Evaluating Selection Methods

Chapter 4

Communication, Interviews, Questions and

Body Language

Stanley Petzall

Chapter Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and understanding the review questions and case stu- dies you will:

• Be able to consider any cultural issues for the organisation and applicants • Understand the differences between competent professional recruitment and

selection staff compared with unskilled staff and interviewers • Be able to determine appropriate questions and question techniques for use

in interviews • Be able to understand issues relating to the strategic direction of the organi-

sation and its applicants

4.1. Communicating with Potential Applicants

A basic model for communication will be outlined, followed by a discussion of cul- tural considerations in communicating with potential applicants.

Communication is derived from a Latin word ‘communis’ meaning common. Thus effective communication involves a common understanding between the com- municator (person doing the communication) and the receiver (person hearing or seeing the communication). Here communication is defined as ‘the transmission of information or understanding through the use of common symbols from one person or group to another’ (Ivancevich, Konopaske, & Matteson, 2005, p. 422).

A basic model for interpersonal communication was developed by Shannon and Weaver (1948). This model has been widely used and describes the different elements involved in communication.

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These are:

(1) The communicator or sender — This is the person originating the communication.

(2) Encoding — This is the process whereby the communicator’s ideas are trans- lated into a systematic set of symbols. The function of encoding is to send a message containing ideas and purposes.

(3) Messages — Messages may be verbal and/or non-verbal. Verbal messages are those which are explicitly spoken. Non-verbal messages are conveyed by body language or gestures. Sometimes what is left unsaid is as significant as what is said.

The medium is the channel through which the message is sent. It may be spoken, face-to-face or written as in a memo, letter or e-mail.

Feedback is desirable in effective communication. It is a mechanism for checking understanding. One-way communication does not allow for feedback. Two-way conversation is necessary for there to be effective feedback. This enables the sender to check that his/her message has been correctly received and understood.

(4) Receiver-decoding — The communication is completed when it is decoded or interpreted by the receiver. Decoding is based on the previous experience of the receiver and the frame of reference used in the decoding.

Communication is most effective to the extent that decoding of the message is close to the intention of the communicator.

Noise can occur at any point in the communication process. Noise describes any interruption or distortion of the message.

Non-verbal communications may occur during face-to-face discussions between senders and receivers. The main emphasis of recent research into non-verbal com- munication has been on the physical cues which characterise the communicator’s physical presentation. This include: movements of the head, face and eyes, posture, physical distance, gestures, tone of voice and choice of clothing.

Non-verbal communication may be unintentional and expressive of emotions or conscious and deliberate. Sometimes body language can also be ambiguous and may convey different meanings to different people.

Where verbal and non-verbal communication conflict, the observer (receiver) is more likely to believe the non-verbal than the verbal communication (Ivancevich et al., 2005; Robbins et al., 2011).

Thus, for example, in an employment interview, an interviewer may say to the applicant: ‘You seem to be suitable for the job.’ However, if the interviewer frowns as (s)he says this or raises his/her eyebrows, the opposite meaning may be conveyed to the interviewee.

Obviously there are many possible problems of ‘noise’ or distortions occurring in the communication process, even when those communicating belong to the same culture. Such problems are multiplied when cross-cultural issues enter the communi- cation process.

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4.1.1. Cultural Considerations

Increasingly, business is being conducted across national boundaries, and multina- tional companies have operations in many countries. For example, Australia has one of the most multicultural workforces in the world. Thus, cultural considerations become significant as organisations have to deal with job applicants from different cultures and countries. Also, when organisations set out to establish subsidiaries overseas, issues may arise in respect of cultural differences between home and host countries. It has been suggested that communication can be divided into several culturally determined parts: words, space, time and behaviour. Within each of these spheres, there are challenges to cross-cultural communication (Ivancevich et al., 2005).

Each of these will be considered in turn.

Words

While English has become accepted as the universal business language, and many non-native speakers have learned to do business in English, most of the world’s population still does not speak English. And, of course, there may still be cultural problems of communication between native and non-native speakers of English depending on the respective countries of origin. Numerous problems have been found in respect of translation from one language to another, but these are not rele- vant for present purposes. But when a non-native speaker is dealing with a native speaker, usage of words may create confusion. For example, when a Japanese says ‘yes’ in a conversation with an English speaker, he may mean, ‘yes, I am listening’ rather than ‘yes, I agree.’ The word ‘Hai’ in Japanese means ‘yes, I am listening.’

Space

Each culture has its own perception of personal space. For example, Anglo-Saxons have a larger conception of what constitutes their personal space than Arabs. So, discomfort may occur when an Arab approaches an Anglo-Saxon too closely in conversation, invading the Anglo-Saxon’s perceived personal space. The Arab may consider this a friendly gesture, the Anglo-Saxon may not.

Also, in some cultures, it is normal for men to embrace and touch each other, while in others this is confined to family members. Male Anglo-Saxons are inhibited about embracing and touching each other, while Latins such as French or Italians consider this normal. Thus, an Anglo-Saxon interviewer should not be too shocked if a Latin applicant seeks to embrace him following a successful job interview!

Time

In cultures such as Asian, the Middle Eastern and Latin American, time is viewed as polychronic. In polychronic cultures, people are used to doing many things at once and accept interruptions to their activities as normal. They are also committed

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to human relationships rather than formal contracts, changing plans often and base promptness on the closeness of a relationship.

Those from monochronic cultures, on the other hand, which includes Anglo- Saxon culture, are used to doing one thing at a time, taking time commitments seriously and valuing punctuality, following rules of privacy and showing respect for private property (Ivancevich et al., 2005). So, in the case of job applications, if a person from a polychronic culture shows up late for his/her interview, allowances may have to be made, with perhaps an explanation that, in future, punctuality is important within the Anglo-Saxon culture.

In terms of non-verbal communication, it is well-known that there are significant cultural differences in respect of gestures and body language. Thus, for example, nodding one’s head up and down means ‘yes’ in Anglo-Saxon culture, while shaking it from side to side means ‘no’. However, in some non-Anglo-Saxon countries, each of these gestures means the reverse of what it means in the Anglo-Saxon country (Ivancevich et al., 2005, p. 433).

In some cultures, such as Asian culture, sustained eye contact is considered impo- lite. In Anglo-Saxon culture, on the other hand, it is considered shifty not to main- tain direct eye contact in conversation (Ivancevich et al., 2005). In each of the latter two examples, there is clearly rich potential for misunderstanding for those from different cultures, which could manifest themselves in an employment interview with disastrous results.

Finally, cultures have been divided into high-context and low-context. In high- context cultures, there is a heavy reliance on non-verbal and subtle situational cues. In such cultures, a person’s official status, place in society and reputation are very important. What is not said may be more significant than what is said. Examples of such cultures are Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese.

In low-context cultures, on the other hand, reliance is mainly placed on spoken and written words to convey meaning. Body language and formal titles are second- ary. This is true of Anglo-Saxon and many European countries (Robbins et al., 2011).

Markus and Kitayama (1991) draw another broad distinction between western and non-western culture, which may be helpful in understanding cultural differences in relation to hiring practices. The authors point out that western culture promotes the need to be liberated, private, unique, to express oneself, promote one’s own goals, be assertive and so on. By contrast, people in the East have a different con- cept of self, which is essentially about being connected to the social context, being flexible, fitting in, occupying one’s proper place, promoting others’ goals adjusting oneself to others, exercising restraint and not expressing one’s feelings openly.

