangler, &Bass, 1993).
Transactional leaders focus on contingent rewards and active management. These leaders work out agreements with their followers thatwill satisfy both parties. People obey transactional leaders because they desire the rewards the transactional leader can provide.Contingent rewards are provided once the followers have fulfilled their end of the bargain.
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Leaders can use different strategies and tactics to achieve goals.
This type of leadership may also involve active management, where theleader monitors what the follower is doing to redirect, if needed, andenforce the rules that have been agreed upon. Transactional leaders donot always actively manage their followers. At times, they take a passivemanagement approach, intervening when problems are brought to theirattention (Bass, 1997). These leaders do not necessarily inspire theirfollowers, but they do get the job done. Many leaders of businesses,coaches of sports teams, and politicians would best be described astransactional leaders.
Transformational leaders are characterized by charisma, inspirationalmotivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration.Charisma, in this context, means influence toward an ideal that can beaccomplished through the leader displaying conviction about the goal,presenting and taking stands on important issues, and emphasizing trust.When leaders clearly articulate a vision, provide encouragement, andshow optimism, they display inspirational motivation. Nelson Mandela, anti-apartheid leader and former president of South Africa, wassuch a transformational leader, as was Winston Churchill, prime minister of the United Kingdom during World War II. Intellectualstimulation within transformational leadership is modeled by leaders in their welcoming of new ideas and perspectives. Finally,transformational leaders tend to focus on individual gifts, abilities, and needs, offering individual consideration for followers (Bass, 1997).Along with these qualities, transformational leaders are generally self-confident and are able to handle pressure and uncertainty well.Optimistic and self-determined, such leaders are able to cast a vision for their followers (van Eeden, Cilliers, & van Deventer, 2008). Notall transformational leaders bring about peace and reconciliation. Jim Jones would likely fit in the category of transformational leadership.Jones attracted his followers to his vision for a color-blind world where people worked together to create a modern-day utopia.
People differ in what they consider to be ideal in a leader. Because of past experiences, values, and personality differences, people developschemas for what they consider good leadership qualities and these schemas are relatively stable over time (Epitropaki & Martin, 2004;Keller, 1999; Keller, 2003; Kriger & Seng, 2005). These schemas are called implicit leadership theories. Individuals who show qualitiesthat people expect in leaders–those that fit the implicit leadership theories people hold–are more likely to be viewed as leaders (Melwani,Mueller, & Overbeck, 2012). Interactions between a follower and a leader will be largely impacted by the follower's implicit leadershiptheories (Epitropaki & Martin, 2005; Fraser & Lord, 1988). Some leaders may be considered bad leaders not because they intend to doany harm to their followers or because they are inherently bad leaders, but because the implicit leadership theories of the followers donot match the leadership qualities and actions of the leader (Peus, Braun, & Frey, 2012).
Success of a leader can be defined in a variety of ways. Successful leaders might be those who have helped their followers to reach a goal(Kaiser & Hogan, 2007). Even without reaching or moving toward obtaining a goal, leaders might be defined as successful if their group issatisfied or motivated or, simply, if followers rate the leader as successful (Tsui, 1984). Looking from a strict monetary perspective, 14%of the variance in the financial results of a business is due to the leadership provided by the CEO (Joyce, Nohria, & Robertson, 2003).Although we often think of transformational leaders as better leaders, generally there are no overall differences in effectiveness oftransformational versus transactional leaders (Judge, Piccolo, & Ilies, 2004).
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Conclusion
Conformity affects our everyday behavior. We might follow what everyone else is doing or what we think others would like us to do. Wemight follow because the crowd seems to know something we do not know, or because we want acceptance from the crowd. But minoritygroups can also influence behavior, particularly when they maintain a consistent, distinctive position. Overall, people tend to be obedient,a positive tendency that allows for a well-ordered and safe society. But rates of obedience are often still high even when it involvesharming others, as found in Stanley Milgram's famous study of obedience. Obedience is even more common when the authority figure isclose, the victim is distant, and others are also obeying. Milgram's studies were attacked for being unethical, as his participants were putunder extreme stress and were deceived within a context where trust is important. Authority figures or leaders come in a variety ofstyles, showing effectiveness in their roles depending on expectations of followers and the situation in which they lead.
Chapter Summary
Conformity
When we do as others do, we are conforming to the behavior of the group. At times our conformity is due to what we believe others wantus to do. In this instance we are influenced by injunctive norms. Descriptive norms refer to what most people do, not necessarily whatmost people approve of. When we conform we may do so to be liked or accepted by the group. Normative influence produces this type ofconformity. When we conform to be liked or accepted we may act as others do without believing that action is right; we show complianceto the social norm. Informational influence brings about conformity because we believe the group knows something we do not. At suchtimes we may act and believe as the group does, showing acceptance of the social norm. Majorities are powerful, but minorities can havean influence too. Minorities with distinctive positions, that are consistent in their position, and that gain defections from the majority aremost persuasive.
Obedience to Authority
Stanley Milgram completed a study of obedience where participants were asked to follow the orders of an experimenter despite theprotests of a victim. In his study, 62.5% of participants were fully obedient. When Milgram varied the distance of the authority figurefrom the participant, obedience declined as the authority figure's presence was less prominent. The victim's presence led to a decrease inobedience. When the legitimacy of the authority figure was lessened, obedience was lower, although still quite high. More recent researchhas shown that obedience has not declined significantly. Disobedience is hard to predict on the individual level, although some situationalfactors do predict when people are likely to disobey. Milgram's study of obedience placed participants in a situation of great stress in anenvironment of trust. Milgram's follow-ups with his participants indicated that most were happy to have participated and had no long-term ill effects from the study.
Leadership
Leadership styles may involve a transaction of rewards for effort, known as transactional leadership, or inspiration toward a common goaland purpose, known as transformational leadership. Laissez-faire leadership involves leadership without substantial input from the leader.Followers have particular ways of thinking about leadership, influencing how they evaluate leaders. Generally, leaders do matter and avariety of leadership styles are potentially effective.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Have you been in a situation where you changed your behavior, or observed others changing their behavior, due to conformity? Whatwas that situation like?
2. In your own life, where might you have seen injunctive norms and descriptive norms?
3. If you held a minority opinion in a group and wanted to convince the rest of the group to join you in that opinion, what might you doto convince them?
4. Milgram investigated the closeness and legitimacy of the authority figure, the closeness to and identity of the victim, and the actionsof others in relation to degree of obedience. What other factors might influence obedience?
5. If you had been part of Milgram's study of obedience, what do you think you would have done?
6. What do you think about the ethics of Milgram's studies of obedience? Do you think they should have been done, or are the ethicalimplications too great?
7. How might you describe your own implicit leadership theories? What effect have these had on your interactions with leaders?
8. The chapter begins with a discussion of the mass suicide of the people at Jonestown. Based on what you now know about conformityand obedience what do you think could have been done to prevent this tragedy or others like it?
Key Terms
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Chapter 9
Groups
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Learning Objectives
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
· Define "group" and describe the various types of groups
· Explain the positive and negative effects of social facilitation
· Differentiate social loafing from the Köhler effect
· Explain what deindividuation is and when it occurs
· Explain brainstorming techniques that increase or decrease the number of ideas developed
· Describe the effect of group polarization on group decisions
· Explain the antecedents, characteristics, and consequences of groupthink
· Explain factors in group decision making
· Differentiate the following social dilemmas: tragedy of the commons, resource dilemma, prisoner's dilemma
Chapter Outline
9.1 Group Actions
· What Is a Group?
· Social Facilitation
· Social Loafing and the Köhler Effect
· Deindividuation
9.2 Group Cognition
· Brainstorming
· Group Polarization
· Groupthink
· Group Decision Making
9.3 Social Dilemmas
· Commons Dilemma
· Resource Dilemma
· Prisoner's Dilemma
· Dealing With Social Dilemmas
Chapter Summary
* * *
Jury trials were adopted by the United States in 1791, with the 14th Amendment to the Bill of Rights. Jury trials were seen as away for citizens to be part of the decision-making process and to prevent political leaders or others who might be in powerfrom unfairly or unjustly prosecuting citizens. About 154,000 jury trials take place every year in the United States (Graham,2009). Almost 30% of Americans have served as a trial juror in their lifetime, with about 32 million Americans beingsummoned each year to serve on a jury (Burnett, 2009; Read, 2009). Jury trials occur in the United States, the United Kingdom,Canada, Australia, and many other countries around the world. They usually consist of a small group of people, typically,between 6 and 12 jurors. When juries make decisions, they take about 4 hours for deliberation (Burnett, 2009).
Juries are just one example of a small group working together to make a decision or accomplish a goal. Every day, groups ofpeople engage in actions, large and small, that affect their own lives and the lives of others. A family may jointly decide whatrestaurant to eat at that night. A group of executives may decide to engage in a hostile takeover of a rival company. Citizens ofa nation may rise up together to overthrow their leaders, as occurred in Tunisia and Egypt in January and February of 2011.Understanding how groups think and act together is important to understanding their influence on us.
9.1 Group Actions
In life, we engage with groups in a variety of settings. A child jumping rope may do so with an audience of other children. A basketballplayer shooting a free throw may be affected by the presence of the crowd. A team on a factory floor may produce different amounts ofproduct than would be expected based on each member's individual production. A mob of angry protesters may act in waysuncharacteristic of its individual members. Groups can affect individual behavior in positive and negative ways. In this section, weinvestigate these types of situations, focusing primarily on the way individuals act, think, and interact.
What Is a Group?
A jury is a fairly clear example of a group. Would a dozen people standing at the bus stop qualify as a group? What about three studentsstudying at the same library table? A group can be defined as at least two people interacting and forming some kind of coherent unit(Cartwright & Zander, 1968; Dasgupta, Banaji, & Ableson, 1999). According to this definition, those bus riders or the studying studentsmight qualify as a group if they are doing something together. If the students are interacting and quizzing one another on class material,they would qualify as a group. If the bus riders are simply standing together as they wait for the bus, they are unlikely to qualify.
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This group of golfers enjoying each other's company would likelybe an intimacy group.
We can also differentiate various types of groups. Relatives or friends—that is, groups of individuals who are related to one another or enjoy oneanother's company—are intimacy groups. Intimacy groups help fulfillone's need for affiliation. Groups that engage in tasks together, like juriesor work groups, are task groups. Achievement needs are met byparticipation in task groups. Social categorization, like being a womanor a Japanese American, can be the basis of a group and provide us witha sense of identity. Groups might also be described by looseassociations, like those who like hiphop music or football (Johnson et al.,2006; Lickel, Hamilton, & Sherman, 2001). When people think about eachof these types of groups, they think about them differently. Intimacygroups are assumed to be small and long-lived, involve a lot ofinteraction, and be relatively impermeable to outsiders. Social categories,on the other hand, are likely to be large and involve less interaction, but,like intimacy groups, be long-lived and relatively closed to outsiders.Because task groups work together on tasks, we see them as havingcommon goals and interacting to meet those goals, but they are less likely to be of long duration. Loose associations are likely to be short-lived and open to outsiders, with little interaction (Lickel et al., 2000).
