GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

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Psychology

Eighth Edition

Chapter 4

Learning and Human Nurture

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

4.1 Review Pavlov's experiments on classical conditioning

4.2 Review some of the areas in real life where Pavlov's classical conditioning techniques may be applied

4.3 Examine B. F. Skinner's law of effect to understand influences on behavior

4.4 Evaluate the way the power of reinforcement shapes our behavior

4.5 Assess the controversy around using punishment in shaping behavior

4.6 Report some of the methods that may be used to change behavior

4.7 Compare the learnings of operant and classical conditioning

4.8 Examine the study of Köhler in the canaries with chimps

4.9 Examine the way Edward Tolman's experiments on cognitive map and latent learning challenged existing theories of behavior

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

4.10 Evaluate the way Albert Bandura's observational learning challenged existing theories of rewards and punishments

4.11 Examine the process of long-term potentiation through which the brain performs the learning function

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Introduction: Learning and Human Nurture

Walden Two, B.F. Skinner

Learning, lasting change, behavior processes

Behavioral learning vs cognitive learning

Learning versus instincts

Simple and complex forms of learning

4.1: The Essentials of Classical Conditioning (1 of 3)

4.1.1: Acquisition

Acquisition overview

Critical elements

4.1.1: Acquisition

Point 1 – Acquisition overview

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Acquisition

Neutral stimulus (NS)

Conditioned response (CR)

Point 2 – Critical elements

Timing

NS, UCS contiguous occurrence

Figure 4.1 Basic Features of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning

Before, stimulus, response

During (acquisition), stimulus, response

After, stimulus, response

4.1: The Essentials of Classical Conditioning (2 of 3)

4.1.2: Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

Extinction

Spontaneous recovery

4.1.2: Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

Point 1 – Extinction

Conditioned responses not permanent

Eliminated by withholding UCS

CS presented alone

Point 2 – Spontaneous recovery

CR reappears after extinction

After period without CS exposure

Lower intensity than original CS

Figure 4.2 Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery

Strength of CR over time

Acquisition (NS + UCS)

Extinction (CS alone)

Spontaneous recovery, re-extinction (CS alone)

4.1: The Essentials of Classical Conditioning (3 of 3)

4.1.3: Generalization

Stimulus generalization

Everyday life

4.1.4: Discrimination Learning

Stimulus discrimination

Everyday life examples

4.1.5: Higher Order Conditioning

Domino effect

Example

4.1.3: Generalization

Point 1 – Stimulus generalization

Extend conditioned response

Stimuli similar to conditioned stimuli

Pavlov

Point 2 – Everyday life

Acquire fear from traumatic events

Example - childhood fear of clowns

Old responses in new situations

4.1.4: Discrimination Learning

Point 1 – Stimulus discrimination

Organism distinguishes between similar stimuli

Respond to one, not other

Point 2 – Everyday life examples

Advertising campaigns

Discriminate between brands

Example - Pepsi versus Coke

4.1.5: Higher Order Conditioning

Point 1 – Domino effect

One response leads to another

Already-conditioned stimulus  new stimulus

“Ladder” of new stimuli

Point 2 – Example

Classical conditioning

Cat and can opener

Squeaky cupboard houses can opener

Cat runs upon hearing cupboard

Figure 4.3 Higher Order Conditioning

CS = foundation for new NS

CR occurs with 2ndnd /higher-order stimulus

Cat, can opener, squeaky door

4.2: Applications of Classical Conditioning (1 of 2)

4.2.1: Conditioned Fears: The Notorious Case of Little Albert

Conditioned fear overview

Counterconditioning

4.2.2: Conditioned Food Aversions

Distress from food

Food aversion

4.2.3: Biological Predispositions: A Challenge to Pavlov

Evolution and association

Conditioned aversions

Genetic preparedness

4.2.1: Conditioned Fears: The Notorious Case of Little Albert

Point 1 – Conditioned fear overview

Watson and Rayner

“Little Albert” and rat

Paired rat with high-pitched noise

Created fear

Point 2 – Counterconditioning

Relaxation response to conditioned stimulus

Pair CS with positive stimulus

Effective with phobias

4.2.2: Conditioned Food Aversions

Point 1 – Distress from food

Bad food experiences

Distress associations

Sight, smell, taste of food

Nausea

Point 2 – Food aversion

Survival value

Association between illness and food

4.2.3: Biological Predispositions: A Challenge to Pavlov

Point 1 – Evolution and association

Garcia and Koelling experiments

Rats and learned association

Point 2 – Conditioned aversions

Result from nature and nurture

“Wired in” taste aversions

Point 3 – Genetic preparedness

Comes from ancestral past

Prompts us to learn fears

Harmful objects (snakes, spiders, etc.)