Markus and Kitayama (1991, p. 224) point out the two common expressions used in the United States and Japan which neatly encapsulate differences in their respective national cultures. In the United States, it is said that: ‘the squeaky wheel gets the grease.’ In Japan, on the other hand, it is said that: ‘the nail that stands out gets pounded down.’ So in American culture, one should speak out assertively in order to get attention and action. In Japan, on the other hand, one should not seek to stand out from one’s group, and assertive behaviour is frowned upon.

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Thus, if a western manager is interviewing a national from a country like China or Japan for a job, there is much potential for misunderstanding if these differences are not appreciated. A Chinese or Japanese national may be seen as lacking in confidence or being evasive where they are merely being polite and behaving in accordance with their cultural norms. Similarly, if an Australian is being interviewed for a job in, say, Japan, what may seem like plain-speaking directness to the Australian could be construed as rudeness by the Japanese interviewer.

Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) in their well-known work on national cultural differences raise another interesting issue which may have direct relevance to employment interviews. They argue that there are four primary dimensions which differentiate national cultures, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism/collectivism and masculinity/femininity.

Power distance measures the extent to which a society accepts the unequal distribu- tion of power in institutions and organizations. Uncertainty avoidance is a measure of the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situa- tions and tries in various ways to avoid these situations, for example, by having more formal rules. Individualist societies are those where the social framework is loosely knit, and people are supposed to take care of themselves and their immediate family members only. In a collectivist society, on the other hand, there is a tight social frame- work where loyalty to the group (whether relatives, clan or organization) is para- mount and the individual is subordinated to the group, which in turn looks after the individual. Masculinity is a measure of concern for material things by way of acquisi- tion of money and things. Femininity, on the other hand, is a measure of the extent to which a society values the quality of life over the acquisition of material things.

The Hofstedes make a comparison of American and Dutch culture in relation to the ways in which people from each of these cultures write CVs for employment interviews. According to them, American job applicants write CVs in which they use superlatives, exaggerate their achievements and generally oversell themselves. In the course of interviews, they also tend to behave aggressively, promising to do the impossible, such as learning the local language in a matter of a few months. On the other hand, Dutch applicants tend to write modest and short CVs and generally undersell themselves. They are careful not to make promises they know they cannot keep and consciously try to avoid bragging about their achievements (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005).

They go on to say that American interviewers, understanding their own culture, know how to interpret the information provided. They, therefore, tend to discount some of the claims made in CVs by American job-seekers. Dutch interviewers, on the other hand, also understanding their own national culture, tend to upgrade the information provided by Dutch job-seekers. However, to the uninitiated, there is much scope for cross-cultural misunderstandings. ‘To an uninitiated American interviewer, an uninitiated Dutch applicant comes across as a sucker. To an unini- tiated Dutch interviewer, an uninitiated American applicant comes across as a brag- gart’ (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005, p. 116).

The basis for these cultural differences, according to Hofstede and Hofstede (2005), is that while both cultures are reasonably similar on the dimensions of

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power distance and individualism, they differ considerably on the dimension of masculinity/femininity. While American culture is strongly masculine, Dutch culture is more feminine. These differences manifest themselves in the degree of assertive- ness shown by job applicants versus the degree of modesty. Americans tend to be very assertive, while the Dutch are relatively modest.

Hofstede and Hofstede’ work offers many valuable insights into national cultural differences, and managers can benefit from knowledge of it to reduce ethnocentric tendencies in many areas, including recruitment and selection.

While it is impossible for an individual to know all the nuances of cultural differ- ences between different nationalities, Ivancevich et al. (2005) suggest there are three rules for successful multicultural communication:

(1) One should seek to familiarise oneself with known significant cultural differ- ences when dealing with persons from different cultures.

(2) One should make a conscious effort to put aside ethnocentric tendencies, or the assumption that one’s own culture is superior to all others.

(3) Being aware that one may not be familiar with the nuances of other cultures, one should assume that one’s understanding is incomplete unless otherwise demonstrated.

The increasing impact of globalisation has led to many organisations instituting cross-cultural training and development (CCTD) as well. In the past, CCTD was largely directed at preparing domestic employees for overseas assignments. However, more recently the focus has changed to emphasis on a more holistic devel- opment of employees in different locations to enable them to interact successfully with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds and to be able to work within multicultural teams (Haertel & Fujimoto, 2010).

4.2. International Recruitment and Selection

In an era of globalisation, a key responsibility of HRM in multinational organisa- tions is to select competent and qualified staff for overseas operations. Many Australian organisations have now developed into multinationals. Examples include BHP-Billiton and Boral. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) World Investment Report of 2002, MNCs now account for a total of over 73 million jobs worldwide, and represent about 3% of the world’s total labour force (Petzall, Abbott, & Timo, 2007, p. 324).

Most positions in foreign subsidiaries of MNCs are filled by local citizens of the host country (also known as local nationals). There are a number of reasons for this:

• It is cheaper to employ local nationals i.e. citizens of the host country, than to bring in expatriates, either from the home country or a third country

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• There are frequently restrictions or even prohibitions on hiring of expatriates in the host country

• Local staff are more familiar with their own business environment (Stone, 2008)

However, expatriates are often brought in to fill management roles. Research has indicated that MNCs are diverse in their approach to management and staffing. Three types of strategy have been distinguished:

Ethnocentricity, polycentricity and geocentricity

Ethnocentric enterprises are wholly owned and managed by managers in the host country and are treated as direct extensions of the parent company. Polycentric enterprises recruit managers from local nationals and there may even be local parti- cipation in ownership.

Geocentric enterprises have a management structure transcending national boundaries. The most qualified and effective managers may be sent from any coun- try to any others, regardless of nationality. Thus, a Brazilian may be recruited to manage a French subsidiary operating in Singapore. Research shows that European and American companies tend to apply polycentric staffing policies, while Japanese companies are ethnocentric in their staffing policies (Petzall et al., 2007).

Where expatriate managers are employed, this usually occurs for one of the fol- lowing reasons:

• A new venture is being established in an overseas location • The company sees international assignments as important to the development of

high achieving executives • Local staff lack the necessary management or technological expertise • The parent company in the home country wants a high degree of control • The business venture is of a short-term nature • The company wishes to protect highly specialised technological know-how • It may create social, racial, religious and/or political problems if locals are appointed • Strategically the parent company wishes to be seen as a foreign enterprise • Local employees are nationalistic and subject to host country government control

and influence, whereas an expatriate manager will be more independent and responsive to head office control

• Head office management prefers to deal with someone they know well (Stone, 2008)

4.3. Interviews

4.3.1. The Role and Purpose of Interviews

The interview is one of the most widely used and popular selection techniques. It usually takes the form of a face-to-face meeting between the employer or an agent

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of the employer, such as the HR manager, and the applicant. Sometimes the employer appoints a panel of interviewers, particularly if the appointment is a high- level and important one. This may also contribute to increased reliability of the interview (see below).

However, interviews may also be conducted remotely by telephone, Skype or video link. Face-to-face interviews are obviously preferable as they enable each party to observe non-verbal well as verbal communication. The purpose of the inter- view is to enable the employer to obtain and assess job-related information about the applicant or to obtain further information if an application form has already been filled in. From the applicant’s perspective, it is an opportunity to learn more about the job and the organisation. It should never be forgotten that the interview should be a two-way process, and the rules of communication discussed above should be applied.

In a face-to-face situation, an employer is also able to gain an impression about the personality, appearance and manner of the applicants, an impression which can- not be obtained from an application form.