Social Facilitation
When people are together and interacting with one another, they may act differently than if they are alone. In the 1890s, Norman Triplettnoticed that bicycle riders clocked different times depending on whether they were bicycling alone or with others. He saw that whenbicyclists competed against the clock and there were no other bicyclists cycling with them, they went slower than when other bicyclistswere there. Triplett began by looking at the records of cyclists, but discovered that a large number of other variables, extraneous variables, might affect the findings. For example, when bicyclists race together they draft one another, allowing the group to go at a fasterpace than an individual might be able to achieve. To focus in on the impact of the group and to control extraneous variables, Triplettlooked at the behavior of 40 children. He asked these children to wind up a modified fishing reel. Sometimes the children were alone andsometimes other children were present, winding up their own fishing reels. On average the children wound most quickly when otherpeople were there. Triplett's study is considered by many to be one of the first studies in social psychology.
Later researchers found results similar to Triplett's. Participants performed better when others were present. For example, when peopleengaged in tasks like doing easy multiplication problems or crossing out all the vowels in a written passage, they did better when otherswere present (Allport, 1920; 1924). But these findings were not consistent; some researchers found that the presence of others causedproblems. In one study participants did worse on a memory task when others were present than when they performed the task alone(Pessin, 1933). This left researchers questioning what determined whether the presence of others actually helped performance orhindered it.
Expand Your Knowledge: Triplett
You can read Triplett's classic study of social facilitationat http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Triplett/index.htm .Triplett offers a number of possible explanations for hisobservations, including theories like the suction theory,the brain worry theory, and the theory of hypnoticsuggestions.
An explanation for this difference was provided by Robert Zajonc("Zajonc" rhymes with "science"). He proposed that the presence ofothers increases arousal. Increased arousal, he argued, increases thedominant response tendency, which is related to the nature of the task.For simple, easy, or well-learned tasks our most likely (dominant)action (response tendency) is to do the task well. For difficult, new, orcomplex tasks, our most likely action is to do the task poorly. If thepresence of others increases our arousal, and arousal increases ourdominant response tendency, then we should do simple or easy tasksparticularly well in the presence of others. On the other hand, if thepresence of others increases our arousal and arousal increases ourdominant response tendency, then we should do difficult or new tasks poorly (see Figure 9.1). If you were a star basketball player in highschool and shooting a free throw is a well-practiced response, you should be more likely to make the basket in a packed gym becauseyour increased arousal due to the audience would drive your dominant response of free-throw shooting behaviors. Alternatively, if youhave played basketball rarely and making a basket is a relatively new and difficult task for you, an empty gym would provide you with thebest chance to make that basket because your arousal would be lower.
Figure 9.1: Social facilitation
The presence of others can affect a person's task performance.
Photo credits: Hemera/Thinkstock; iStockphoto/Thinkstock
When the presence of others affects task performance, social facilitation has occurred. Evidence of this can also be found in animal aswell as human behavior. Zajonc and colleagues set up an experiment using cockroaches (Zajonc, Heingartner, & Herman, 1969). Theycreated both complicated and simple mazes for the cockroaches, and provided tiny Plexiglas audience boxes for observer cockroaches.When other cockroaches were in the audience boxes, the cockroach in the maze completed the simple maze faster but completed thecomplicated maze more slowly. Similar effects have been found with rats and chickens (Tolman, 1967; Wheeler & Davis, 1967; Zentall &Levine, 1972). People show social facilitation just like these insects and animals. Good pool players play better when watched, but poorplayers tend to do worse with an audience (Michaels, Bloommel, Brocato, Linkous, & Rowe, 1982).
Zajonc (1980) argued that social facilitation could occur simply because others are there, what he called mere presence, not because ofother factors. Other researchers suggested that the presence of others creates distraction or concern about being evaluated and it is thisdistraction or concern that is the true cause of the social facilitation effects (Cottrell, 1972). There is some support for these alternateexplanations. In one study participants completed a task in a room where another person was present. The other person either quietlyobserved or was blindfolded, presumably because the person was waiting for a study of vision to begin soon and needed to have his orher eyes adapt to darkness. If social facilitation occurs simply because of the presence of others, there should be no difference in howwell the participant completes the task because in both conditions the "mere presence" of another exists. This study, however, showed nosocial facilitation effects when the other person was blindfolded (Cottrell, Wack, Sekerak, & Rittle, 1968). Although this study suggeststhat social facilitation requires more than the mere presence of others, later studies showed that mere presence is enough; the effect ofapprehension about evaluation remains a question (Platania & Moran, 2001).
Some researchers have questioned whether arousal is the mechanism behind social facilitation (Aiello & Douthitt, 2001). More recentideas have proposed cognitiveneuropsychological mechanisms—the presence of others seems to put demands on the frontal lobes of thebrain and the cognitive system that manages the other systems (executive system), diminishing the capacity to process new or difficulttasks (Wagstaff et al., 2008). The frontal lobes of the brain are particularly important for planning for the future, attention in the present,and initiation of actions, so such an explanation makes logical sense.
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Social Loafing and the Köhler Effect
In studies involving social facilitation, the individual performing the action was simply in the presence of others, with the others eitherdoing an action at the same time or observing. What happens when the others are working with the individual doing the action? When agroup performs actions together to accomplish a goal, do the members of the group act differently than if they were engaging in thataction alone? At about the same time as Triplett, Max Ringelmann completed a set of early studies in social psychology to answer thesequestions. Ringelmann, a French agricultural engineer, investigated the amount of work individuals versus groups put into tasks. Hesuggested that two or more individuals working together did not accomplish as much as one individual alone because of a difficulty incoordinating their efforts, termed coordination loss. Even though, he suspected there might be issues with the motivation of themembers of a group, he left it to later researchers to investigate this possibility (Kravitz & Martin, 1986).
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Individuals tend to socially loaf when they do not expect theircontributions to lead to something they value.
The tendency for individuals to produce less or not work as hard when working with others is called social loafing. Social loafing occurs when individuals are working together toward a shared goal and their effortsare pooled. When our work is combined we tend to have less motivationor show less effort. In one study of this phenomenon, participants wereasked to pull a rope as hard as they could in a simulated tug-of-warexercise (Ingham, Levinger, Graves, & Peckham, 1974). The researchersmeasured how hard participants pulled when they were pulling alone andknew it, as opposed to when they thought they were pulling with others.To separate coordination loss from issues involving motivation, researchers had participants do the work alone, although they believedthey were working with others. In the tug-of-war, participants completedthe task blindfolded so they would not know they wethe only one pulling.When participants thought a number of other people were pulling, theypulled with less force than if they thought the task was theirs alone.
If your efforts toward a group goal, like a class project, were pooled, butyou knew that each person's piece could be clearly identified, would youengage in social loafing? One key factor in social loafing is the identifiability of individual effort. When one's work is pooled with othersbut one's effort can be identified individually, social loafing declines or disappears. To determine if identifiability was important, researchparticipants were asked to yell as loud as they could under three conditions: when they were yelling alone and knew they were alone,when they thought they were yelling with one other person, and when they thought they were yelling with five other people (Williams,Harkins, & Latane, 1981). The participants had headphones and blindfolds on so they could not actually see or hear what others weredoing. The researchers found that when people thought they were yelling with one other person, they produced 69% as much sound aswhen they were yelling alone. When participants thought they were part of a group of six, they produced 63% as much sound. Theresearchers were able to eliminate this reduction in sound production by putting individual microphones on participants and telling them that when they were yelling with others their individual efforts were identifiable.
When individuals do not expect their contributions to matter, they are most likely to socially loaf. This could occur either because theyperceive that their contributions are not going to be meaningful, or because they do not value the outcome of the group. In a tug-of-war,you might feel that your additional effort is not going to add much to the group, so you would pull less when the group is pulling withyou. You might also feel that any praise you would get would be quite small in the tug-of-war, because it would be divided amongst yourgroup members. It follows, then, why individual identifiability is important. When your contribution can be recognized, it becomesmeaningful and the outcome more valued. When people engage in social loafing while in a group, they are called free riders. Free ridersdo not put as much energy or work into a group task, gaining the rewards of the group's outcome without investing.
Social loafing is partly determined by the nature of the group and the types of task. We engage in less social loafing when we know theother people in our group and we have a cohesive group. Perhaps knowing your friends are relying on you is different from having strangers rely on your contributions. We loaf less when the outcome depends on us in some way (e.g., the project will not be completedwithout our contribution) or the task is meaningful, important, or enjoyable to us in some way (Hoigaard, Safvenbom, & Tonnessen, 2006;Karau & Hart, 1998; Karau & Williams, 1993; Shiue, Chiu, & Chang, 2010; Smith, Kerr, Markus, & Stasson, 2001). If you know your groupcannot finish the class project without you or you simply enjoy investigating the topic or putting together a report, you may not loaf.
Social loafing varies depending on gender and culture. In general, men are more likely to socially loaf than women (Karau & Williams,1993; Kugihara, 1999). Women tend to show more equal inputs whether working alone or with a group. Individuals from more interdependent cultures are also less likely to socially loaf than those from independent cultures (Gabrenya, Wang, & Latane, 1985; Klehe& Anderson, 2007). Within each culture, though, women are less likely to loaf than men (Kugihara, 1999). In men and women, socialloafing is less likely in people who are high in the personality trait of conscientiousness (Ferrari & Pychyl, 2012)
In some instances, groups can positively affect performance by eliciting motivation to work harder (rather than engage in social loafing).Imagine you were recruited to be part of a basketball team. Though you know the rules and have played before, your background inbasketball is limited. When you are playing with a team of great players, will you try as hard as you can or not as hard as you can? Mostlikely you would be motivated to work hard and would put a great deal of effort into your play, hoping you will not let your team down.The tendency for individuals to work harder when they are less capable than the other group members has been called the Köhler effect(Hertel, Kerr, & Messe, 2000; Kerr, Seok, Poulsen, Harris, & Messe, 2008). That increased motivation may come from comparing oneself toother group members and realizing that one's performance is lacking. It could also come from a realization that the group's outcome willonly be as good as one's weaker performance allows (Kerr, Messe, Park, & Sambolec, 2005; Kerr et al., 2008; Stroebe, Diehl, &Abakoumkin, 1996).
The weakest players on a team gain the most from the Köhler effect. For example, on a swim team, the members with the slowest timesin individual trials show the greatest declines (and so, the greatest improvement) in their times when swimming with their team in thefinals (Osborn, Irwin, Skogsberg, & Feltz, 2012). The effect is also strongest for tasks that are conjunctive, where the entire team can onlydo as well as its weakest member, rather than additive, where the weakest team member contributes less to team output than othermembers (Kerr & Hertel, 2011). Weaker group members tend to do better when a group is continually changing rather than when itremains stable, perhaps because the weaker member continues to compare his or herself to others and does not simply get used to beingoutperformed (Lount, Kerr, Messe, Seok, & Park, 2008).
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· What factors make social loafing less likely to occur?
Deindividuation
Have you ever attended a sporting event and found yourself yelling at the top of your lungs in a way you would not ever do if you werealone? If you have ever been in a crowd and found yourself acting in a way you would not act alone, you may have experienced deindividuation. Deindividuation is the tendency for awareness of one's individual identity to decline in group settings, often leading toengagement in behaviors with a group that one would not engage in alone. Yelling insults, throwing objects onto the field at a sportingevent, or looting have all been behaviors participated in when people feel deindividuated.
