reflection paper,

Chapter 4

Perspectives on Leadership

Learning Objectives

1.  Analyze various theories of leadership.

2.  Understand the relationship of personality and leadership styles.

3.  Analyze how leadership is affected by the context and situation in which it is exercised.

4.  Understand the relationship of emotional intelligence and leadership.

5.  Analyze competencies required for health professions leadership.

6.  Identify personal leadership characteristics.

Leadership emerges as a compilation of mysteries that have been investigated for centuries. Researchers have attempted to answer questions such as: Are leaders born? Can leaders be developed? Does the environment create the leader? Is leadership emergence synonymous with leader effectiveness? What role does social dynamics have in the leadership equation? Can leadership be shared (Avolio, 2007; Zaccaro, 2007)? How and why should members assume a leadership stance? The latter questions resonate when contemplating the development and sustainability of effective interdisciplinary healthcare teams. An examination of the broader phenomenon of leadership provides a context for that inquiry.

Perspectives on Leadership

Leadership connotes position as well as action. Positional leadership refers to responsibility given to an individual or group of individuals to guide, direct, or control. The act of leadership or ability to lead refers to the effective use of influence and a complex dynamic that has inspired much of the research on leadership. Leadership can be simply defined as the exercise of power and influence with others. Some theorists have posited that leaders are born while others focus on the role that social, cultural, political, and environmental factors have on the emergence of leaders.

Many perspectives regarding leadership offer intriguing views of the leadership concept, but no definitive conceptualization exists. A comprehensive review of these views is beyond the scope of this book. For the purposes of our discussion, we will focus on three broad theoretical approaches that are supported by modern-day research and are most applicable to healthcare leadership development. These include personality/trait, contingency/situational, and relational theories. We will provide a summary of each of these theoretical approaches, highlight the most relevant theoretical concepts, and provide opportunities for the practical application of these concepts.

Personality and Trait Theories

Early conceptualizations of leadership focused on the “great man” theory, which hypothesized that leaders were born with certain characteristics that predisposed them to take command and lead others (Carlyle, 1841). The Zeitgeist theory credited the convergence of social, political and individual factors with the emergence of a leader—the right person for the right time in history (Tolstoy, 1869). Subsequent trait theorists, informed by the big five theory of personality (discussed later in this chapter), described a constellation of traits that were indicative of a leadership personality.

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR

One of the first and most widely used models to identify traits was developed by Katharine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers based on the Carl Jung’s psychological type theory. Jung’s theory is based on a hypothesis that people are born with innate personality traits (Jung, 1991; Myers, McCaulley, Quenk & Hammer, 1998).

The Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI) is a self-report survey instrument that helps to determine personality and preferred behavioral style across the following four dichotomies: extroversion/introversion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling, and judging/perceiving. The MBTI is designed to determine preferences for finding energy, gathering information, making decisions, and orienting to the environment. While it does not identify talents, quantify intelligence, or predict leadership success, it facilitates self-awareness, which does correlate with leadership success (Goleman & Boyatzis, 2008).

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE DICHOTOMIES

This diagram summarizes the four types of dichotomies and their related preferences based on Myers and Briggs’s conceptualization.

 

Extroversion I gain energy from working with others		Introversion I gain energy from working alone
Senser I take information from the here and now		Intuiter I integrate information from past, present and future
Thinker I make decisions based on logic		Feeler I make decisions based on belief
Judger I like structure		Perceiver I like to improvise

Data from: Myers, Isabel Briggs; McCaulley Mary H., Quenk, Naomi L., Hammer, Allen L. (1998). MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the Myers Briggs type indicator). Consulting Psychologists Press; 3rd ed.

REFLECTION: MBTI Detailed Descriptions

Read the following descriptions to determine your personality and preferred behavioral style on each of the four MBTI dichotomies.

 

Extroversion/Introversion—How a Person Finds Energy
Extroverts (E) are energized by the outside world (people and things).	Introverts (I) are energized by being alone with their internal thoughts.
•  Draw energy from action •  Tend to act first, then reflect, and then act again •  Energy level tends to drop when not engaged in an activity •  Are influenced by the expectations and attention of others •  Enjoy working in groups	•  Draw energy from reflection •  Prefer to reflect before acting •  Energy tends to drop with too much external interaction •  May defend against external demands and intrusions •  Enjoy working alone or with a few others

Sensing/Intuiting—How a Person Takes in Information
Sensors (S) prefer to take in information in the here and now and in a precise manner.	Intuitives (N) like to take in information in a holistic and extemporaneous manner.
•  Focus on objective facts and circumstances as perceived by the senses (seeing, feeling, hearing) first •  Have excellent powers of observation •  Deal with how things are rather than on how they could be •  See problems as needing specific solutions based on past information •  Value realism	•  Focus on the big picture and underlying pattern, beyond the reach of the senses first •  Have vivid powers of imagination •  Focus more on how things could be rather than how they are •  See problems as opportunities to innovate based on inspiration •  Value imagination