Ideally, the interview may be used to obtain a representative sample of the applicant’s job-related behaviour and to make some assessment of technical compe- tence. For example, it is not uncommon for applicants for a lecturing job to be asked to make a brief presentation to an interview panel (Compton et al., 2009; Stone, 2008).

4.3.2. Reliability and Validity

Like any other selection methods, interviews will only be useful if they are both reli- able and valid. Reliability essentially means there is consistency in the selection of individuals. In the case of a psychological test, reliability would be measured by whether a candidate who undertakes the test at two different times records much the same result (Newell, 2005).

In the case of interviews, reliability can be measured in one of two ways. If a can- didate is interviewed twice, as sometimes happens, their suitability for the position should be similarly ranked on the first and second interviews, all other things being equal. Alternatively, two or more individuals may conduct the interview (a panel interview). If their rankings of the candidate are essentially similar, the interview may be judged as reliable.

Validity, on the other hand, is a measure of whether a method of selection can predict what it claims to predict. So, in the case of an interview, it must discriminate between candidates. Those presumed to be ‘good’ in the job, must subsequently per- form well, while those predicted to be poor should perform less well (of course, in practice, ‘poor’ candidates should not be appointed, unless no others are available!) (Newell, 2005).

If interviews lack either reliability or validity they will be an unsuitable selection technique. In practice, there are many criticisms of interviews which suggest that, in fact, they do often lack reliability or validity (see below).

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4.3.3. Types of Interviews

Interviews may be classified into different types, which are appropriate for different situations.

The first type is the structured interview. This type of interview uses a predeter- mined outline, with a specified list of questions. Typically, the structure might be based on the selection criteria, and may include questions about work history (including previous experience, duties and responsibilities), education and training (including qualifications, subjects and grades obtained at university — if relevant — and courses attended) and personality, motivation and character.

According to Heneman and Judge (2003) the structured interview has numerous hallmarks. The most important are:

• Questions are based on job analysis • Each candidate is asked the same questions • Responses to questions are numerically evaluated • Detailed anchored rating scales are used to score each response • Detailed notes are taken which focus on interviewees’ behaviours

Structured interviews should focus more on skills and abilities, since job knowl- edge is best tested by other methods such as the written ability or job knowledge test or specific training and experience requirements. The skills and abilities which the structured interview is best able to assess are probably verbal, interpersonal adaptability and flexibility, skills and abilities.

Heneman and Judge (2003) suggest that there are two main types of structured interviews: situational-based and experience-based. Situational interviews are used to assess the ability of an applicant to project what his or her behaviour might be in a future hypothetical situation. The underlying assumption is that the goals which applicants set for themselves are good predictors of what they would do in the future.

The other type of interview is the experience-based or job-related interview. These try to assess past behaviours linked to the prospective job.

The major difference between these two types of structured interview is that the situational interview is future-oriented, while the experience-based or job-related interview is based on past behaviour. Both have been shown to have high validity and reliability, and there are no clear guidelines as to when one should be preferred over the other. However, experience-based interviews are only relevant for indivi- duals who have had significant job experience. Some interview formats try to strike a balance between past- and future-oriented questions, which may be the most use- ful way forward.

The main advantage of the structured interview is consistency, especially where large numbers of applicants are being interviewed. It may also be fairer, inasmuch as all applicants have to answer the same questions, and have an equal chance to perform. It may also be most efficient in terms of time and easiest for an inexper- ienced interviewer to conduct. In addition, a meta-analysis of research into the

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validity of structured interviews shows that results have been found to be more accurate (McDaniel, Whetzel, Schmidt, & Maurer, 1994).

However, Heneman and Judge (2003) do question whether structured inter- views based on the traditional criteria of knowledge, skills, abilities and other char- acteristics (KSAOs) are inadequate because they fail to examine issues such as goals of applicants, their values and their interpersonal skills. As they point out, effective job performance includes intangibles, such as employee citizenship behaviour, including being helpful to fellow employees, reliable, pleasant and compatible with the employee team. They argue that if, in some way, the interview could be struc- tured to include questions about employee citizenship behaviours, it would enjoy still greater validity.

Nevertheless, in practice, the chief disadvantage of the structured interview is its inflexibility. It may result in superficial assessment of applicants, and fail to allow them to provide significant responses because further investigation and questioning based on applicant responses are ruled out.

Nevertheless, the disadvantage may be overcome by using the predetermined questions only as a guide and permitting deviation where this seems necessary or justified. But this would rely on the experience of the interviewer to use appropriate discretion.

Other problems include excessive domination of the interview by the interviewer making the applicant feel unable to express himself or herself sufficiently.

It appears that use of structured interviews is also culturally conditioned. Research shows that use of structured interviews is favoured in Britain, Scandinavia, Austria and Spain (Compton et al., 2009). Just why structured interviews are more favoured in the above countries, however, is not clear.

The opposite of the structured interview is the unstructured interview. The characteristics of the unstructured interview are that it uses few if any planned questions, and enables the interviewer to pursue applicants’ responses in depth.

The advantages of this type of interview are that it makes applicants feel more relaxed and may therefore elicit more natural responses and representative samples of their behaviour.

Characteristics of the unstructured interview include the following:

• It is relatively unplanned • Rather than being based on the strict requirements of the job, questions are often

based on interviewer ‘hunches’ or ‘pet questions’ intended to psychologically diagnose applicants’ suitability

• Questions tend to be casual, open-ended and subjective (e.g. ‘tell me a bit about yourself’)

• Questions may be highly speculative (e.g. ‘Where do you see yourself 10 years from now?’)

• The interviewer is often unprepared • The interviewer often makes a premature evaluation of the candidate in the first

few minutes of the interview (Heneman & Judge, 2003)

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Problems include lack of control over the interview by the interviewer, who may allow the interview to get too far off track, and the danger that irrelevancies will be discussed and important issues missed. The unstructured interview also requires a more skilled interviewer, and it is more difficult to compare responses of different applicants. Also, poor recall by interviewers tends to plague unstructured interviews (Heneman & Judge, 2003). The latter problem is probably caused by the fact that it is more difficult for the interviewer to make notes in view of the unstructured nature of the interview. This deficiency could be remedied by having a panel interview, (see below) where one member of the panel can take notes while others ask questions.

Research shows that unstructured interviews are favoured in countries such as the United States and Australia (Compton et al., 2009; Stone, 2008). Once again, it is not clear why the unstructured interview is preferred in these two countries.

Gatewood et al. (2008) do point out that the dichotomy posed in the literature between structured and unstructured interviews may be simplistic, as, in reality, there is a continuum ranging from highly structured to highly unstructured and interviews may therefore contain both structured and unstructured elements.

Other types of interview include the panel interview, the stress interview and the group interview. Each of these may be structured or unstructured.

The panel interview is often used by large organisations. Typically the panel is comprised of 2�5 persons, drawn from different functional areas and including the HR manager or officer. To be effective, members of the panel need to reach prior agreement about which questions each will ask and the role each will play in the interview.

The advantage of this type of interview is that it is likely to be more impartial and reliable (see discussion of reliability above) as it requires a consensus among the panel members. Also, having more members on the panel enables them to scrutinize the applicant more closely, and one person may pick up something significant, which others miss.