4.2: Applications of Classical Conditioning (2 of 2)

4.2.4: New Frontiers in Wildlife Management

Ranchers, predators, and prey

Application

4.2.5: Classical Conditioning in Advertising

Evaluative conditioning

Celebrity endorsements

Product placement

Humor in advertising

4.2.6: Harnessing the Power of Classical Conditioning

Application of classical conditioning

Big lessons

4.2.4: New Frontiers in Wildlife Management

Point 1 – Ranchers, predators, and prey

Conditioned taste aversion

John Garcia

Experiment, method, findings

Point 2 – Application

African lions in Botswana

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

4.2.5: Classical Conditioning in Advertising

Point 1 – Evaluative conditioning

Special type of classical conditioning

Influences many of our preferences

Appealing unconditioned stimulus

Creates UCS with positive emotions

Critical in advertising

Point 2 – Celebrity endorsements

Create positive associations

Person–product match important

Point 3 – Product placement

Featuring product in media

Effective if viewers like media

Not effective if viewers dislike

Point 4 – Humor in advertising

Success dependent on three factors

Products for young, male audience

Non-luxury items

Humor varies with national culture

4.2.6: Harnessing the Power of Classical Conditioning

Point 1 – Application of classical conditioning

Sleeping area

Study space

Exercise

Point 2 – Big lessons

Nature and nurture

Influence on attitudes, preferences, behavior

4.3: Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism

B. F. Skinner

Edward Thorndike

Point 1 – B. F. Skinner

Founding father of operant conditioning

Consequences influence behavior

Originally Edward Thorndike’s idea

Point 2 – Edward Thorndike

Cats and “puzzle box”

Law of effect

Figure 4.4 A Thorndike Puzzle Box

Tested animals’ problem-solving ability

Voluntary action

Successful versus unsuccessful behavior

Law of effect

4.4: The Power of Reinforcement (1 of 3)

Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

4.4.1: Vintage Technology: The "Skinner Box"

Operant chamber

Mechanics

4.4.2: Contingencies of Reinforcement

Reinforcement’s effect on behavior

Key questions on reinforcement

Point 1 – Positive reinforcement

Strengthens response

Adds positive stimulus after response

Makes behavior more likely

Point 2 – Negative reinforcement

Strengthens response

Taking away unpleasant stimulus

Reinforces behavior

Not punishment

4.4.1: Vintage Technology: The "Skinner Box“

Point 1 – Operant chamber

Device for studying enforcers

Box with pressable level

Most people called “Skinner box”

Point 2 – Mechanics

Programmed to deliver food

Certain lever must be pressed

Animals learn necessary behavior

4.4.2: Contingencies of Reinforcement

Point 1 – Reinforcement’s effect on behavior

Timing and frequency are critical

Example - frequent versus infrequent report cards

Point 2 – Key questions on reinforcement

How often?

How much work?

Reinforced for every response?

4.4: The Power of Reinforcement (2 of 3)

4.4.3: Continuous Versus Intermittent Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement

Shaping

Keys to success

Intermittent reinforcement

Extinction

4.4.4: Schedules of Reinforcement

Ratio schedule

Interval schedule

4.4.3: Continuous Versus Intermittent Reinforcement

Point 1 – Continuous reinforcement

Reward for every correct response

Useful in early learning process

Ignore incorrect ones

Quick and clear feedback

Point 2 – Shaping

Deliberate use of rewards

Encourages approximations of desired behavior

“Raising the bar”