Thinking/Feeling—How a Person Prefers to Make a Decision
Thinkers (T) will choose objectivity and logic when making decisions	Feelers (F) will choose what they believe in when they make a decision.
•  Seek logic and clarity •  Question first •  Have an interest in data •  Know when logic is required •  Prefer objectivity •  Weigh pros and cons •  Strive to be fair	•  Seek emotional clarity •  Accept first •  Have an interest in people •  Know when support is required •  Consider impact on people •  Weigh values •  Strive to be compassionate

 

Judging/Perceiving—How a Person Prefers to Live His/Her Life
Judging (J) types like to come to closure and take action.	Perceiving (P) types like to remain open and adapt to new information.
•  Prefer matters to be settled and structured •  Finish before deadline •  Like plans and goals and reducing surprises •  Quickly commit to a plan •  See routines as effective •  Trust the plan	•  Prefer things to be flexible and open •  Finish task at the deadline •  Like to see what turns up and enjoy surprises •  Reserve the right to change a plan •  See routines as limiting •  Trust the process

Modified and reproduced by special permission of the Publisher, CPP, Inc., Mountain View, CA 94043 from MBTI® Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Instrument®, Third Edition by Isabel Briggs Myers, Mary H. McCaulley, Naomi L. Quenk, and Allen L. Hammer. Copyright 1998 by Peter B. Myers and Katharine D. Myers. All rights reserved. Further reproduction is prohibited without the Publisher’s written consent.

REFLECTION: MBTI 16 Types at a Glance

Read the following descriptions and match your MBTI findings to interpret your personality and preferred behavioral style on each of the four MBTI dichotomies.

The 16 MBTI Types

ISTJ (Introversion, Sensing, Thinking, Judging)

Quiet, serious, earn success by thoroughness and dependability. Practical, matter-of-fact, realistic, and responsible. Decide logically what should be done and work toward it steadily, regardless of distractions. Take pleasure in making everything orderly and organized—their work, their home, their life. Value traditions and loyalty.

ISFJ (Introversion, Sensing, Feeling, Judging)

Quiet, friendly, responsible, and conscientious. Committed and steady in meeting their obligations. Thorough, painstaking, and accurate. Loyal, considerate, notice and remember specifics about people who are important to them, concerned with how others feel. Strive to create an orderly and harmonious environment at work and at home.

INFJ (Introversion, Intuitive, Feeling, Judging)

Seek meaning and connection in ideas, relationships, and material possessions. Want to understand what motivates people and are insightful about others. Conscientious and committed to their firm values. Develop a clear vision about how best to serve the common good. Organized and decisive in implementing their vision.

INTJ (Introversion, Intuitive, Thinking, Judging)

Have original minds and great drive for implementing their ideas and achieving their goals. Quickly see patterns in external events and develop long-range explanatory perspectives. When committed, organize a job and carry it through. Skeptical and independent, have high standards of competence and performance—for themselves and others.

ISTP (Introversion, Sensing, Thinking, Perceiving)

Tolerant and flexible, quiet observers until a problem appears, then act quickly to find workable solutions. Analyze what makes things work and readily get through large amounts of data to isolate the core of practical problems. Interested in cause and effect, organize facts using logical principles, value efficiency.

ISFP (Introversion, Sensing, Feeling, Perceiving)

Quiet, friendly, sensitive, and kind. Enjoy the present moment, what’s going on around them. Like to have their own space and to work within their own time frame. Loyal and committed to their values and to people who are important to them. Dislike disagreements and conflicts, do not force their opinions or values on others.

INFP (Introversion, Intuitive, Feeling, Perceiving)

Idealistic, loyal to their values and to people who are important to them. Want an external life that is congruent with their values. Curious, quick to see possibilities, can be catalysts for implementing ideas. Seek to understand people and to help them fulfill their potential. Adaptable, flexible, and accepting unless a value is threatened.

INTP (Introversion, Intuitive, Thinking, Perceiving)

Seek to develop logical explanations for everything that interests them. Theoretical and abstract, interested more in ideas than in social interaction. Quiet, contained, flexible, and adaptable. Have unusual ability to focus in depth to solve problems in their area of interest. Skeptical, sometimes critical, always analytical.

ESTP (Extroversion, Sensing, Thinking, Perceiving)

Flexible and tolerant, they take a pragmatic approach focused on immediate results. Theories and conceptual explanations bore them—they want to act energetically to solve the problem. Focus on the here-and-now, spontaneous, enjoy each moment that they can be active with others. Enjoy material comforts and style. Learn best through doing.