Where this type of interview is held, it is desirable that an interview panel meeting be held before the interview with the following objectives:

• Developing a common understanding of what the organisation is looking for in a successful candidate

• Getting to know the candidates better through a thorough knowledge of their profiles

• Identifying areas where probing questions may be asked • Synchronising the efforts of interviewers, with an assigned role and area for ques-

tioning for each interviewer

The disadvantages include greater cost and making applicants feel intimidated and therefore put off their natural responses to questions. This type of interview may favour more confident and extroverted applicants (which may not suit the position requirements). Also, the one-to-one interview is more likely to allow a rapport to be established between the interviewer and the applicant. The more interviewers are pre- sent, the more likely is it that the interviewee will feel overwhelmed or beleaguered.

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The stress interview may be used to find out how an applicant would react if placed in a stress situation in the job. This involves the interviewer suddenly adopt- ing a more hostile stance and belittling the applicant’s achievements or questioning their character and motives. The responses of the applicant are noted, and the inter- view may then become more relaxed again.

The disadvantages of the stress interview are that it obviously requires a very experienced interviewer to carry it off successfully, and risks the applicant being put off and terminating the interview prematurely. Therefore, stress interviews are rarely used, but most typically for positions in the military or diplomatic service and then usually only at a second or third interview (Compton et al., 2009).

4.3.4. Group Interviews

Group interviews are often used in an assessment centre approach to recruitment. Several individuals are brought together to discuss a given problem or a topic of their own choice. They are not directly interviewed, but observers are present to assess the applicants. This may be useful for assessing competencies, such as leader- ship, adaptability, problem-solving skills and HR skills. This approach can be useful in recruitment and selection of managers or other positions where verbal skills and interpersonal relations are important (e.g. public relations).

However, the disadvantage is the expense in terms of time and effort and the need to carefully identify which competencies are required in a position and how to assess the qualities of applicants (Compton et al., 2009).

4.3.5. Peer Interviews

Some organisations also use peer interviews, where co-workers interview the candi- date. This may be done as a second interview, following the main interview. The advantage is that co-workers get an opportunity to assess whether they can work with the candidate, while the candidate is able to make a similar assessment about potential co-workers. Feedback can then be given to the main interviewer or panel about the perceived suitability of the candidate.

4.3.6. Referral Interviews

Many organizations rely upon employee referrals to fill some positions. Where this is the case, some companies have instituted a practice where the referring employee conducts the first round of interviews. The advantage of this is that the candidate gets an opportunity to familiarise himself or herself with the company and the job from an insider and a trusted contact. A more formal second interview is then conducted in the normal way for management to assess the suitability of the candidate.

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4.3.7. Behavioural Interviews

Another type of interview, which may be particularly relevant to selection of man- agers, is the behavioural interview. In this type of interview, the emphasis is placed on an individual’s ability to react to situations rather than being based on the more traditional qualifications and experience. The stress interview may be regarded as a special type of behavioural interview. The behavioural interview is based on ‘the assumption that the best predictor of future performance is past performance in similar circumstances’ (Stone, 2008, p. 257).

This type of interview is characterised by open-ended questions relating to:

• Situations/tasks. For example, what were the circumstances surrounding your decision? Why did you reach that conclusion? Describe a situation in which you had to make an unpopular decision

• Action questions: What were first, second and third things you did during a pro- cess? Can you take me through the steps you took during a problem-solving process? What was your role in the cost-saving project you mentioned in your application?

• Results questions: What sort of feedback did you get from this project? Describe problems you encountered. What success did you have?

An interviewer may be able to develop many types of competency, behavioural and job-specific questions to fit each of these points. The level of depth of the ques- tions will be dictated by the nature of the position, job duties and culture of the organization.

An applicant who is faced with these types of questions may find them stressful, but can prepare for them by writing down some specific tasks or situations they were involved in, describing in detail what they did and some specific results which they achieved (Whitacre, 2007).

Behavioural interviewing has been described as more effective than ‘trait’ inter- viewing, where preconceptions and first impressions may distort perceptions. Research also indicates that behavioural interviews may be eight times more effec- tive in predicting job performance (Ullah, 2010, p. 107).

Around 70% of Fortune 500 companies in the United States use behavioural interviewing in decisions regarding whom to hire. Some American universities are even preparing their students for this type of interview by running training sessions for them (Keever, 2008).

However, while research certainly suggests that behavioural interviews have greater validity than unstructured interviews, they are not widely used on account of time and cost constraints (Stone, 2008).

4.3.8. Interview Environment

The first requirement for a good interview is a suitable environment or physical loca- tion for the interview. It is very important to make applicants feel comfortable and

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at ease as far as possible. This is particularly the case where a number of applicants are being interviewed.

The following are important considerations in relation to the interview location:

• Reception arrangements should be satisfactory and a waiting room should be available

• The interview room should be comfortable, with satisfactory heating, cooling, ventilation and lighting, and the room should be quiet

• Seating should be comfortable • Office layout is also important. The traditional arrangement of interviewer and

applicant facing each other across a desk can appear somewhat intimidating and even adversarial to many applicants. An ‘L’ shape layout of the furniture may be preferable or a round-table arrangement for a panel interview

• If there are disabled applicants, the interview venue should be accessible for them. For example, a room accessible only by steps should be avoided

• There should be no interruptions such as telephone calls during the interview

These details are important as they give applicants the impression that interview- ing is important and individuals matter. They also project an image of the organisa- tion (Compton et al., 2009; Stone, 2008).

4.3.9. Preparation for Interviews

Before interviews are held, there should be careful selection of candidates to be inter- viewed. If the wrong candidates are interviewed, the job will not be successfully filled. Typically candidates will have submitted résumés as part of the recruitment process.

Some advice for examining résumés, with a view to identifying suitable applicants for interview and sifting out those who are not, includes the following:

• Be wary of the ‘functional’ résumé, which is too general and supplies no details of duties of employment in previous positions

• Sloppiness in respect of misspelled words, or indications that the resume is not an original, are a bad sign

• Excessively long résumés often cover up a lack of achievement in previous positions

• One should look for a willingness to work hard • The reasons for leaving the last job should be clearly spelt out • Educational background should be weighed and judgment should be suspended

in marginal cases, until the time of the interview (Ullah, 2010)

4.3.10. The Interview Process

All interviews pass through various stages. Most of the issues involved have been discussed above, but it is worthwhile for interviewers to be aware of the process model. Stages involve:

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• Opening — At which the interviewer or panel outlines the main issues to be dis- cussed in the interview, and seek to make the applicant feel comfortable

• Note-taking — To ensure important points are recorded and a record is available to justify decisions taken later. In a panel interview, in particular, one member can be delegated the task of being the main note-taker, as it may be difficult for all members to take notes and ask questions at the same time

• Listening — The role of active listening has been discussed above • Interrupting — While it is generally desirable to allow the candidate to talk freely,

where the interview is getting off track, it may be necessary to interrupt to get it on track again

• Probing — As discussed above, some points made in the candidate’s resume may need further explanation, as may answers given in the interview

• Closing — When the interviewers have asked all their questions, and the candi- date has been given an opportunity to talk and ask any relevant questions, the interview should be drawn to a formal close. At this point, candidates who are obviously unsuitable may be tactfully informed that they have not got the job.

4.3.11. Online Hurdles and Computer Interviewing

A technological innovation in recent times is the use of the computer to screen job applicants through scanning of their résumés and to conduct preliminary screening interviews and online testing.

A well-designed computer interview program can obtain a lot of information quickly and with little cost, especially where a large number of candidates is involved. Advantages which have been claimed include accuracy and consistency. Also, difficult or embarrassing questions can be asked without fear or favour. It is interesting to note that research indicates that candidates answered computer ques- tions more accurately than they did in face-to-face interviews.