Point 3 – Keys to success

Careful attention

Consistency

Impact of not providing reward

Point 4 – Intermittent reinforcement

Rewarding some correct responses

Maintain already-learned behaviors

Point 5 – Extinction

Occurs when reinforcement stops

Example - gambler gives up on slots

Intermittent reinforcement resistant to extinction

4.4.4: Schedules of Reinforcement

Point 1 – Ratio schedule

Fixed ratio

Variable ratio

Point 2 – Interval schedule

Fixed interval

Variable interval

Figure 4.5 Reinforcement Schedules

Patterns of responding

Different schedules of reinforcement

VR, FR, VI, FI

4.4: The Power of Reinforcement

4.4.5: The Role of Biology in Operant Conditioning

Primary reinforcers

Conditioned/secondary reinforcers

Instinctive drift

4.4.6: Token Economies

Token economy system

Usage

Advantage

4.4.7: Preferred Activities as Reinforcers: The Premack Principle

Desirable activities

Premack principle

4.4.5: The Role of Biology in Operant Conditioning

Point 1 – Primary reinforcers

Stimuli that meets biological needs

Examples - food, sex, etc.

Point 2 – Conditioned/secondary reinforcers

Neutral stimuli

Reinforcement by association with primary reinforcers

Example - money or grades

Point 3 – Instinctive drift

Innate response tendencies

Interfere with learned behavior

4.4.6: Token Economies

Point 1 – Token economy system

Tokens for desired behavior

Tokens exchanged for rewards, privileges

Point 2 – Usage

Teachers and students

Preschool to college

Efficacy of usage

Point 3 – Advantage

Instant rewards

Longer-term rewards

4.4.7: Preferred Activities as Reinforcers: The Premack Principle

Point 1 – Desirable activities

Reinforce behavior

Activities = reward

Point 2 – Premack principle

Children sit if they can run later

David Premack

4.4: The Power of Reinforcement (3 of 3)

4.4.8: Reinforcement Across Cultures

Laws of operant learning

Effect of culture

4.4.8: Reinforcement Across Cultures

Point 1 – Laws of operant learning

Apply to creatures with brain

Biological underpinnings

Point 2 – Effect of culture

Shapes preferences

Reinforcement shapes culture

4.5: The Puzzle of Punishment (1 of 2)

4.5.1: Punishment versus Negative Reinforcement

Punishment

Negative reinforcement

4.5.1: Punishment versus Negative Reinforcement

Point 1 – Punishment

Involves unpleasant stimuli

Decreases a behavior

Reduces its probability of occurring

Point 2 – Negative reinforcement

Also involves unpleasant stimuli (withholding)

Increases a response’s probability

“Negative” = “remove,” not “bad”

Figure 4.6 Negative Reinforcement and Punishment Compared

Negative reinforcement

Noise, response, noise removed

Punishment

No noise, response, noise applied

Table 4.1 Four Kinds of Consequences

		Apply (add) Stimulus (positive)	Remove (subtract) Stimulus (negative)
	The probability of the behavior increases.	Positive reinforcement Example: An employee gets a bonus for good work (and continues to work hard).	Negative reinforcement Example: You take aspirin for your headache, and the headache vanishes (so you take aspirin the next time you have a headache).
What is the effect of the stimulus (consequence) on behavior?
	The probability of the behavior decreases.	Positive punishment Example: A speeder gets a traffic ticket (and drives away more slowly).	Negative punishment Example: A child who has stayed out late misses dinner (and comes home early next time).

Four kinds of consequences are listed along with examples

Positive reinforcement – stimulus is added; probability of behavior increases

Negative reinforcement – stimulus is removed; probability of behavior increases

Positive punishment – stimulus is added; probability of behavior decreases

Negative punishment – stimulus is removed; probability of behavior decreases

4.5: The Puzzle of Punishment (2 of 2)

4.5.2: Uses and Abuses of Punishment

Overview

Problems with punishment I

Problems with punishment II

4.5.3: Does Punishment Ever Work?

Overview

Conditions for punishment use I

Conditions for punishment use II

4.5.2: Uses and Abuses of Punishment

Point 1 – Overview

Punishment = common in many societies

Example - fines, spanking, disapproval, etc.