Researchers have proposed a variety of factors that could lead to deindividuation. A reduced sense of individual responsibility for action,high physiological arousal, a lower awareness of personal values and beliefs, novel situations, and a sense of anonymity have all beensuggested as factors that increase deindividuation (Prentice-Dunn & Rogers, 1982; Zimbardo, 1969). Imagine the types of situationswhere such things are true. When a mob is involved in looting, individuals know their own behavior is unlikely to be traced back to them.At a sporting event people are excited and may be distracted from awareness of their inner thoughts by the action on thecourt/field/rink. At a rock concert, low lighting and wearing a band t-shirt like many others may allow one to feel anonymous.Researchers further investigated the factors that may lead to deindividuation using a technique called meta-analysis. Meta-analysisinvolves looking at as many studies as possible on a particular topic and using a statistical technique to summarize those findings. When researchers did this for factors that promote deindividuation, they found that feelings of individual responsibility were most important(Postmes & Spears, 1998). This means that, while a novel situation or high physiological arousal might have a small impact on tendency to engage in deindividuation, feeling like one is not accountable for one's actions is essential.
Deindividuation often leads to negative behavior, such as stealing and cheating (Postmes & Spears, 1998). For example, one Halloween,trick-or-treating children were told that they were supposed to take only one piece of candy. When the adult who had given the childrenthese instructions left, researchers watched from a hidden location to see how many pieces of candy the children actually took. Childrenwho were more anonymous and were in a group were more likely to steal candy than those who were more identifiable or trick-or-treating alone (Diener, Fraser, Beaman, & Kelem, 1976). In another study, Halloween masks that hid children's identities led to greaterstealing of candy (Miller & Rowold, 1979).
Most examples you will find of deindividuation evaluate behaviors such as yelling insults, stealing, or cheating, but this sort of behavior isnot inevitable. In a study by Johnson and Downing (1979) participants were placed either in a situation to induce deindividuation or in asituation where their actions were clearly identified as their own. The participants were asked to put on one of two costumes. For half ofthe participants, a nurse's uniform was provided, with the explanation that the costumes had been borrowed from the hospital for thestudy. The other half were asked to put on a robe that the researcher had supposedly made himself. He said "I'm not much of aseamstress so these ended up looking kind of Ku Klux Klannish" (Johnson & Downing, 1979, p. 1534). The idea was that the costumesmight provide participants with different cues toward behavior. The researchers believed the nurse's uniform would provide people withan environmental cue to be helpful, because we generally think of nurses as helpful. The robe could provide people with anenvironmental cue toward negative, aggressive behavior, because the KKK is and has been a violent organization.
Participants were asked to select an electrical shock level when another participant responded incorrectly. They had the option of eitherraising the shock level, up to a positive 3, or reducing it, down to minus 3. By raising the shock level participants were engaging in anaction that inflicted additional harm on the other participant. By lowering the shock level they were helping the other participant bymaking the shock less painful. The other participant, who was allegedly being shocked, did not really exist; no one received a shock inthis study. The researchers wondered if deindividuation could actually create helpful behavior, if the environmental cues were right, or ifanonymity always leads to negative behavior. Table 9.1 shows the results of the study.
|
Table 9.1: Average shock level increase or decrease of participants in different groupsin Johnson and Downing's (1979) study of deindividuation |
||
|
|
Individuated |
Deindividuated |
|
Cue for helpfulness |
– 0.35 |
– 1.47 |
|
Cue for aggression |
0.76 |
0.95 |
|
From Johnson, R. D. & Downing, L. L. (1979). Deindividuation and valence of cues: Effects on prosocial and antisocial behavior. Journalof Personality and Social Psychology, 37(9), 1532-1538. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.37.9.1532 Copyright © 1979 by the AmericanPsychological Association. |
As you can see from the table, deindividuated individuals with the aggressive cue showed more aggressive behavior: They increased theshock level. Those who had something in their environment that suggested helpfulness tended to do what they could to reduce the painsomeone else would experience, particularly when they were deindividuated. Therefore, deindividuation has the potential to createpositive behavior if the environment supports it.
Overall, deindividuation increases the individual's responsiveness to the situation or the group norms (Postmes & Spears, 1998). Theperson will take on the norms of the group, the group identity, and engage in behavior that goes along with those norms, good or bad. You can think of the impact individual identity and group identity has on our behavior as working like a teeter-totter. When one side of ateeter-totter goes down, the other goes up; when our reliance on our individual identity goes down, the identity of the group becomesmore important. On the other hand, when we are very aware of our own individual identity, the group is less of a determinant for ourbehavior. This is the idea behind the social identity model of deindividuation effects. As people lose a sense of their own identity, theytake on the identity of the group around them.
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· Does deindividuation always lead to negative behavior?
9.2 Group Cognition
In the previous section we explored how groups affect the actions of individuals. When in groups, people do not simply act differently,they also think differently. Individuals in groups may think together to generate ideas or make decisions. The number and quality of ideasand the quality of the decisions may be influenced by the group. Group discussions can also affect individual attitudes.
Brainstorming
When groups think together, coming up with ideas as a group, it is called brainstorming. Brainstorming has been proposed as a way todevelop a wide variety of solutions or new and creative ideas (Osborn, 1957). Common brainstorming practices include trying to generate as many ideas as possible, with encouragement to combine, improve, or expand on previous ideas. Brainstorming seems, to many, togenerate more ideas than the same individuals would generate working alone (Paulus, Dzindolet, Poletes, & Camacho, 1993). In fact,overall, brainstorming actually provides fewer ideas per person than the same number of individuals would provide on their own. Thismay be because of issues related to production within a group. Individuals might interrupt one another or spend time in social conversations unrelated to the task at hand (Diehl & Strobe, 1987). As groups get bigger and there are more people to interrupt or get offtopic, groups show a greater loss of productivity (Mullen, Johnson, & Salas, 1991). Brainstorming groups also tend to become fixated onparticular realms of ideas, leading to lower diversity of ideas (Kohn & Smith, 2009).
Some people are anxious in social situations and may put a damper on group brainstorming interactions. Researchers have found thatpeople who find interacting with others a stressful and anxiety-provoking experience were not as helpful in brainstorming sessions because they were unwilling to participate orally. When highly anxious people were in a group with those who were not anxious, the low-anxiety individuals tended to show poorer performance as well (Camacho & Paulus, 1995). Feeling anxious in interactions puts a damperon both those who feel the anxiety and those with whom they interact.
To maximize the potential of brainstorming, the standard technique of getting all members of the group into a room and speaking theirminds may not be most effective. Combining individual ideas and group brainstorming can be helpful. Studies show that the greatestnumber of ideas are developed when the group brainstorms together, and then each person brainstorms alone (Brown & Paulus, 2002).The group may prompt individuals to think in directions the individuals would not have thought about on their own. Following a groupsession with an individual session allows individuals to come up with a number of ideas without the loss of productivity due tointerruptions by other members of the group, and without the social anxiety of the group context. Talking over other group members canalso be avoided by having members write down their ideas and read rather than speak the ideas of others, or by using a computer totype up one's ideas and sending them electronically to other group members (Brown & Paulus, 2002).
Group Polarization
Do group discussions change the way people think? When the opinions of individuals are surveyed before and after a group discussion ofopinion-related topics, opinions tend to shift farther toward an extreme. If we think of opinions on a continuum, with strong agreementon one pole and strong disagreement on the other pole, people tend to polarize. Polarization involves a shift closer to whichever polepeople were initially leaning toward.
There are a variety of possible reasons why this occurs. During a group discussion, individuals might hear arguments in favor of theirown position that they had not heard or thought of before (Burnstein & Vinokur, 1977). People might also realize that their opinion ismore common than they thought (Myers & Lamm, 1976). Such a realization may lead us to make our own attitude more extreme as westrive to be distinctive from the group. Thus, group discussion may provide us with more arguments bolstering an already held opinionand the motivation to make that opinion stronger.
In general, people are more persuaded by their ingroups than by an outgroup, particularly when the ingroup and outgroup are in conflict,and are more persuaded by unanimous groups than by groups with a dissenter (Kunovich & Deitelbaum, 2004; Mackie & Cooper, 1984;Williams & Taormina, 1993). Greater polarization occurs during deindividuation (Lee, 2007). According to the social identity model ofdeindividuation, people take on the identity of the group when personal identity is lowered, leading to greater identification with theattitudes of the group and therefore greater polarization.
Polarization can occur not only within group discussion, but also as a result of repeated exposure to an attitude, or with dedicated timespent thinking about the attitude (Brickman, Redfield, Harrison, & Crandall, 1972; Downing, Judd, & Brauer, 1992; Tesser, 1978). Part ofthe effect of polarization may, therefore, come not because of the group but because the interaction allows individuals to state their ownopinion and time to think about their attitude (Van Boven, Judd, & Sherman, 2012). Polarization also occurs with juries. In general,individuals who initially want to be lenient have a greater slant toward leniency after some jury deliberation. Those whose initial leaningis toward a severe punishment have an even more severe stance after discussion (Bray & Noble, 1978). When juries deliberate, the firstvote often predicts the outcome of the deliberation, particularly when the initial vote favors acquittal rather than conviction (Kalven &Zeisel, 1966; MacCoun & Kerr, 1988; Sandys & Dillehay, 1995).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
Groupthink
In 1961 a group of 1,600 U.S. funded and trained Cuban exiles invaded Cuba at the Bay of Pigs. The mission was to lead a popularmovement to overthrow Fidel Castro and his communist regime. The mission failed entirely, and the exiles were captured or killed. The world was outraged that the United States invaded a sovereign country. Far from being overthrown, Castro remained in power for nearly50 years, and only ceded power to his brother in 2008 because of ill health.
Universal Images Group/SuperStock
In the Challenger space shuttle incident, the push tolaunch overrode the warnings of concernedengineers.
Groups are often involved in decision making. With the adage "two heads are betterthan one," many of us believe that a decision made with others is better than adecision made by an individual. President Kennedy and a small group of advisorsmade the decision to move forward with the invasion plan, hatched during theEisenhower administration. Neither Kennedy nor his advisors seemed to haveunderstood the hazards of invading with such a small force. The tactics, the numbers,the weapons, and even the intelligence from Cuba added up to a flawed plan doomed to failure (Sidey, 2001). Despite the characterization of Kennedy's group of advisors as"the best and brightest" (Halberstam, 1972), Kennedy later described their actions asstupid (Sorensen, 1966).
The Bay of Pigs Invasion shows that groups can and do make bad decisions. Similarly,disastrous decisions were made by various groups in the failure of the United Statesto prepare for the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the escalation of the Viet Nam war,and even in the Challenger space shuttle disaster. Many of these group decisions sharecommon characteristics. Researcher Irving Janis studied these types of group decisions, and developed a model to describe how groups could make such poorchoices (Janis, 1972; 1982). Janis's model involves a process including theantecedents, characteristics, and consequences of this type of group decision making.He named it groupthink, a decision-making process that occurs when a desire forharmony and consensus within the group interferes with appropriate informationseeking, and leads to bad decision making.
According to this model, the antecedents are the conditions that must be in place for groupthink to occur. The group needs to
· be highly cohesive,
· be insulated from other viewpoints,
· have a directive leader,
· have poor procedures for searching out and evaluating alternatives, and
· be under high stress or feel threatened.