However, while online hurdles and computer interviewing may be useful screen- ing devices, research indicates that applicants for higher level positions prefer the more personalised face-to-face interview. They also object to personality tests con- ducted on-line. Further, there are potential problems of faking, privacy issues, security of information, equity and trade union opposition (Stone, 2008, pp. 269�270) The accuracy of high-tech interviews as compared to the face-to-face interview is also unknown (Heneman & Judge, 2003). Stone (2008) concludes that computer interviewing is therefore best suited to lower-level positions.

4.3.12. Body Language and first Impressions

Research findings show that many interviewers make judgments about applicants in the first 3�5 minutes of an interview. After this time, their perception becomes selective and they tend to see or hear what confirms their first impressions (Stone, 2008).

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While this is a fault which should be remedied, it is a fact of life that it occurs, so applicants should be aware of it. Thus, first impressions are often critical to the out- come of the interview.

Research suggests that interviewers favour direct eye contact (which may present a cross-cultural problem in the case of say, an Asian applicant), head movement and smiles. Other forms of body language or non-verbal behaviour which are influential include composure, body posture (sitting up straight and not slouching) and personal appearance, including dress, physical attractiveness and the use of grooming aids.

There is also research evidence that applicants who are able to use forceful impression management tactics in interviews (at least in the western context) are more successful than those who do not. In particular, use of assertive rather than defensive tactics and self-promotion rather than ingratiation has been found to pro- duce positive results. Not only does the use of impression management tactics favourably influence interviewers’ perceptions of applicant suitability for employ- ment with the organisation, they also make it more likely that applicants will be invited to make site visits (Jelf, 1999).

As far as female applicants are concerned, women who wear more masculine clothing, such as dark suits, are judged as being more aggressive, forceful and dynamic and self-reliant than those wearing more feminine apparel, such as pastel- coloured soft dresses (Compton et al., 2009; Stone, 2008).

Obese applicants also tend to make an unfavourable impression, especially in the case of females (Stone, 2008). One of the authors recalls an account of an interview for an academic position at his former university. The applicant was an obese male (he might have weighed at least 300 pounds) and a professor who was involved in the selection interview told the author that he instantly decided the applicant was unsuitable because he would convey a negative image of the university to outsiders!

4.3.13. Questions and Questioning Techniques

As stated above, the purpose of the interview should be for the interviewer(s) to gain as much information from the applicant as possible. However, the interview is a two-way process, and the applicant should also have the opportunity to ask ques- tions about the job and the organisation.

That said, most of the talking should be done by the applicant in response to well thought-out questions. The role of the interviewer is to draw out the applicant. In particular, the interviewer may wish to probe the applicant about information which seems inconsistent, unfavourable or incomplete, with a view to allowing the applicant to do himself or herself justice. There is a rule of thumb, called the 80:20 Rule, according to which the interviewer should only talk 20% of the time, allowing the interviewee to talk for the rest of the 80% for optimum results from the interview.

Generally, closed questions which elicit a ‘yes/no’ answer should be avoided (Ullah, 2010, p. 107). A good technique is to pose open-ended questions which encourage applicants to talk; for example, ‘Tell me about your previous job,’ or ‘what are some important contributions that you made in your previous job.’ However, closed

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questions may be used at the start of an interview to settle the nerves of interviewees before interviewers progress to leading and probe-based questions.

Follow-up questions are also important, to ensure the maximum amount of more specific information can be obtained; for example, ‘how much of the contributions were your own?’ or ‘were others also responsible for favourable outcomes?’

The ‘funnelling approach-involving’ questions like ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘where’ or ‘how’ followed by narrowing down with more direct, probing questions is a good technique for eliciting the maximum amount of information.

Good interviewers also convey the impression of being attentive and appreciative of what the applicant is saying. Comments such as: ‘That is interesting, tell me more’ or even ‘I see’ or ‘Uh-huh’ encourage the flow of conversation and reassure the applicants that they are saying the right thing.

Tactically, changing the type and direction of the questions is quite common; that is, if an interviewee becomes defensive, the interviewer should change the sub- ject matter of the question, only returning to the sensitive question when the inter- viewee has had a chance to settle down again.

However, some types of questions should be avoided. They include leading ques- tions and loaded questions. Leading questions are those that suggest an answer. For example, ‘So you didn’t like being a union official?’ A better way of asking this would be: ‘How did you feel about being a union official?’ This is more likely to encourage a more informative and extended response.

Loaded questions are those which make an accusation; for example, ‘Are you still pilfering at the workplace?’ In legal proceedings, questions like this are disqualified, and they also have no place in the job interview.

Questions which are allowable, but require thinking through include hypothetical questions. For example, ‘What would you do in this situation?’ However, the situa- tion should be relevant to the nature of the job and the applicant’s previous experi- ence. So, for example, there would be no point in asking a first-year engineering student how he would build a major bridge over the harbour.

Negative questions may also have a place but should be used sparingly. For example, ‘Your achievements are impressive, but can you tell me about a time when things did not go so well?’

A good technique is also to ask easier questions first, to establish a relationship and make the candidate feel at ease. This can be followed by more difficult questions.

Some other useful guidelines include asking one question at a time, using simple words and avoiding jargon which applicants may not understand. However, of course if the job is highly specialised, for example, a lawyer, then legal jargon might be appropriate.

While the interviewer should ask most questions to direct the interview, it is also important that the applicant be allowed enough time to ask his/her questions to maintain the interview as a two-way channel of communication.

Interviewers, however, should avoid asking too many questions or talking too much about themselves and telling ‘war stories’ as this defeats the purpose of the interview (Compton et al., 2009, pp. 116�117; Stone, 2008, pp. 260�261).

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4.3.14. Active Listening

Related to the issues of good questioning techniques is active listening. An essential skill of good communication is listening skills. According to Carlopio, Andrewartha, and Armstrong (2005, p. 322), an interviewee is a good listener when he/she:

• Is not talking, otherwise (s)he is not listening • Makes eye contact which shows interest and attention • Uses appropriate body language. For example, nodding one’s head to show one

is attentive and is following what the applicant is saying • Avoids distracting actions or gestures, indicating boredom, such as reading a

book while the interview is in progress (of course the interviewer may consult the applicant’s application form to guide questioning)

• Asks questions at appropriate places. This is evidence that the interviewer is really listening and thinking about what is said

• Avoids unnecessary interruptions so as to listen to what the applicant is saying • Makes smooth transitions between the roles of listener and speaker. Good listen-

ers don’t rush into speaking immediately the applicant has stopped

In addition, Compton et al. (2009) suggest that good interviewers are those who:

• Allow applicants to speak freely as far as possible • Allow applicants to elaborate or qualify their answers • Let the applicant do most of the talking. The applicant should be allowed to

speak in the ratio of about 80:20 to the interviewer • Pay attention to the tone of answers, as this often indicate their true meaning • Carefully evaluate what is said and ask clarifying questions where necessary

and confirm candidates’ verbal responses and their correspondence with body language

• Avoid unfavourable reactions by making criticisms or drawing implications. Otherwise applicants may feel they have to censor what they say

• Use a pause as a means of encouraging the applicant to elaborate or continue. Should this fail, the applicant may be gently prompted to continue

A skilled interviewer should also be watchful in relation to consistency between the verbal responses of interviewees and their body language.