Jails and prisons

Reasons for punishment frequency

Inefficiency of punishment

Point 2 – Problems with punishment I

Consistency

Lure of rewards

Triggering of escape, aggression

Punishment used to influence others

Point 3 – Problems with punishment II

Inhibits learning desirable responses

Punishment often applied unequally

Fails to teach correct behavior

4.5.3: Does Punishment Ever Work?

Point 1 – Overview

Success in limited circumstances

Example - autism and self-destructive behavior

Logical consequence related to behavior

Point 2 – Conditions for punishment use I

Consistent

Swift

Limited in duration and intensity

Clearly target behavior; logical consequence

Point 3 – Conditions for punishment use II

Limited to response’s situation

Should not give mixed messages

Negative punishment = most effective

4.6: A Checklist for Modifying Operant Behavior

Tools for changing behavior

Main lesson

Point 1 – Tools for changing behavior

Positive reinforcement (continuous, intermittent)

Negative reinforcement

Extinction

Punishment

Point 2 – Main lesson

Combine several tactics

Reinforce desirable behaviors

Extinction, logical consequences on undesirables

4.7: Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared (1 of 3)

4.7.1: Is the Behavioral Response Before or After the New Stimulus?

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Point of confusion

4.7.1: Is the Behavioral Response Before or After the New Stimulus?

Point 1 – Classical conditioning

New stimulus is neutral stimulus

Paired with UCS

Produces response/behavior

New stimulus is before response

Point 2 – Operant conditioning

New stimulus after response

New stimulus = reward or punishment

Point 3 – Point of confusion

Stimulus can play different roles

Depends on type of conditioning

When stimulus occurs = distinguishing factor

Figure 4.7 The Same Stimulus Plays Different Roles in Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

Classical versus operant conditioning

Same stimulus, different roles

Classical: UCS → UCR; CS→CR

Operant: Operant behavior → Reinforcing stimulus

4.7: Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared (2 of 3)

4.7.2: Is the Behavior Voluntary or Reflexive?

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

4.7.3: New Behavior or Existing Behavior?

Another key difference

Extinction

4.7.2: Is the Behavior Voluntary or Reflexive?

Point 1 – Classical conditioning

Reflexive behavior

“Wired-in” pattern

Begins with biological stimulus-response pattern

Involuntary and unconscious

Point 2 – Operant conditioning

Not based on automatic reflex action

Behavior developed voluntarily Conscious and voluntary

4.7.3: New Behavior or Existing Behavior?

Point 1 – Another key difference

Kinds of behaviors targeted

Operant = new behaviors

Classical = old responses to new stimuli

Point 2 – Extinction

Works differently in operant, classical

In classical, withholds unconditioned stimulus

In operant, withholds reinforcer

Table 4.2 Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared

Classical Conditioning	Operant Conditioning
Behavior is controlled by stimuli that precede the response (by the CS and UCS).	Behavior is controlled by consequences (rewards, punishments, and the like) that follow the response.
No reward or punishment is involved (although pleasant and aversive stimuli may be used).	Typically involves reward (reinforcement) or punishment.
Through conditioning, a new stimulus (the CS) comes to produce “old” (reflexive) behavior.	Through conditioning, a new stimulus (a reinforcer) produces new behavior.
Extinction is produced by withholding the UCS.	Extinction is produced by withholding reinforcement.
Learner is passive (responds reflexively): Responses are involuntary; that is, behavior is elicited by stimulation.	Learner is active (operant behavior): Responses are voluntary; that is, behavior is emitted by the organism.

4.7: Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared (3 of 3)

4.7.4: How They Work Together

Classical and operant relationship

Example

4.7.4: How They Work Together

Point 1 – Classical and operant relationship

Not competing explanations

Complimentary

Classical responses maintained by operant

Point 2 – Example

Snake phobia

Fear learned by classical conditioning

Phobic response maintained by operant

Figure 4.8 Classical and Operant Conditioning Can Work Together

Response learned through classical conditioning

Maintained, strengthened through operant reinforcement

E.g., snake phobia

4.8: Insight Learning: Köhler in the Canaries with Chimps

Wolfgang Köhler

Studies

Findings

Point 1 – Wolfgang Köhler

Gestalt psychologist

Disenchanted by behaviorists’ theories

Köhler theories

Point 2 – Studies

Chimps solve complex problems

Not just trial and error

“Flashes of insight”