Notice that these conditions revolve around an insular, cohesive group that follows a leader with a certain plan. The group does not seekoutside input, but looks into itself for answers.
The antecedents lead to a group decision-making process with particular characteristics. These characteristics are the natural outgrowthof such an insular group, where the group
· feels invulnerable;
· assumes the moral correctness of its viewpoint;
· stereotypes outsiders, particularly opponents;
· engages in self-censorship, not sharing concerns, doubts, or disagreements;
· pressures dissenters to conform to group opinion;
· has an illusion of unanimity; and
· has members who act as mindguards—individuals who protect leaders from hearing a viewpoint contrary to their own.
When a group is showing characteristics of groupthink, that group supports its own viewpoint and dismisses or ignores those of others.Even those within the group who disagree are silenced. Because of mindguards, the leader never hears about dissenting opinions. Forexample, had Presidents Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon appointed at least one person whose job it was to challenge proposed decisions,historical courses of action may have been different.
The consequences of such a process can be devastating, as the historic examples illustrate. The particular consequences of groupthink forthe group are that the group does not
· fully consider its true objectives,
· consider alternatives to the proposed course of action,
· fully examine risks of the proposed course of action,
· thoroughly search for information, and
· develop appropriate contingency plans.
Because the group does not consider alternatives, risks, or develop a contingency plan, when things go wrong the group is surprised andleft scrambling for answers.
Though we would expect to find groupthink when the antecedents for groupthink are present, this does not always happen. Theantecedents set the stage, but a group might still avoid groupthink. Not all antecedents are necessary for groupthink to occur. Cohesive groups that are insulated from other viewpoints and have directive leaders are the most vulnerable (Ahlfinger & Esser, 2001; McCauley,1989). Since the Bay of Pigs and Janis' work, these insulated cohesive groups have continued to make poor decisions in circumstances,such as in the Abu Ghraib prison scandal in Iraq, the space shuttle Challenger accident, and a series of decisions a group of NBCexecutives made regarding Jay Leno and The Tonight Show (Moorhead, Ference, & Neck, 1991; Neck, 1996; Post, 2011).
Although a decision-making process characterized by groupthink does not use the best decision-making strategies, decisions made thisway are not always disastrous. It is possible for a groupthink decision to turn out well if the group happens to stumble on a good solutionor gets lucky in the outcome of its actions. Groups making decisions without groupthink do not always make the best decisions either(Tetlock, Peterson, McGuire, Chang, & Feld, 1992). However, a decision made when groupthink is in play is more likely to turn out badlythan one made by a group not involved in groupthink.
Social Psychology in Depth: The Wisdom of Crowds
Want to know what movie will be big at the box office this weekend?
Want to know the answer to that tough question on the game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?
Want to know how many jelly beans are in the jar?
All these questions are best answered by combining the answers of many rather than relying on the response of oneperson. The average estimate for the group is usually closer to the real number of jelly beans in a jar than any individualestimate. The studio audience picks the right answer 91% of the time on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? Friends givecorrect answers only 65% of the time (Surowiecki, 2004).
Prediction markets use the wisdom of the group to predict events. Within these markets, individuals use real or fake moneyto bet on the likelihood of an event (though other types of predictions are also used, see Wolfers & Zitzewitz, 2004) andtheir collective wager is often quite accurate. The Iowa Electronics Market ( http://tippie.uiowa.edu/iem/ ) correctly predicted Obama's presidential victory in 2008 with closer accuracy than any of the major polling companies (Rowe, 2010).This was not a fluke; such markets have been more accurate than polls for a variety of political races (Berg, Forsythe,Nelson, & Reitz, 2001).
According to James Surowieci, author of The Wisdom of Crowds, groups are helpful with three types of problems: cognitive,coordination, and cooperation. Cognitive problems are those that require judgment. If you poll 100 people about the monthand year humans first set foot on the moon, the group will get closer than almost all of the members of that group. Thisholds true for prediction as well as facts. Want to know who will be awarded an Oscar? Take a look at the Hollywood StockExchange ( http://www.hsx.com/ ) to find out (Pennock, Lawrence, Giles, & Nielsen, 2003).
Groups also show wisdom in their coordination. Walking down a sidewalk, you might find yourself drifting to the right sidewhile the foot traffic coming toward you inhabits the left. Because of this coordinated action, you rarely crash into anotherpedestrian. Finally, crowds show cooperation. At the beach, the group may collectively watch over one another's possessions and the small children playing the waves, all without talking about the task or knowing one another.
Not all crowds are wise. The key to good collective decision making is independence (Postmes, Spears, & Cihangir, 2001;Surowiecki, 2004). Each member of a group needs to make an independent judgment for the collective response to beaccurate. Solomon Asch, who performed his classic studies of conformity, would agree. In comments about Asch's work,Levine (1999) wrote,
[T]he bottom line is that, because people are involved in cooperative efforts to understand the world, theyhave a responsibility both to assert their own viewpoint, which involves independence, and to pay attention to others' viewpoints, which can lead to conformity. (p. 360)
Group Decision Making
Research on juries, as well as other groups, has revealed that a variety of factors can affect the process and the outcome of groupdecisions. Beyond the decision-making defects of groupthink, groups that make decisions together are affected by the informationindividuals bring to the table and whether or not they share that information, the size of the group, and if the group is required to makeunanimous decisions.
Unique Knowledge
When a group comes together, each member brings a unique perspective. For example, if your work group was making a decision and youwere the only one who knew about a new product the rival company was developing, it would be useful to your group if you shared thatinformation. For many group decisions, each member could help the group most by clearly and concisely sharing his or her uniqueknowledge. Yet often times group members focus on what all of them know or hold in common, ignoring the unique, potentially useful,information they possess as individuals (Stasser & Titus, 1985). For example, a committee might primarily discuss the aspects of asituation they all best understand. Committee members who have other expertise or knowledge that could help the group are less likelyto bring those up, at least initially. Because they do not readily share unique information, some groups fail to find a solution to theproblem they face (Lu, Yuan, & McLeod, 2012).
Unique information is more likely to come up later in a group discussion, suggesting that longer discussions are more likely to yielddiverse information (Fraidin, 2004; Larson, Christensen, Franz, & Abbott, 1998). People also tend to bring up information when they know it is their task to do so. By giving different members of the group different tasks and asking them to report on those tasks, groupscan amass a greater depth of information (Moreland, Argote, & Krishnan, 1996; Stasser, 2000). Groups that are persuaded of the value ofdiverse opinions are also more likely to share diverse information amongst themselves (Homan, van Knippenberg, Van Kleef, & De Dreu,2007). When members of a group are in a good mood, they tend to broaden the focus of their information search and share more uniqueinformation (Bramesfeld & Gasper, 2008). Happy groups, therefore, are less likely to rely on shared information to make decisions and aremore likely to use the unique knowledge that various members bring to the group.
Unanimous Versus Nonunanimous Decision Rules
Stock Connection/SuperStock
The U.S. Congress illustrates how group size and majority rulescan affect decision making.
Groups that are required to come to a unanimous decision act differentlythan those who can quit deliberation when a majority agrees. Withmajority rule, group members who hold alternative opinions can beoutvoted. Traditionally, unanimous decisions were required of juries. Inresearch on juries, a nonunanimous verdict is associated with taking lesstime to reach a verdict (Davis, Kerr, Atkin, Holt, & Meek, 1975; Foss,1981; Hastie, Penrod, & Pennington, 1983). Given that longer groupdeliberation is more likely to include discussion of information unique toparticular members, it is likely that these nonunanimous juries aremaking decisions having not fully explored the knowledge of all members.Nonunanimous juries are more likely to be able to come to a decisionbecause they do not need to convince those final few people to agreewith the majority (Nemeth, 1977; Padawer-Singer, Singer, & Singer, 1977).
Group Size and Diversity
Both small groups and large groups have their advantages. When groupsget too big, unanimous decisions can be virtually impossible (Romme, 2004). In general, smaller groups tend to share more information(Cruz, Boster, & Rodriguez, 1997; Waller, Hope, Burrowes, & Morrison, 2011). Small groups are also more efficient, and members may have more chance to participate. However, larger groups offer more diversity of opinion and are more likely to include people with adiversity of backgrounds or ideas (Cummings, Huber, & Arendt, 1974). For example, larger juries are more likely to contain members ofethnic and racial minorities (Saks & Marti, 1997).
How does diversity affect decision making? Overall, diverse groups tend to have less group cohesiveness and lower morale (Jackson,1991; O'Reilly, Cadwell, & Barnett, 1989). At times, diverse groups do not perform as well as less diverse groups (Ancona & Cadwell,1992; Mullen & Copper, 1994). However, diverse groups tend to do better with complex decisions, or decisions that require creativethinking as opposed to decisions that require settling on one answer or performing a simple task (Levine & Moreland, 1998). Oneimportant factor in this distinction is the ways individuals from different backgrounds share information and in their willingness to share.When diverse groups are encouraged to share diverse information, they can make good decisions (Kooij-de Bode, van Knippenberg, & vanGinkel, 2008). Going back to jury research, juries with minority members were found to spend more time deliberating, discussed a widerrange of information, and made fewer errors in their discussion of the case. This was not solely due to the contributions of the minoritymembers of the groups. Majority members brought up more information and made fewer errors in the diverse groups than similarmembers in homogeneous groups (Sommers, 2006).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· What are some characteristics of groups that make them vulnerable to groupthink?
· How is diversity within a group helpful to decision making?
9.3 Social Dilemmas
After emptying a can of soda, what do you do with the can? Throwing it in the trash might be easiest. The trash bin is right there, andyou are taking out the trash soon anyway. But if you throw it in the trash, you know that the can will end up in a landfill. The recyclingbin might be harder to get to and require a special trip; however, recycling is better for the environment, saves energy and landfill space,and reduces pollution. Do you do what is best or easiest for you, at least in the short term, or do what is best for the larger group? Youare facing a social dilemma.
When individuals face decisions whose outcomes create a tension between what is best for the individual and what is best for thecollective (or group), they are facing a social dilemma. For these dilemmas, what is best for the individual is not what is best for the group. The individual would be best served by being selfish. But those individual behaviors are harmful to the collective and may, in theend, come back to harm the individual.
Commons Dilemma
Imagine you live in a village with a common grazing field. Each person in your village could graze one cow on that common green space.As you evaluate the space, you realize that adding one more cow would harm the field only a small amount. You need the milk to get youthrough the winter, so you add one or two more cows. Your neighbor comes to the same conclusion, as do a number of other villagers.With the addition of many animals the common field becomes a field of mud and no cows are able to graze. In situations like these, theindividual can gain the best outcome by taking advantage of a collective resource, but if too many in the group take advantage of theresource, it will not be sustainable and will no longer be available. This phenomenon is called the commons dilemma or tragedy of thecommons (Hardin, 1968).
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
Ocean pollution is one example of a commons dilemma. Whatother examples can you think of?
Commons dilemmas are a part of a variety of social problems:overfishing, pollution, overpopulation, forest depletion, and overuse ofenergy. For each of these scenarios, what is best for the individual, atleast in the short term, is to act in a self-interested way. A fishermanneeds to make a living, so making a large catch is important. If only a fewindividuals took advantage of a collective resource, the outcomes mightnot be as good for the collective but the resource would be sustained. Ifonly a few fishermen take large catches, there will still be fish toreproduce and provide future fishing opportunities. The tragedy occurswhen large numbers act in a self-interested way. This depletes theresource. For a commons dilemma, fairness means equal outcomes for all(van Dijk & Wilke, 1995). Even if a fishing resource could sustain someadditional catches by some fisherman, what we view as fair is for eachfisherman to have equal access or take an equal amount of fish from thatresource.