4.3.15. Legal Considerations

Certain questions cannot be asked in interviews because they may be discriminatory and contravene EEO guidelines. Any questions which may demonstrate prejudice against an applicant based on their age, sex, religion, physical appearance or sexual orientation are to be avoided. It is also illegal to ask applicants questions about whether they are married, whether they have children or intend to have children

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(particularly in the case of female applicants). Each Australian state has its own anti-discrimination legislation, and there may also be relevant Commonwealth legis- lation to be complied with (Compton et al., 2009; Haertel & Fujimoto, 2010).

One of the authors had a colleague who applied for a position at a Catholic University. Knowing that the panel was not allowed to ask him whether he was a Catholic, he made a point of mentioning that he had two children and that they were both studying at a Catholic school, to give them the message that he was, indeed, a Catholic. He got the job ahead of an equally or better-qualified non- Catholic candidate!

Quite apart from legal considerations, discriminatory questions should also be avoided because they may undermine the trust between the interviewer and the interviewee.

4.3.16. Criticisms of the Interview Process

Research has identified a number of problems in the interviewing process, involving various prejudices or preconceptions which may taint the validity or reliability of interviews. These include:

• Stereotyping, such as basing decisions on predetermined notions and prejudices such as age, race, sex, nationality or place of residence

• Halo effect, which involves rating people according to a person’s likes or dislikes and exaggerating their strengths or weaknesses accordingly

• Self-identification or choosing people of a similar type to oneself or those holding similar values to one’s own

• Basing decisions on negative data and allowing unfavourable to outweigh favour- able information about an applicant (Compton et al., 2009)

Other pitfalls in interviewing include:

• Evaluating female and older applicants less favourably than others where they constitute less than 25% of those interviewed

• Many interviewers tend to follow male and female stereotypes in considering job applicants. Thus, for example, when interviewing for a nursing or secretarial posi- tion, the interviewer will tend to give preference to female applicants

• There is a tendency for interviewers to evaluate a man who is interviewed after a woman more leniently than in evaluating a woman who follows a man

• When a candidate is interviewed immediately after a very good or a very bad can- didate, evaluations may be seriously distorted (Heneman & Judge, 2003; Stone, 2008)

There is also quite strong research evidence that interviewers’ pre-interview eva- luations of applicants tend to be self-fulfilling. Research suggests that interviewers tend to form opinions about interviewees based on their prior knowledge of the

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interviewees’ qualifications and experience. They then tend to convey their opinions of interviewees in the way in which they conduct the interview. This may be done either verbally or through body language. Furthermore, it is likely that applicants will reciprocate the signals they received from the interviewer, whether these are favourable or unfavourable in terms of their responses and behaviour. Interviewers also tend to notice, recall and interpret information in a manner which is consistent with pre-interview evaluations. In the case of interviewees who make a favourable impression in their applications, interviewers tend to make internal attributions about interviewees’ past successes (e.g. ability and effort put in by the applicant is seen as the cause of success). On the other hand, past failures tend to be attributed to bad luck.

Furthermore, decisions made after the interview have been found to be heavily biased towards the pre-interview assessments of candidates. A study by Dipboye (1982) found that as many as 88% of post-interview evaluations could be predicted from pre-interview evaluations based on candidate’s applications.

The self-fulfilling tendency discussed above may not always be a bad thing. For instance, it appears that biographical information in the pre-interview phase, based on applicant résumés and completed application forms, can provide the basis for accurate assessment of candidates, and is often highly predictive of subsequent success in the job. However, research does cast some doubt on the value of the interview itself, as so many decisions are based on pre-interview information and evaluations (Dipboye, 1982). This has become known as the self-fulfilling prophecy.

Other research has confirmed Dipboye’s concept of the self-fulfilling prophecy. For a review, see Jelf (1999).

4.3.17. Competent Interviewers

The skills required by competent interviewers may be summarised as follows:

(1) Interviewers must have strong familiarity with the job. A good job description should be the starting point for the interviewer to familiarise himself or herself with the job. The characteristics of the job description have been discussed above. The interviewer should be aware of key responsibilities, reporting rela- tionships, how the position fits into the organisation as a whole and whether there are special requirements such as the need to travel internationally. The more familiar the interviewer is with the job, the better can his or her knowledge be utilised to ask relevant questions and to evaluate applicants’ answers. This also enhances the validity of the interview. Research also shows that inter- viewers with more complete job information make better decisions with higher inter-rater reliability.

(2) Interviewers need to know what specific personal characteristics, skills and qua- lifications are needed for the job. These must all be relevant and job-related, otherwise the wrong criteria may lead to hiring of unsuitable applicants. The

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HR manager should discuss critical selection factors with line managers prior to interviews being scheduled.

(3) Specific objectives for the interview should be set. Systematic preparation for interviews is important. Information already available from an application form should not be rehashed and a range of questions relevant to the applicant’s background and the job at hand should be developed to enable sustained themes of questioning.

(4) Where an application form has been completed prior to the interview, any gaps or inconsistencies in the application form should be highlighted prior to the interview to enable a fuller picture of the applicant to emerge. Some issues to look out for include unexplained gaps in employment history, questions not answered or only partially answered, inflated job titles, frequent job changes without any convincing reasons for the changes, health problems, inability or unwillingness to work overtime and residence a long way from work. Questions can then be asked about these issues in the interview.

(5) Beware of prejudices. Every one has prejudices, the important thing is to recog- nise them and try to be objective as far as possible. There are certain common prejudices which may be easily recognised (see above).

(6) Good interviewers do not make snap decisions. In fact, as discussed above, research indicates that most interviewers actually make decisions within the first 3�5 minutes of the interview. Good interviewers reserve judgment about candi- dates until they have gathered all relevant information.

Other characteristics of good interviewers have already been discussed above. Thus, competent interviewers seek to put applicants at ease before asking any

searching questions. They also watch the body language of applicants, making allowances for cultural differences. Good interviewers are also aware of their own body language, and seek to avoid sending mixed messages to applicants.

They control the interview, and keep it on track, but remember to allow appli- cants to do most of the talking. They are alert to cues that certain leads resulting from information supplied by applicants needs to be followed up further. In the United States, negligence in the hiring process may lead to legal action; for example, where an employee who has been hired commits a violent crime or robbery against a third party or a fellow employee, the employer can be held liable where the employee had a previous record of violence or theft which the employer ought to have known about (Stone, 2008, p. 260).

Finally, competent interviewers know how to close the interview in a friendly way, and tactfully communicate to obviously unsuitable candidates that they will not get the job. On the other hand, it is very important to advise applicants who are good prospects when they can expect to hear further from the employer if a decision cannot be made on the spot.

Competent interviewers also write up the results of the interview while it is still fresh in their minds. Where appropriate, a checklist of job-relevant criteria should be completed, which will also provide protection against any subsequent charges of

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discrimination in hiring; that is, the interview record will serve to show that selec- tion was based on objective job-related criteria. Failure to write up the results of interviews soon after the conclusion of the interviews is a major failing of poor interviewers.

Reference checking after the interview is also an important part of the selection process. Job offers should not be made until references are checked. Also, reliance should not be placed on only one reference. Where possible, multiple references should be checked.

Finally, the validity of interviews should be checked by following the progress of the candidates selected. If labour turnover is too high or candidates turn out to be not up to the job, it will be necessary to re-examine the interview process (Stone, 2008). Alternatively, or in addition, there may be some fault in the recruitment process which needs attention.