Methodology

Point 3 – Findings

Insight learning

Reorganization of perceptions of problems

4.9: Cognitive Maps: Tolman Finds Out What’s on a Rat’s Mind (1 of 2)

4.9.1: Mental Images—Not Behaviors

Cognitive map

Further support

4.9.1: Mental Images—Not Behaviors

Point 1 – Cognitive map

Edward Tolman

Mental image

Used to navigate familiar environment

Rats and maze experiment

Point 2 – Further support

Flooded maze

Rats run through flooded maze

Rats learned concept, not behavior

Figure 4.10 Using Cognitive Maps in Maze Learning

Rats and possible maze paths

Behavior indicated cognitive map

4.9: Cognitive Maps: Tolman Finds Out What’s on a Rat’s Mind (2 of 2)

4.9.2: Learning without Reinforcement

Another attack on behaviorism

Findings

4.9.3: The Significance of Tolman's Work

Tolman’s importance

Support for Tolman’s work

4.9.2: Learning without Reinforcement

Point 1 – Another attack on behaviorism

Tolman

Rats freely wander maze

No rewards

Point 2 – Findings

Rats without reinforcement still learned

Latent learning

4.9.3: The Significance of Tolman's Work

Point 1 – Tolman’s importance

Challenged prevailing views (Pavlov, Watson, etc.)

Cognitive explanations opposed behaviorism

Point 2 – Support for Tolman’s work

More cognitive map experiments

Rats, chimps, and humans

Brain imaging and hippocampus

4.10: Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism

4.10.1: Learning by Observation and Imitation

Observational learning

Examples

Nonhuman species

Studies

4.10.2: Effects of Media Violence

Impact of violence

Experimental studies

4.10.3: Observational Learning Applied to Social Problems Around the Globe

Television and observational learning

Beyond television

4.10.1: Learning by Observation and Imitation

Point 1 – Observational learning

Watching another’s behavior

Extension of operant conditioning

Observe someone else getting reward

Affects our behavior

Point 2 – Examples

Children imitating aggression

Athletic skills

How to drive a car

Different behaviors in different situations

Point 3 – Nonhuman species

Kittens learn hunting from mother

Chimpanzees and crows make tools

Point 4 – Studies

Rhesus monkeys

Response to snakes

Natural and lab-raised monkeys

4.10.2: Effects of Media Violence

Point 1 – Impact of violence

Focal point of much research

Correlational evidence

Point 2 – Experimental studies

Observing violence increases violent behavior

Psychic numbing

4.10.3: Observational Learning Applied to Social Problems Around the Globe

Point 1 – Television and observational learning

Sesame Street

Ven Conmigo

Populations Communications International

Point 2 – Beyond television

Discussing topics, actions with others

Can cause political, social action

Chicken welfare example

4.11: Brain Mechanisms and Learning

4.11.1: The Brain on Extinction

Survival

Extinction of previously learned responses

4.11.2: "Fear of Flying" Revisited

Cognitive behavioral therapy

Learning strategies involved

Results

4.11.1: The Brain on Extinction

Point 1 – Survival

Remember learned associations and consequences

Forget associations that are irrelevant

Example - dry water hole, school changes, etc.

Point 2 – Extinction of previously learned responses

Neurotransmitters (glutamate, norepinephrine)

Block memories

Search for emotion-blocking drugs

4.11.2: "Fear of Flying" Revisited

Point 1 – Cognitive behavioral therapy

Hybrid treatment

Involves classical and operant conditioning

Helps Sabra with flying phobia

Point 2 – Learning strategies involved

Classical conditioning; extinction of fear

Operant conditioning; positive reinforcement

Cognitive component; increased airplane knowledge

Point 3 – Results

Sabra flies to Hawaii

Has flown several times since

Each time gets easier

Summary: Learning and Human Nurture

Types of conditioning, stimuli, responses

Learning new behaviors

Reinforcement and extinction

Cognitive psychology and learning