Often times decisions can be win-lose situations. For example, if you buythe house on the corner that I was looking at, you win and I lose because we cannot both have the house. Many of the games we play,everything from Monopoly to Jeopardy, are zero-sum games—games where the gains or losses of the one person are balanced out by thegains or losses of another. So if I win $100 dollars, you lose $100 dollars. Social dilemmas are of a different type. Social dilemmas like thecommons dilemma are non-zero-sum games. Within a social dilemma, played as a game or lived out in real life, the outcome does notneed to sum to zero. If everyone cooperates, everyone can win, but if everyone competes, everyone will lose.
Resource Dilemma
With the tragedy of the commons, individuals have the option of gaining from a collectively owned resource that will naturally renewitself. A related social dilemma is called the resource dilemma. With the resource dilemma, individuals contribute to a resource fromwhich all may benefit. Public television and public radio in the United States are funded, to a large extent, by those who watch or listen,but everyone with a radio or television within range has access to PBS and public radio, regardless of their contributions. The bestindividual strategy would be to not contribute and take advantage of the resource. Blood banks also encounter a resource dilemma. We allhope that blood is available when we need it, but what is best for us as individuals is to avoid the time and discomfort associated withblood donation. The dilemma is that if no one were to contribute, the resource would not exist. For resource dilemmas, we view fairnessin terms of equity. Those who benefit most from a resource should contribute the most and those who benefit little can contribute littleand be seen as being fair in their contributions (van Dijk & Wilke, 1995).
Prisoner's Dilemma
The commons dilemma and the resource dilemma involve groups of people, whereas the prisoner's dilemma only involves two people.The prisoner's dilemma is a scenario that demonstrates that two individuals might not cooperate, even when it is in their collective bestinterest to do so (Axelrod, 1984). To understand how this dilemma works, imagine you are a thief. The police caught you and yourpartner engaging in a minor crime. The police take the two of you into separate interrogation rooms and offer you this deal: If youconfess to a major crime they suspect you of and implicate your partner, you will go free and your partner will spend 20 years in jail. Thepolice tell you they are offering the same deal to your partner: If your partner confesses to the major crime, you will go to jail for 20years and your partner will go free. If you both confess to the major crime, you will both spend 5 years in jail. If neither one of youconfesses to the major crime, you will both be charged with the minor crime you were arrested for and spend a year in jail. (See Table9.2.) What do you do?
|
Table 9.2: Prisoner's dilemma matrix |
|||
|
|
|
Partner |
|
|
|
|
Confess (does not cooperate with you) |
Do not confess (cooperates with you) |
|
You |
Confess (do not cooperate with partner) |
Partner 5 years You 5 years |
Partner 20 years You 0 years |
|
|
Do not confess (cooperate with partner) |
Partner 0 years You 20 years |
Partner 1 year You 1 year |
It would be best for you if you confessed and your partner did not. Collectively, it would be best if the two of you cooperated and spentonly a year in jail each. If you both try to get the good deal, both of your sentences will be appreciably longer than if you had cooperated with one another.
When the prisoner's dilemma is played by two players several times in a row, called the "iterated prisoner's dilemma," players can use anumber of different strategies. One strategy would be to always cooperate with one's partner no matter what the partner did. If thepartner always cooperates this is a good strategy. By always cooperating the two of you are able to, collectively, get the best outcome. Thedrawback comes if the partner realizes you always cooperate and is willing to take advantage of that. If so, you will get the worstoutcome while your partner gets the best. Another strategy would be to always compete. Such a strategy would avoid the danger that youwill be taken advantage of and may get you the best outcome (0 years) if your partner cooperates. If your partner is willing to cooperateconsistently, competition prevents the best collective outcome.
Another strategy for the prisoner's dilemma game is the tit-for-tat strategy. With tit-for-tat you would use whichever strategy yourpartner did on the previous turn. If your partner cooperated on turn 2 you would cooperate on turn 3. If your partner competed on turn3 you would compete on turn 4. If your partner cooperated on every turn you would also cooperate on every turn. If your partnerconsistently competed you would also compete. A problem with the tit-for-tat-strategy is that if both members are using it andcompetition becomes the norm, each side reciprocating with competition, you have a negative outcome, individually and collectively.Because tit-for-tat can result in this negative cycle of responding, some have proposed a generous tit-for-tat strategy, where the individualcooperates more than would be strictly done in response to a partner's competition (Wedekind & Milinski, 1996).
Another strategy where you change depending on what your partner does is called the win-stay, lose-shift strategy. With this strategy,you would continue with whatever strategy is providing you with the best outcome. If cooperating is getting you the best outcome, youwould continue to use it until it starts to be a problem, then you shift to competition (Nowak & Sigmund, 1993). Other strategies exist,but overall, the generous tit-for-tat and win-stay, lose-shift strategies have consistently had the best outcomes (Axlerod, 1984; Nowak &Sigmund, 1993; Wedekind & Milinski, 1996).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· What is the difference between a commons dilemma and a resource dilemma?
· How is a zero-sum game different from a non-zero-sum game?
Dealing With Social Dilemmas
Pitting self-interest against collective interest, social dilemmas are difficult to solve. There are some factors, however, that makecooperation more likely. One factor that increases cooperation most of the time is communication (van de Kragt, Dawes, Orbell, Braver, & Wilson, 1986). Individuals playing the prisoner's dilemma game or engaging in a laboratory simulation of the tragedy of the commons aremore likely to cooperate with one another if they can communicate with one another. There is some evidence that communication doesnot even need to take place for cooperation to be increased. When people simply thought about the kinds of things that might be saidconcerning a social dilemma during a group discussion, they showed more cooperation than without the imagined discussion (Meleady,Hopthrow, & Crisp, 2012).
Cooperative behavior is more likely when payoffs make cooperation more attractive, either through punishment for selfish behavior orthrough rewards for cooperative behavior (Dawes, 1980; Shaw, 1976; van de Kragt et al., 1986). Changing payoffs to punish self-interested behavior or reward cooperation may involve oversight by a government or other organization. For example, most states issue a limitednumber of hunting and fishing licenses to make certain overhunting and overfishing do not occur. The problem with oversight is that itcan cost resources to implement, police, and maintain; societies need to be sure such oversight does not cost more resources than itsaves. Even when authorities impose regulations in service of the common good, if the people do not trust the authority or feel like theauthority is not listening to their concerns, they are unlikely to follow the regulation (Van Vugt, 2009).
Social dilemmas continue because we do not see the effect our behavior is having on the collective, or do not know the people ourbehavior would impact. In a tragedy of the commons, if people see that the common resource is likely to soon be depleted, they will typically diminish their use of that resource (Messick et al., 1983; Samuelson, Messick, Rutte, & Wilke, 1984). If fishermen were able tosee how many fish were in the sea, they might reduce consumption of fish when supplies were low. Accurate information shared with allof the stakeholders is important for encouraging cooperation (Van Vugt, 2009). In addition, if we know the people that may be affected byour self-interested behavior, we are less likely to compete. Therefore, we tend to find more cooperation in social dilemmas that involvesmaller groups (Seijts & Latham, 2000). We might identify with the group more when the group is small, which is important for ourcooperation (Van Vugt, 2009); we are more likely to cooperate with friends than with strangers (Majolo et al., 2006).
If people are unable to engage in a behavior for reasons beyond their control, they may be unlikely to engage in cooperative behaviors. Ifone's recycling is only sporadically picked up or if the transportation system keeps changing the bus route, one may cease to recycle ortake public transportation (Brucks & Van Lange, 2008). Difficulty in acting positively in an earlier situation can lead to less cooperation ina later situation, even when the barriers are gone. Encountering problems seems to lower motivation to act in positive ways. However,when prosocial behavior is difficult social forces can be powerful in encouraging cooperative behavior. Individuals might recycle, despitethe trouble, if it becomes a norm. Knowing one's friends and neighbors would be disappointed or disapproving may motivate theindividual to do what is best for the collective and make a personal sacrifice (Dawes, 1980).
Is there any reason to do what is best for the collective, despite the costs to oneself? Some people put greater value on minimizingdifferences in outcomes between themselves and others and maximizing collective outcomes. These individuals are described as having a high prosocial value orientation. Others put greater value on maximizing their own outcomes, even at the expense of others. Those highin prosocial value orientation are more likely to engage in cooperative behavior, such as carpooling or taking public transportation, particularly when their trust in others is high and others have also shown cooperative behavior. (Van Lange, 1999; Van Lange, Van Vugt,Meertens, & Ruiter, 1998).
Individuals who always cooperate may be taken advantage of, gaining little self-benefit for their actions (Deutsch, Epstein, Canavan, &Gumpert, 1967; Solomon, 1960). However, their actions as consistent contributors may influence their fellow group members towardbetter behavior. When their cooperative actions tell the rest of the group that cooperation is valued and expected, it may spark reciprocalcooperation and, in the end, lead the entire group to better behavior (Weber & Murnighan, 2008). Creating a norm of cooperation can bepowerful. Even when social sanctions, such as expressions of disapproval from the group, are removed, people tend to continue theirprosocial behavior well beyond what they do when financial sanctions encouraged prosocial behavior (Nelissen & Mulder, 2013). Ourstrongest motivators for cooperation are other people.
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
· How might a business encourage more carpooling among its employees?
Conclusion
Although groups are made up of individual people, groups are qualitatively different from individuals. We cannot predict group behaviorby simply combining individual behavior. Groups need to be studied as entities in and of themselves. Groups affect how the individualacts and thinks. In some instances, the person needs to sort out group interests from individual interests to determine behavior. Given theamount of time most of us spend in groups and how the decision of groups affect our lives, understanding groups is important.
Chapter Summary
Group Actions
A group is a collection of at least two individuals who are interacting in some way. A group can affect individual performance positively ornegatively depending on the task. This is called social facilitation. Being in a group can also affect a person's production. When individualinputs cannot be identified, people tend to engage in social loafing, that is, not putting in full effort. The group can have positive effects onindividual performance, as proposed by the Köhler effect, when an individual attempts to rise to the level of performance common intheir group. Groups may also induce individuals to act in ways they normally would not. When individuals feel they cannot be identifiedthey tend to take on the identity of the group and engage in actions with the group.
Group Cognition
Although some believe that brainstorming as a group can provide the greatest number of ideas, in actuality, a combination of bothindividual and group brainstorming is best for idea generation. When groups discuss attitudes, the attitudes of individual members tend to polarize. With polarization, individuals become more extreme in their attitudes after a discussion than they were before. When groupsget together to make a decision, specific weaknesses in decision making can be identified amongst cohesive groups with strong directiveleaders. Group decision making in general is affected by the willingness of individual members to share unique knowledge, by thedecision rules imposed on the group, by the size of the group, and by the diversity within the group.