4.3.18. Selection and Training of Interviewers

Heneman and Judge (2003, pp. 454�456) argue that research shows that there are significant differences in interviewers’ validity. Thus, they suggest that a more appropriate question to ask than ‘Is the interview valid?’ is ‘Who is a valid inter- viewer?’ Little research is available on how good interviewers should be selected. Appropriate selection criteria may be intelligence and demonstration of effective interviewing skills in interview simulations in order to improve interviewer validity.

Training is another method for increasing the validity of structured interviews. Heneman and Judge (2003) suggest that logical program areas which could be cov- ered include:

• Problems with the unstructured interview • Advantages of the structured interview • Development of the structured interview • Use of probe questions and note-taking • Elimination of rating errors • Actual practice in conducting structured interviews

According to Gatewood et al. (2008), training programs actually cover one or more of the following three areas: receiving information, evaluating information and interviewer’s behaviour. In respect of receiving information, instruction has concentrated on hearing what the applicant has said, observing the applicant’s beha- viour and remembering the information received. In respect to evaluation, training has focused upon common rater errors, such as halo effect, or rating based on one dimension only, such as presentation, distributional rating errors (such as central tendency or leniency error where candidates are all rated at the middle or high end of the spectrum), similar-to-me effect and first impressions error. In respect of interviewing behaviour, training focuses upon the conduct of the interaction between interviewers and applicants. Such programs emphasise interviewers’ skill at

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maintaining control throughout the interview as well as enhancement of awareness of how the interviewer’s behaviour influences the interaction with applicants.

However, while research suggests that interviewers generally accept training read- ily, it is unclear how successful training programs actually are. Thus, in respect of trying to reduce rating errors, one study concluded that training programs have at best enjoyed mixed success (Harris, 1989).

Of course, the above implies that structured interviews are generally preferable to unstructured ones, which is questionable, and begs the question of how to conduct training for unstructured interviews.

A more recent evaluation of interviewer training suggests that well-constructed training programs have reduced some more common rating errors, including halo, leniency and central tendency. Such programs also enhance the reliability of inter- viewer judgments.

However, a practical weakness of training programs is that many are too short in duration to be effective, the median program being only six-hours long. Another practical problem is that only about one-third of interviewers report receiving any formal interviewer training at all (Gatewood et al., 2008).

4.3.19. Recruitment and Selection of Senior Executives

In recruiting for senior management employees, behavioural characteristics and competencies are likely to be as important as qualifications and experience. In rela- tion to the position of CEO recent research suggests that CEO’s need to be a cata- lyst for change and to be able to play a major role in staff development and organisational creativity and innovation (O’Meara & Petzall, 2007). It may be diffi- cult to identify these characteristics from the interviews alone, but they will have an important part to play in the selection process.

4.3.20. Insider/Outsider Theory

One of the choices which has to be made is whether to appoint an insider, that is, an internal candidate who is already working for the organisation, or an outsider, that is, a candidate. While research discussed in the previous chapter appeared to suggest that internal appointments should be favoured over external ones on the basis that an internal candidate is a known quantity, there has been a trend for out- siders to be selected over insiders for the top jobs in recent times in many organisa- tions. Dumaine (1993) noted this trend and suggested that some of the reasons include that insiders have tended to become inculturated over time and to have lost perspective, whereas outsiders are seeking to establish their reputations, have not been part of internal politicking and are outside the cultural norms of the organisation.

Guthrie and Datta (1994) noted a very strong correlation between poorly per- forming organisations, and the propensity to appoint external CEOs. They were of the view that performance was considered to be a more important factor than

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organisational tenure. Thus, a decline in performance and profitability due to exter- nal competitive pressures tends to lead to the organisation searching for external talent, especially candidates with a reputation for reversing downward trends in other organisations.

Sometimes the concept of insiders and outsiders can be misleading, however, as in certain cases, a CEO may signal an intention to retire with some considerable advance notice. An outsider may then be brought in to be groomed as the potential successor up to five years before succeeding as a CEO. A rationale for this strategy is provided by Borokhovic, Parrino, and Trapani (1996) inasmuch as recruiting a potential successor early allows the board an opportunity to assess his or her strengths and weaknesses before making a final decision to appoint.

Guthrie and Datta (1994) have also demonstrated that organisations with a growth strategy are more likely to appoint an external CEO. In a study of 969 CEO successions, Brokohovic et al. (1996) verified the trend to appoint external CEOs. From their study, it appears that where a CEO was forced out of office, it is more likely that the successor would be an external appointment. They also showed that the larger the number of external directors on the board, the more likely was it that an external CEO would be appointed.

Guthrie and Datta (1994) also provide empirical evidence showing that organi- sations with low profitability are more likely to make external appointments. Moreover, in such organisations, appointees are likely to have a functional back- ground such as finance/accounting, production/operations or a process engineering background. They also found that the higher the level of risk involved, the greater the likelihood of a younger CEO being appointed.

But smaller organisations were more likely to appoint younger CEOs, while larger ones favoured older CEOs. Organisations using a differentiation strategy advertised intensely to attract candidates with experience in marketing, sales, mer- chandising or research and development.

Thus, the research cited above suggests that in recruitment of CEOs, there may be an exception to the rule that insiders are generally preferred to outsiders, particu- larly where an organization has experienced a downward trend in performance or is seeking to implement a growth strategy.

4.4. E-Recruitment and Selection

4.4.1. Video Résumés

Video résumés are a relatively new feature of employment applications. Such résumés may work well for those seeking positions requiring creativity such as those in the arts or advertising. However, for more conservative jobs, such as those in finance or administration, they are less likely to be effective in capturing employers’ attention.

Where they are used, the advice is to keep them short and to the point, probably no longer than three minutes. The key points to stress are who the applicant is, why

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they are interested in the position and what they can do for the company (Richter, 2007).

The video should seek to convey enthusiasm, while seeking to balance creativity with professionalism. Trying to be too original can backfire, as one Yale under- graduate discovered to his cost. His resume showed him lifting weights, ballroom dancing and karate-chopping a stack of bricks. Unfortunately for him, the video was posted on YouTube and became a classic comedy item, spawning dozens of spoofs (Harvey, 2007).

However, a number of objections have been raised against video résumés. One problem is that busy job interviewers simply don’t have the time to view video résumés. Whereas a traditional paper resume can be scanned by a recruiter in one minute, it may take at least five minutes to view a video, and that may simply be too long, especially where there are a number of applicants. It is also difficult to highlight key points on a video, whereas this is easily done on a paper resume.

Furthermore, the use of videos may constitute a problem in terms of EEO legisla- tion. In the United States (and in Australia too) the practice of requiring job appli- cants to attach photos to their résumés was dropped because it enabled recruiters to identify applicants’ sex, race, disability and age, which should not be available to avoid charges of discrimination.

Another objection to video résumés is that, by their nature, they are verbal and visual, and rejecting applicants for lack of skills in these areas might be unfair if the position does not require excellent verbal or visual presentation skills.

There are also technological issues. For example many applicant tracking systems can’t handle videos and some IT systems may actually block them because video files can carry viruses which are difficult to detect. Also, not all videos may be view- able, as formats differ widely and the recruiting organisation may not have the necessary format to view the video.

It is also difficult to use video résumés for comparative assessment with standard paper résumés. They cannot be laid out on a desk, side-by-side, like paper résumés. A practical problem is that many video résumés are not very well-made, and do not do applicants justice. Thus, it may be wiser for applicants to stick to the standard paper resume (Sullivan, 2007).