Social Dilemmas
Social dilemmas pit individual self-interest against the interest of the group. In the commons dilemma, a common resource can sustain aminimal amount of selfish behavior, but too much self-interest will destroy the resource. When individuals can contribute to a commonresource that all, regardless of contribution, benefit from, a resource dilemma might develop. It is advantageous to the individual to takeadvantage of the resource without contributing, but the resource disappears without some individual contributions. The prisoner'sdilemma involves a situation where cooperation yields the best collective outcome, but competition can provide the individual with abetter outcome, provided that cooperation is present on the other side. Mutual competition results in a poor outcome for both. Socialdilemmas can be tamed by allowing for communication among the parties by: making cooperation more attractive and self-interestedbehavior more costly, making individuals aware of their effect on a common resource, and by using norms that encourage cooperativebehavior.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. If you were assigned to do a group project for a class, how might the research on social loafing help you encourage equalparticipation in your group?
2. Have you experienced deindividuation? What forces lead you to deindividuation? Were the effects positive or negative?
3. When might group polarization have a positive effect? When might group polarization have a negative effect?
4. If you were concerned a group was likely to engage in groupthink, what might you do to combat that?
5. Social dilemmas are common in a variety of venues, from friendships to international relations. Where have you seen social dilemmasat work? How might they be satisfactorily resolved?
Key Terms
Click on each key term to reveal the definition.
Chapter 11
Prosocial Behavior
Jim West/age fotostock/SuperStock
Learning Objectives
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
· Define altruistic motives and egoistic motives
· Differentiate ultimate goals from instrumental goals and unintended consequences
· Explain the empathy–altruism hypothesis and the debate about whether true altruism exists
· Explain how the norm of reciprocity, social norms in general, kin selection, and personal differencesdetermine helping
· Explain the steps to helping and the factors that may cause someone to not help in an emergency situation
· Define and describe the underpinnings of the bystander effect
Chapter Outline
11.1 Altruism
11.2 Reasons Behind Helping
11.3 Bystander Help
· Step 1: Noticing an Event Is Occurring
· Step 2: Interpreting an Event as an Emergency
· Step 3: Taking Responsibility for Helping
· Step 4: Deciding How to Help
· Step 5: Helping
· Reducing the Bystander Effect
Chapter Summary
* * *
In May 2010, Ione Fletcher Kleven heard yelling outside her California home. Heading out to investigate, she discovered a 14-year-old boy being attacked by men in their 20s. Trying to stop the attack, she ran toward them yelling. She grabbed the boy'sarm and tried to drag him away. Stunned by an intervention in the attack by a woman in her 60s, the men momentarilystopped. When Kleven's husband, a former Marine, came out to investigate, the men got into their car and fled the scene.Kleven asked her husband to take care of the boy and call for help while she chased down the assailants, losing them in traffic.The boy was taken to the hospital for surgery and recovered from the stab wounds he suffered in the attack (De Benedetti,2012). Kleven's extraordinary act of heroism earned her a Carnegie Hero Award in 2012.
11.1 Altruism
Life provides us with opportunities for kindness and, at times, heroism. Rarely do we encounter situations like that faced by Ione FletcherKleven, but daily life provides plenty of occasions for helping those around us. Imagine you were in a train station waiting for a departurewhen you notice a woman drop her ticket. The man behind her picks it up and returns it to her. She accepts it with a smile of relief andhurries off to catch her train. This may be an ordinary occurrence, but it leaves us with the question of why the man helped the womanby returning her ticket. Was he hoping to make a connection and get her phone number? Was he hoping for a reward? Did he want tolook like a hero? Or, even though he was a stranger and not helping would not have affected him, was he just trying to make sure shemade her train? When we help others, the question arises as to whether we help because we truly care about the welfare of another orwhether we help to get something out of it. This is the basic question in the debate about altruism. Altruism occurs when our motive fora behavior is based entirely in the interest of the other person and is not motivated by self-interest. On the other hand, when we dosomething entirely for self-interest, we are being egoistic.
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Altruism involves bettering the welfare of others without expectingpersonal benefits or gains.
Imagine you bought coffee and a bagel for the person sitting next to youin the train station. If you bought those treats for your neighbor entirelybecause you wanted to make that person happy, you would have actedaltruistically. Your ultimate goal was the happiness of the other person.An ultimate goal is the true goal, the end toward which one is aiming. Inthese types of situations we can also talk about another type of goalcalled an instrumental goal. Instrumental goals are the things we do toobtain our ultimate goal (Batson, 1990). Your instrumental goal was tobuy the coffee and bagel and give them to your neighbor. As steppingstones toward our ultimate goals, instrumental goals may changedepending on our ability to do them. If coffee and a bagel were notavailable, you might have told your neighbor a funny story to reach yourultimate goal of making that person happy.
When you engage in actions for altruistic motives, your ultimate goal isthe welfare of the other person, not yourself. You might receive benefitsfor your action. The other person might show gratitude, your significantother might be impressed by your generosity and give you a kiss, or you might look good in front of your boss who is waiting in the trainstation with you. If you received benefits for an action, was your action still altruistic? For example, in the story that began this chapterIone Fletcher Kleven received a Carnegie Hero award for her assistance of a teenage boy under attack. Given that she received benefits forher action, was it still an altruistic act? Yes: When self-benefits are an unintended consequence of an action, that action may be trulyaltruistic. With altruism, the ultimate goal is still the welfare of others, and the action would have been done whether or not the self-benefits were present (Batson, 2010). Kleven received recognition for her heroic act, but if her ultimate goal was to save the boy notgarner praise from others, her act could be termed altruistic. Table 11.1 shows how our ultimate and instrumental goals are related toegoistic and altruistic motivations.
|
Table 11.1: Ultimate and instrumental goals of altruistic and egoistic actions |
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|
Motive |
Welfare of the Other |
Self-Benefits |
|
Altruistic |
Ultimate goal |
Unintended consequence |
|
Egoistic |
Instrumental goal |
Ultimate goal |
|
From Batson, C. D. (1990). How social an animal? The human capacity for caring. American Psychologist, 45(3), 336–346. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.45.3.336 Copyright © 1990 by the American Psychological Association. |
Using this terminology, actions undertaken for egoistic motives involve an ultimate goal of self-benefit (a kiss from your significant other)with the happiness of the other person being only an instrumental goal. If there had been another way to reach the goal of impressingyour significant other, you may have taken that option instead. If you have ever volunteered so that you would have something impressiveto put on your resume, you engaged in volunteering for an egoistic motive. The type of volunteering you might choose to do may dependon whether you are egoistically or altruistically motivated (van Emmerik & Stone, 2002). If you are volunteering to gain recognition,volunteering that has a high profile or is for a popular cause may be more attractive to you. If you are volunteering for altruistic motives,opportunities with groups you can identify with, and therefore have greater empathy for, may be more attractive.
Expand Your Knowledge: Be Inspired
The Carnegie Hero Fund Commission recognizesindividuals who perform acts of heroism. Click onCarnegie Medal Awardees to read the stories of somepast winners of the Carnegie Medal.
We engage in altruism, according to researchers, when we feel empathyfor another person. Empathy is an emotion that people feel when theyadopt another person's perspective (Hoffman, 1981; Howe, 2013). Byadopting that other person's perspective we are able to act in analtruistic way. This is called the empathy–altruism hypothesis(Batson, 1990; Batson, Duncan, Ackerman, Buckley, & Birch, 1981). Youmight know what it is like to be hurrying through a train station, sowhen you see someone else hurrying, you may help because you havebeen in that person's shoes. If we see that someone else is in troubleand needs help but do not adopt that person's point of view, we feel, not empathy but, personal distress. For example, if someone slippedand fell in front of you and you did not feel empathy, you might instead be upset that you had to see blood or be inconvenienced bysomeone else's clumsiness. In this case you might help only because you don't want to see the injury or so that you can be on your wayquickly, not because you truly care about that person's well-being. Egoistic (self-focused) motives involve personal distress, a concernabout how one might be viewed by others, or a desire to feel better about oneself.
The problem researchers face in examining whether we engage in activities for truly altruistic motives is that the action itself does notclearly show the motive behind the action. That coffee you bought for your neighbor in the train station may have earned you a kiss fromyour significant other, but was your action egoistically motivated by recognition for your good deed or altruistically motivated by a desireto make your neighbor happy? On the surface, the action and reaction are identical. To look into altruism, researchers set up situations inwhich participants who were feeling empathy for someone else could either help that person or get out of the situation without lookingor feeling bad. For example, in one study the participants could help by taking the place of another participant (actually a confederate)and receive electrical shocks in her place. For some participants, escape from the situation, and therefore from their own distress, waseasy. For other participants escape was difficult. The idea was to see whether people were motivated by true altruism (they would helpwhether escape was difficult or easy) or egoism (they would help only if escape was difficult). In this, and other studies like it,researchers found that when empathy was high, people seemed to act in truly altruistic ways. Even when they could escape the situationor leave feeling happy or looking good without helping, they still helped (Batson, 2010; Batson et al., 1989; Batson et al., 1991; Batson etal., 1988; Dovidio, Allen, & Schroeder, 1990). Altruism can even occur when it violates the principle of justice. When we feel strongempathy for someone, we may act to increase that person's welfare even when that act will be unfair to others. An individual might coverfor a coworker whose mother has died even when that is unfair to another coworker or to the department in general (Batson et al., 1995;Batson, Klein, Highberger, & Shaw, 1995).
Empathy can be thought of as an emotional state that can be manipulated within a particular situation, which is what the researchers didin many of the studies cited above. People do differ in the amount of empathy they generally feel, called trait empathy. Differentconceptualizations of trait empathy exist. Some focus on the emotional, describing trait empathy as an emotional response to the distressof others (Mehrabian & Epstein, 1972; Mehrabian, Young, & Sato, 1988). Others focus more on the cognitive, describing trait empathy as agreater understanding of the states of others (Hogan, 1969) High trait empathy is associated with greater helping of a person whoappears to be in need (Eisenberg et al., 1989). Individuals higher in trait empathy are more likely to help in a sustained way throughregular volunteering. (Davis et al., 1999; Unger & Thumuluri, 1997).
Empathy is processed by the front part of the brain (medial prefrontal cortex). Individuals who are experiencing empathy toward anotherperson show activation in this part of the brain, as well as a few other areas (Rameson, Morelli, & Lieberman, 2012). Some neuralevidence suggests that empathy and helping are linked in the brain, as this is also the area that is activated for helping (Rameson et al.,2012). The activated part of the brain is an area that is also active when we are thinking about past and future experiences and takingthe perspective of others, which is in line with what we know about empathy.
Altruism does vary from culture to culture (Cohen, 1972; Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; Gurven, Zanolini, & Schniter, 2008) and may bemaintained or expanded through cultural transmission across time. In a process similar to natural selection for genes, a culture thatencourages altruistic behavior may, because of that behavior, continue and flourish (Bell, Richerson, & McElreath, 2009). For example,altruism is higher in Thailand than in the United States. The reasons for such differences are likely quite varied, but in interviews, Thaisremarked that their Buddhist religion was an important factor in their desire to help others (Yablo & Field, 2007). Even within a nation,different subcultures or religious groups might have different views of helping. One's faith tradition might encourage helping even whenone gets nothing in return or when helping puts one's own life in danger—leading to more altruistic behavior in some groups. In a studyof Indian Hindus and Muslims, the Muslims were more likely to help even when the person they would help was disliked and they had ajustification for not helping (Kanekar & Merchant, 2001). This is not to say altruism is entirely based in culture. Evolutionarypsychologists propose that altruism is partially genetically based, and it is an interaction of genetic influences and cultural influences thatdetermine altruism (Gintis, Bowles, Boyd, & Fehr, 2008; Knafo & Israel, 2010).
Test Yourself
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11.2 Reasons Behind Helping
Besides altruism there are a variety of reasons we might help others. One reason is because we want others to help us. Recall thediscussion of reciprocity as a persuasion technique. We generally want to get as much as we give and give as much as we get (Gouldner,1960). You might give a friend a ride to the airport with the implicit understanding that your friend will give you a ride when you needone. Helping, then, is really a form of social exchange. We help to be helped.
Expand Your Knowledge: Volunteering
If thinking about prosocial behavior inspires you tovolunteer, click the links below to find helpingopportunities.
· Volunteer in U.S. National Parks
Helping may also be part of a general social norm (Staub, 1972). Weoften engage in behavior because we believe others engage in thosebehaviors (descriptive norms), or because others think we should(injunctive norms). We may help, therefore, because we believe it iswhat others do and what others think we should do (Schwartz, 1975).For example, in a study of potential bone marrow donors, women whoascribed to themselves the responsibility of donating bone marrow dueto a descriptive or injunctive norm were more likely to volunteer todonate than those who did not have the norm or the feeling ofresponsibility (Schwartz, 1973). Members of a work group follow thenorms for helping in a group when they are more attracted to thegroup (Naumann & Ehrhart, 2011). Norms for who we help may beculturally dependent. Indians were more likely than Americans to judgethe failure to help strangers or others in moderate or minor need as immoral (Miller, Bersoff, & Harwood, 1990), suggesting a strongernorm for helping exists in India than in the United States. Such national norms will lead to more helping for those types of needs.
Evolutionary theorists believe people help to gain benefits through promoting the genes of those related to them (Hoffman, 1981).Individuals are more likely to help their own child than a stranger's child. We are also more likely to help a sibling than a cousin, andmore likely to help a cousin than a stranger. Generally, the closer the person in need is to us in terms of genetic similarity, the greater thelikelihood of helping. This tendency allows our own genes to be passed on to future generations and is called kin selection (Essock-Vitale& McGuire, 1980; Kruger, 2003; Waibel, Floreano, & Keller, 2011).
Some similarities in personality and belief exist in those people who are particularly helpful. Individuals who helped Jews in Nazi Europehad greater empathy and beliefs in the equality of people than those who did not help, though they were similar to others in most otherpersonality characteristics (Oliner & Oliner, 1988). Helpful people tend to be high in self-esteem and self-efficacy (feelings of competence).Helpful people also tend to have a strong belief that their own actions will affect what is happening in the world (something called aninternal locus of control) and attribute responsibility for making those changes to themselves (Schwartz, 1974). Moral development isalso more advanced; that is, those who are helpful are more focused on societal functioning or universal moral principles than onpersonal outcomes (Piliavin, Dovidio, Gaertner, & Clark, 1981; Rushton, Chrisjohn, & Fekken, 1981; Staub, 1978). In a study of onlinebullying, researchers found that people high in extraversion and empathy are more likely to intervene than those lower in thosecharacteristics (Freis & Gurung, 2013).
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Altruistic behavior increases with age.
Many religious traditions promote prosocial behavior, leading researchers to examinewhether religious people help more (Batson, Schoenrade, & Pych, 1985; Habito, 2002;Wuthnow, 1991). In general, religiosity is more strongly tied to long-term or plannedhelping, like volunteering, as opposed to helping in emergency situations (Galen,2012). People who are more religious are more likely to engage in planned helpingthan those who are less religious, while there is no difference between those ofdifferent levels of religiosity in emergency helping (Annis, 1976; Hardy & Carlo, 2005;Mattis et al., 2000; Wilson & Janoski, 1995; Youniss, McLellan, & Yates, 1999). Due todiffering motivations, people may engage in the same religious behaviors but not havethe same experience. Batson et al. (1985) found that those who saw their faith as ajourney or quest, or those whose focus was on their relationship with God, engaged inmore prosocial behavior than those who viewed religion as a means to an end.
Altruistic types of helping increase with age and differ between genders. Childrenlearn to help altruistically from adult models, particularly parents (London, 1970;Piliavin & Callero, 1990; Rosenhan, 1970). Preschool children show few instances ofaltruistic helping, while older children show these types of actions much more (Bar-Tal, Raviv, & Goldberg, 1982; Eisenberg, 1986). Altruism may continue to increaseacross the lifespan (Marks & Song, 2008; Midlarsky & Hannah, 1989). Men andwomen also exhibit differences when it comes to helping. For example, men are morelikely than women to help in high-risk situations, or situations that require physicalstrength. Women are more likely than men to help in low-risk and low physical-strength situations (Eagly, 2009; Erdle, Sansom, Cole, & Heapy, 1992). For example, aman might pull someone from a burning house or intervene when someone is beingmugged, while a woman might bring food to a grieving family or canvas theneighborhood collecting donations.
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· What personal characteristics are more often found in helpful people?
Social Psychology in Depth: Helping After Natural Disasters
In October 2012, superstorm Sandy headed up the east coast of the United States and brought death and damage. Millionsof people lost power for days or weeks; thousands of people were left homeless, some with homes completely destroyed;and 149 lives were lost (Sharp, 2012). Thousands of utility workers from other states and from Canada were called in tohelp restore power, and the Red Cross brought in 14,400 workers, most volunteers, to help with disaster relief (Red Cross,2012; Webley, 2012). When asked, 77% of Americans say they want to help in the face of such disasters (Marchetti & Bunte,2006). What determines helping in disasters?
Our emotional reactions to disasters are important to our response. According to the empathy–altruism hypothesis, we helpaltruistically when we feel empathy for others. Feelings of empathy and sympathy are related to a desire to help and toeventual helping (Amato, 1986; Amato, Ho, & Partridge, 1984; Avdeyeva, Burgetova, & Welch, 2006; Marjanovic, Greenglass,Struthers, & Faye, 2009). Personal distress also affects helping. Individuals who reported shock, horror, or sickness inresponse to major bush fires in Australia donated more money than those who did not report feeling these emotions(Amato, 1986).
Our degree of relation to the victims of disaster and personal characteristics affect the help we are willing to provide. Aswould be expected from kin selection theory, individuals with friends or relatives affected by a disaster are more likely toprovide assistance (Amato et al., 1984) and those individuals in need of assistance tend to receive more help in networksthat are more kin dominated (Beggs, Haines, & Hurlbert, 1996). Women are more likely to provide, seek, and receiveassistance when they are the victims of a disaster (Amato, Ho, & Partridge, 1984; Beggs, Haines, & Hurlbert, 1996). Thosewith higher self-efficacy, more education, and greater religious attendance feel more positive responsibility for helping(Michel, 2007). Individuals with higher income are more likely to provide monetary help, perhaps because they have theresources to give (Amato et al., 1984).
Integration in one's community and social network is an important component when measuring response to disaster. Thosewho are involved in their community are more likely to help community members in need (Penner, Dovidio, Piliavin, &Schroeder, 2005). Studies of disasters, including Hurricane Katrina, show that people with large social networks andnetworks that are dense, that is, those that have many ties among members, are more likely to gain assistance when theyneed it (Beggs et al., 1996; Hurlbert, Beggs, & Haines, 2006).
11.3 Bystander Help
©1984/Daily News, L.P. (New York)/New York Daily News Archive/ Contributor/NY DailyNews via Getty Images
View of the street where Kitty Genovese was murdered in 1964.Despite Genovese's cries, witnesses didn't call for help until aftershe was dead.
In 1964, a woman named Kitty Genovese was murdered in New York City.According to the New York Times, 38 people watched for a half hour asshe was stalked and stabbed. By the time anyone called the police, shewas dead. Although later reports suggested some changes to the basicfacts (neighbors may have heard but not seen her attack and calledearlier than reported), the city and the country were horrified that peoplecould be so apathetic in the face of an unfolding tragedy. Why, everyonewanted to know, didn't someone help?
Examples of such incidents are not difficult to find. In 2008, inConnecticut, Angel Arce Torres was hit by a car while crossing the street.He lay paralyzed on the sidewalk as cars and pedestrians passed by(Goren, 2008). In 2009 a 15-year-old girl at Richmond High School, inCalifornia, was gang-raped and beaten during a homecoming dance, whileat least 10 observers watched and took pictures (Martinez, 2009). Whenwe encounter such events, when do we help and what factors might leadus to turn away? Social psychologists decided to answer that question.There are five major steps to helping (Latane & Darley, 1970). At eachstep one can continue to the next step or fail to continue. Looking at thefive steps together, we see that a person in need of help is less likely to get that help in a crowd than when one other person is present, aphenomenon known as the bystander effect (Latane & Darley, 1970).
Step 1: Noticing an Event Is Occurring
Before people can help, they need to first notice that there is a situation present in which help is needed. If you are listening to musicthrough earbuds or are in a noisy place, you might not hear someone scream (Page, 1977). If you do not know the event is occurring youwill not help. Other than not hearing or seeing something, we might also be less likely to notice an event if we are in a hurry. In a studyby Darley and Batson (1973), the researchers recruited seminary students to be part of a study supposedly focusing on vocational careersfor seminary students. The students participated in the first part of the study and were asked to go to another building to complete thesecond part of the study. One third of the participants were told that they were late and needed to hurry to the next building. Anotherthird were told to go directly over, they would be right on time. The final third were told they were early but could go over to the otherbuilding to wait. While walking from one building to the next, the participants encountered a man—actually a confederate of theresearchers—sitting in a doorway who coughed twice and slumped down as they went by.
Of the participants who were not in a hurry, 63% stopped to help the man. Of those who were told they would be right on time, 43%helped. Being in a hurry had a dramatic effect on helping. Of those in the high-hurry group, only 10% helped. This study suggests thatbeing distracted from one's surroundings due to hurry decreases helping.
Step 2: Interpreting an Event as an Emergency
If a person has noticed an event has occurred, the next step is interpreting that event as an emergency. Kleven, the woman described inthe initial story for this chapter, needed to decide whether the shouting she heard outside her house was a potential emergency or justsome teenagers having fun. Is the person slumped in a seat at the train station asleep or ill? Is the person pulling to the side of the roadhaving car trouble or stopping to discipline a whiny child? When an event is ambiguous, we are less likely to take the next step inhelping. The man who clutches his chest and groans "heart attack" is fairly clearly having a heart attack. The man slumped in a seat atthe train station is less clearly in need of help.
One way we try to determine if someone needs help is to look to other bystanders. If others look alarmed at the sound of the scream inthe train station, you might interpret the event as an emergency. If others look unconcerned you might interpret the same scream asnothing to worry about. When research participants were placed in a room and smoke was piped in through the heating vent, those whowere alone reported the smoke fairly quickly, normally within 2 minutes of noticing it, with 75% reporting it within 6 minutes.Participants who were with confederates who showed no reaction to the smoke, rarely reported the smoke. Out of the 10 people in thiscondition, only one (10%) reported the smoke after 6 minutes. When three actual participants sat in the room filling with smoke, only38% reported the potential emergency (Latane & Darley, 1968). See Figure 11.1.