4.4.2. Skype and Distance Interviewing

Skype is a free internet-based video service which started operating in 2003. Its name is short for ‘sky peer-to-peer’. Only in recent years, however, has its use become more widespread for job interviewing purposes. Universities in particular seem to have adopted Skype for convenience, at least to conduct first interviews where candidates are too remote to attend in person or the costs of travel are judged excessive. One estimate is that web-based interviewing has saved university depart- ments in the United States between $5000 and $10,000 per search.

Apart from cost factors, the advantage of Skype interviewing over telephone interviews is that the applicant and the interview panel can see each other and read

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each other’s body language. However, there are problems with the technology. Unless all members of the panel are situated within an ideal distance from the webcam on the computer, they can appear rather distant to the interviewee. Also, interviewees need to ensure their surroundings are reasonably neat and tidy, as they are picked up by the webcam. Seen at the wrong angle, an interviewee can also present a strange aspect. Visual quality of course may also vary, causing annoyance to both interviewers and interviewees (Stone, 2008).

One person who successfully applied for a position in a university also found that unexpected happenings can intrude — he was doing the interview from home and his dog suddenly started barking in a frenzied fashion towards the end of the interview, which was picked up by the webcam. Nevertheless, he was called for a face-to-face interview, and ultimately got the job (Winzenburg, 2012; Wilson, 2010).

Thus, it would appear that Skype may be a useful method of conducting first interviews, but a final interview would generally still be held face-to-face. Once an organisation has short-listed remote applicants, it is still advantageous to pay for them to be flown in as the cost of an unsuitable appointment would greatly out- weigh the cost of flying them in for a final face-to-face interview (Stone, 2008). However, in the case of at least one American university, the candidate was hired on the basis of a Skype interview alone (Wilson, 2010).

A variant on the video interview is to hire a consulting firm to conduct video interviews for the organisation. Under this variant, the organisation identifies the candidates and gives their names to the consulting firm. Interviews with short-listed candidates are then videotaped by the consultant and the tapes sent to the organiza- tion. This is cost-saving, as with Skype interviewing. It may also be advantageous where employers only wish to interview a few applicants at a given location. Such interviews can also be arranged at short notice. However, the obvious disadvantage of this procedure is that no face-to-face contact is involved between applicants and representatives of the organisation. This may affect the validity of the interview (Heneman & Judge, 2003). Thus, Skype would appear to be a preferable method for conducting first interviews.

4.5. Laws Impacting Upon Staffing

Some brief consideration has already been given above to laws which impact upon recruitment and selection. However, as the law is becoming increasingly important in relation to human resource management, it is necessary to discuss this issue in more detail here.

One area of the law which applies to recruitment and selection, as well as the rest of the employment relationship, is EEO law. EEO (in terms of employment, promotion, opportunity for training or transfer) in the view of one authority means that: ‘… an organisation will be managed according to a regime where the best person for the job (in terms of promotion, opportunity for training, or transfer etc), irrespective of matters of group identity such as gender, race, colour …. will be able

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to perform in that position according to their intrinsic merit’ (Jamieson, 2008, p. 96).

However, it is a fact that many organisations do not operate under a regime as specified above (Bray et al., 2011). They, therefore, lay themselves open to possible legal action if individuals who feel they have been discriminated against choose to bring a case against them under the EEO legislation.

The model for anti-discrimination laws in Australia, as in other English-speaking countries like the United States, Britain and New Zealand, is to provide individuals with a general right not to be discriminated against, and a complaints procedure to access a relevant tribunal if they feel this right has been breached.

Strictly speaking, anti-discrimination laws impose no positive obligations upon employers to do anything to avoid discrimination, such as identifying discrimination in the workplace, educating employees about discrimination, establishing policies against discrimination or providing internal grievance procedures for employees who feel they have been discriminated against.

However, many organisations, mindful of the desire to avoid complaints by individuals, do take a strong risk management approach to avoid litigation and thus seek to incorporate anti-discrimination principles into every human resource func- tion (Bray et al., 2011).

In Australia, the Commonwealth and the states have all passed varying statutes to deal with the issue of discrimination in the workplace. While details vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, generally EEO legislation seeks to outlaw unfair discri- mination against employees on the basis of race, ethnic origin, age, disability, gen- der, marital status, pregnancy, religion, political opinion and trade union activity. In addition, under Section 351 of the Fair Work Act Cth (2009), additional prohibi- tions on discrimination have been added to include sexual preference and family or carers’ responsibilities. In the state of Victoria, discrimination is prohibited against individuals on the ground of ‘physical features’ (see Section 6 of Equal Opportunity Act, 1995 (Vic.)), a prohibition not found elsewhere in Australian legislation (Bray et al., 2011, p. 309; Stone, 2008, pp. 123�124). Thus, it is important that if possible, organisations have a human resource manager or other specialist with a specialist knowledge of the relevant law of the jurisdictions in which they are located.

However, it is noteworthy that discrimination may be allowed where it is consis- tent with inherent and/or genuine requirements of the job. Indeed, there may even be circumstances where discrimination is required by the law. For instance, in the Australian states, it is a requirement that liquor may only be sold by people over the age of 18. It is therefore lawful for a liquor retailer to refuse employment to persons under the age of 18 years (Bray et al., 2011; Stone, 2008).

Unfair discrimination may also take direct and indirect forms. Both direct and indirect discrimination are prohibited. Direct discrimination occurs where a person or group with a particular attribute is treated less favourably than another person or group without that attribute. An example is where a person is passed over for employment because of their race, but another person of a favoured race is employed who is no better qualified than the person passed over. On the other hand, indirect discrimination may result from application of policies which may

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appear neutral or inoffensive, but have the effect of disadvantaging an individual or group. Examples might include absence of flexible working policies, which may discriminate against workers with family responsibilities, or a policy requiring five years of continuous service which might discriminate against women who are more likely to take time off to have children (Bray et al., 2011; Stone, 2008).

4.6. Evaluation

In the past, the employment interview has been seen as having a low degree of valid- ity. However, a review of more recent research concludes that evidence for the valid- ity of both structured and unstructured interviews has been much more positive.

A meta-analysis (which is a ‘technique … for cumulating effect sizes across a number of studies in order to get an estimate of the true relationship between two variables’ (Wright, Lichtenfels, & Pursell 1989, p. 194)), carried out by McDaniel et al. (1994), concludes that:

• The average validity of interviews was found to be r = .26 (a high degree of statis- tical validity)

• Structured interviews were more valid (r = .31) than unstructured interviews (r = .23)

• Situational interviews were more valid (r = .35) than experience-based interviews (r = .28)

• Panel interviews were less valid (r = .22) than individual interviews (r = .31)

Thus, according to Heneman and Judge (2003), the values found in this study were higher than previous researchers had thought.

The results of an earlier meta-analysis conducted by Wright et al. (1989) agree with those of McDaniel et al. (1994). They are also supported by a more recent nar- rative review of post-1989 employment research (Jelf, 1999).

In summary, it is pleasing to know that academic research overall has confirmed the validity of the selection interview, as it so widely used to fill jobs.

4.7. Summary

In this chapter, we considered the basic interpersonal communication model, includ- ing verbal and non-verbal behaviour and cultural differences. This model was applied to interview situation to highlight the importance of communication in this situation. Both interviewers and interviewees can benefit from knowledge of good communication.

Issues relating to international recruitment and selection were briefly considered. More Australian companies are now becoming multinationals, and there is often a need for expatriates to be brought in to fill management roles.

Three different types of strategy, ethnocentricity, polycentricity and egocentricity were considered, and reasons were examined for hiring expatriate managers.

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