Figure 11.1: Effect of group membership in emergencysituations
In the Latane and Darley (1968) study, only one out of 10 subjects reportedthe smoke when paired with two unalarmed confederates, however, 38%reported smoke when there were three actual participants, and 75%reported smoke when left alone.
Adapted from Latane, B., & Darley, J. M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10(3), 215–221. doi: 10.1037/h0026570. Copyright © 1968 bythe American Psychological Association.
Our tendency to collectively misinterpret situations in this way is called pluralistic ignorance. Pluralistic ignorance can be reduced if weknow the other people we are with, perhaps because friends are more likely to discuss what is going on rather than rely on the nonverbalsignals strangers are likely to send. In a study involving a potential emergency, two friends responded more quickly than two strangers,though individuals that were alone still responded most quickly (Latane & Rodin, 1969).
Expand Your Knowledge: 10 NotoriousBystander Stories
For additional stories about the bystander effect, take alook at Listverse's list of 10 notorious bystander stories here . Some you may know about, some may be new toyou. The list includes Kitty Genovese's story as well asstories about big events like the Holocaust and smaller-scale tragic events like the torture and murder of IlanHalimi.
We interpret situations differently depending on what we believe is therelationship of those involved in the situation. In an emergencyinvolving a victim and an attacker, we are less likely to intervene whenwe believe there is a relationship between the individuals. A tragicexample of this phenomenon occurred in the United Kingdom in 1993when 2-year-old James Bulger was killed by two 10-year-old boys.James was kidnapped by the boys from a shopping mall and dragged2½ miles to railroad tracks where he was killed. Many people saw theboys together and noticed little James' distress but assumed it was twoolder brothers taking home a reluctant little brother. This type ofinterpretation and reaction was supported in research. Whenresearchers staged an attack of a woman, three times as many peopleintervened when she said "I don't know you" (65% intervened) to herattacker than when she said "I don't know why I ever married you" (19% intervened) (Shotland & Straw, 1976).
Step 3: Taking Responsibility for Helping
Once we have interpreted an event as an emergency, we may still not help if we fail to take responsibility for helping. In a studyinvestigating this step to helping, research participants heard another participant apparently having an epileptic seizure in another room(Darley & Latane, 1968). The seizure was staged. One group of participants believed they were the only ones hearing the seizure, anothergroup thought there was one other person besides them, and a third group believed that four others were also hearing the seizure. After6 minutes, 85% of those who believed they were alone, 62% of those who thought there was one other person, and 31% of those whothought there were four other people, went to find help. The individuals who did not seek help were still concerned. When theresearchers went to get them at the end of the study they showed signs of nervousness and asked about the condition of the personapparently having the seizure.
David De Lossy/Photodisc/Thinkstock
You are more likely to help a person in a stressfulsituation when you are the only witness.
Most of the time, as in the study with the alleged seizure, having a larger groupobserving an emergency seems to inhibit helping. The responsibility for helping getsdiffused, or parceled out, in large groups. In a group of four you might assume thatsomeone else can take responsibility for helping because you are not the only onehearing the emergency. When you are the only witness in an emergency situation, allresponsibility to help falls to you. The result of this diffusion of responsibility is thatless helping occurs with a larger population of bystanders (Darley & Latane, 1968).
Larger groups are not always detrimental. Groups made up of friends are less likely toshow diffusion of responsibility than groups made up of strangers and are more likelyto help. It may be that these groups are used to working together and can, because oftheir familiarity with one another, quickly assign different jobs to different groupmembers. Generally, men are more likely to help in emergency situations (Fischer etal., 2011). However, in some situations, such as when a female group is confrontedwith an emergency involving a female victim, having a larger group can actuallyincrease helping (Levine & Crowther, 2008). Women may feel vulnerable helpingsomeone under attack when they are alone for fear of being attacked themselves.While in a group, women may feel comfortable that together the group couldovercome an attacker.
Whether the potential bystander is male or female, a passive bystander can be helpfulwhen there is a potential for danger. When a bystander was present and the thieflooked frightening people were more likely to intervene in a bicycle stealing scenariothan when that bystander was not there (Fischer & Greitemeyer, 2013). Rather thanless help because of diffusion of responsibility, the bystander may have given peoplecourage to help even with potential danger because that bystander could become ahelper. When no bystander was present, is it possible people weighed the risks and,without potential backup, decided against intervention.
Step 4: Deciding How to Help
Once we take responsibility for helping we may still not help if we cannot decide how to help. If you see someone along the road with acar trouble, you have several options for helping. You could stop and see if you can fix the car yourself. You could call a repair shop or thepolice yourself or stop and offer the stranded motorist your cell phone to call for help. Of course, you would only stop and fix theproblem yourself if you knew how. Competence or training makes helping in this way more likely. Individuals with Red Cross training infirst aid are more likely than those who do not have such training to offer direct help to someone who appears to be bleeding (Shotland& Heinold, 1985). Having the skill to help does matter.
Step 5: Helping
Even if someone notices an event, interprets it as an emergency, takes responsibility, and decides how to help, that person may still fail tohelp in the end. One reason for lack of actual help is feeling embarrassed or self-conscious in the presence of other people. This reactionis called audience inhibition (Latane & Darley, 1970). This type of inhibition applies to more than emergency situations involvinghelping. When a coupon for a free cheeseburger was available to riders in an elevator, these individuals were less likely to take a couponwhen others were present (Petty, Williams, Harkins, & Latane, 1977). The presence of an audience makes us generally less willing to act.
Individuals may also fail to help if they determine that the costs outweigh the benefits of helping. For example, if you see a hitchhiker onthe side of the highway you may decide you are the only one who could help (the highway is deserted) and knows how to help (give theperson a ride) but decide that the potential costs to you are too great. If individuals decide the potential costs are too high or thepotential benefits too low, they may decide not to help (Avdeyeva et al., 2006; Banyard & Moynihan, 2011; Morgan, 1978). One potentialcost might be embarrassment. Individuals who are more likely to be embarrassed are slower to help others when pointing out whenpeople have food caught in their teeth or something on their face than those less likely to be embarrassed (Zoccola, Green, Karoutsos,Katona, & Sabini, 2011). The cost–benefit calculation may be, in part, responsible for the finding that in some dangerous situations, wherethe victim's life may be in danger, greater helping has been found with larger groups (Fischer, Greitemeyer, Pollozek, & Frey, 2006). Inthese types of situations, the benefit of potentially saving the life of the victim may outweigh the potential costs to the helper, and thegroup may protect the individual helper from harm from, for example, a large, potentially dangerous attacker. These types of situationsmight also be less ambiguous, reducing pluralistic ignorance. Bystanders are indeed more likely to intervene when the situation isdangerous rather than in a nondangerous situation (Fischer et al., 2011).
Within this cost–benefit calculation is also the cost of not helping. If people could help but do not, they may feel guilty or lose socialstatus. Helping might bring praise or other rewards (Fritzsche, Finkelstein, & Penner, 2000; Piliavin et al., 1981). If the benefits forhelping were high, the costs of not helping were high, and the costs of helping were low, the logical thing would be to help. As noted,putting these five steps together we find that in an emergency situation, a person is less likely to get help when there are a large numberof people around as opposed to just one person. Kitty Genovese, who was murdered while 38 of her neighbors watched or listened,would have been more likely to get help if a neighbor knew, or believed, he or she was the only one to hear Genovese's struggles.
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
· Does being in a hurry have an effect on helping in emergency situations?
· What are some factors that lead to greater helping with more people present?
Reducing the Bystander Effect
If you are the one in need of help, what should you do? Take a few minutes to consider before looking at the suggestions below.
Step 1
Make the emergency situation noticeable. The first step to helping is noticing something is happening, so if you are part of an emergencysituation make that situation noticeable to others. Depending on the situation, yell, put up signs, light a flare, or wave your arms. In orderfor people to help they must first see that something has occurred that deserves their attention.
Step 2
Make it obvious that the event is an emergency. While bystanders might notice something is happening, they may not offer you help ifthey do not realize the event is actually an emergency. Individuals yelling "Help!" are more likely to get help than those who are silent(Shotland & Heinold, 1985). If others are present, remember the danger of pluralistic ignorance and do not rely on the nonverbal signalsof others. Make friends with others and discuss whether you think an emergency situation is occurring. Remember that friends respondmore quickly than strangers (Latane & Rodin, 1969). If you are the victim of an attack, remember that you are more likely to get help ifbystanders believe your attacker is a stranger (Shotland & Straw, 1976).
Step 3
If you have an emergency situation, you want to be sure someone takes responsibility for providing help, so single someone out to helpyou. Point to someone, say his or her name if you know it, and ask that person specifically to provide help (Markey, 2000). If you haveever been through CPR training you know that one of the first things you are asked to do is point to someone specific and ask them tocall 911 while you do CPR. The Red Cross knows about bystander research and has implemented the research findings in its training.
Steps 4 and 5
Make the type of help you need evident and do what you can to reduce costs and increase benefits. Individuals who know what help toprovide will be more likely to actually provide that help. If you need someone to call 911, say so. If you need help changing a tire, makethat clear as well. A clear task or instructions on what to do may help reduce audience inhibition. As we learned from Milgram's studiesof obedience, individuals who are acting on specific orders feel less responsible for their actions and, therefore, may feel less inhibition tohelp even when observed by others.
Test Yourself
Click on the question below to reveal the answer.
· If you need help in an emergency situation, what should you do?
Conclusion
People may help for a variety of reasons. Whether one of those reasons is altruism, truly caring about another without any self-focus, is amatter of debate within social psychology. Helping may occur because of reciprocity, social norms, or evolutionary benefits. Someindividuals may be more helpful than others. Bystander helping in emergencies takes place when the steps to helping have been taken,with people generally less likely to help when other people are present.
Chapter Summary
Altruism
Helping that occurs for altruistic motives occurs when the ultimate goal is to increase the welfare of others and any self-benefits are anunintended consequence. According to the empathy–altruism hypothesis, when we feel empathy for another person we may help foraltruistic reasons.
Reasons Behind Helping
Helping may occur because others have helped us in the past or because we hope they will help us in the future. A general social normalso promotes helping those in need. Evolutionary theory suggests we help to promote our own genes, so we help those who aregenetically similar. Individuals with particular qualities or personality traits may be more likely to help.
Bystander Help
There are five steps to helping. One must first notice an event and then must interpret that event as an emergency. When individuals arebusy or distracted, they may not notice an event. The presence of others who do not react to an event may cause one not to react either,leading to pluralistic ignorance. Once the event is seen as an emergency, one must take responsibility for helping. When others arepresent, we may not take responsibility because of diffusion of responsibility. The final steps are deciding how to help and helping. Whenothers are present, individuals may not help because of audience inhibition. The overall tendency to not help when others are present isthe bystander effect.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Do you believe true altruism exists? Why or why not?
2. Does it matter whether we do things for altruistic or egoistic motives if another person is helped in the end?
3. A variety of things are suggested in this chapter to increase likelihood of helping in emergency situations. What other things do youthink might be helpful?
4. If situational factors are so powerful in determining likelihood of helping, can we blame people if they do not help? If most people donot help in bystander situations, then who is to blame for nonintervention?
5. Think about a time when you were deciding if a situation was an emergency and whether you should help. How do the steps tohelping apply in that situation?
Key Terms
Click on each key term to reveal the definition.