ESFP (Extroversion, Sensing, Feeling, Perceiving)

Outgoing, friendly, and accepting. Exuberant lovers of life, people, and material comforts. Enjoy working with others to make things happen. Bring common sense and a realistic approach to their work, and make work fun. Flexible and spontaneous, adapt readily to new people and environments. Learn best by trying a new skill with other people.

ENFP (Extroversion, Intuitive, Feeling, Perceiving)

Warmly enthusiastic and imaginative. See life as full of possibilities. Make connections between events and information very quickly, and confidently proceed based on the patterns they see. Want a lot of affirmation from others, and readily give appreciation and support. Spontaneous and flexible, often rely on their ability to improvise and their verbal fluency.

ENTP (Extroversion, Intuitive, Thinking, Perceiving)

Quick, ingenious, stimulating, alert, and outspoken. Resourceful in solving new and challenging problems. Adept at generating conceptual possibilities and then analyzing them strategically. Good at reading other people. Bored by routine, will seldom do the same thing the same way, apt to turn to one new interest after another.

ESTJ (Extroversion, Sensing, Thinking, Judging)

Practical, realistic, matter-of-fact. Decisive, quickly move to implement decisions. Organize projects and people to get things done, focus on getting results in the most efficient way possible. Take care of routine details. Have a clear set of logical standards, systematically follow them and want others to also. Forceful in implementing their plans.

ESFJ (Extroversion, Sensing, Feeling, Judging)

Warmhearted, conscientious, and cooperative. Want harmony in their environment, work with determination to establish it. Like to work with others to complete tasks accurately and on time. Loyal, follow through even in small matters. Notice what others need in their day-by-day lives and try to provide it. Want to be appreciated for who they are and for what they contribute.

ENFJ (Extroversion, Intuitive, Feeling, Judging)

Warm, empathetic, responsive, and responsible. Highly attuned to the emotions, needs, and motivations of others. Find potential in everyone, want to help others fulfill their potential. May act as catalysts for individual and group growth. Loyal, responsive to praise and criticism. Sociable, facilitate others in a group, and provide inspiring leadership.

ENTJ (Extroversion, Intuitive, Thinking, Judging)

Frank, decisive, assume leadership readily. Quickly see illogical and inefficient procedures and policies, develop and implement comprehensive systems to solve organizational problems. Enjoy long-term planning and goal setting. Usually well informed, well read, enjoy expanding their knowledge and passing it on to others. Forceful in presenting their ideas.

Modified and reproduced by special permission of the Publisher, CPP, Inc., Mountain View, CA 94043 from Introduction to Type, Sixth Edition by Isabel Briggs Myers. Copyright 1998 by Peter B. Myers and Katharine D. Myers. All rights reserved. Further reproduction is prohibited without the Publisher’s written consent.

BIG FIVE THEORY OF PERSONALITY

The big five theory of personality suggests that there are five universal personality traits: extroversion (positive attitude, sociable), agreeableness (accommodating, adaptable), conscientiousness (goal oriented), neuroticism (need for stability, pessimistic), and openness (imaginative, creative, open minded). Each of these traits is represented as a continuum that ranges between two extremes (e.g., extroversion and introversion) (McCrae & Costa, 1987). It is accepted that personality is a complex phenomenon with wide variation among individuals. However, according to this theory, the “ideal leader” is resilient (low on the neuroticism factor), energetic and outgoing (high on the extroversion factor), visionary (high on the openness factor), competitive (low on the agreeableness factor), and dedicated to a goal (high on the conscientiousness factor).

Contingency and Situational Theories and Leadership Styles

Contingency and situational theories postulate that effective leaders use a combination of behaviors or styles that are contingent upon the particular situation, the personalities involved, the task, and the organizational culture (Fiedler, 1967; Hersey, 1985). Contingency and situational theorists such as Fiedler (1978) and Hersey and Blanchard (1976, 1982) refrained from describing an ideal leadership style based solely on traits or personality and emphasized that successful leaders are able to understand their motivations and preferred style and are able to adapt their style to the situation and the needs of the group. Fiedler’s (1978) basic premise was that leadership was a function of the leader’s motivational style and the control requirements of the situation. According to the contingency theory, there are two primary motivations for leaders: relationship building and task completion. In addition, the control requirements of situations are dependent upon leader–member relations, task structure, and positional power. Leader–member relations pertain to the way followers feel about the leader. Tasks can be clearly structured or ambiguous and unstructured. Disinfecting equipment in the physical therapy clinic after a patient treatment session is an example of a highly structured task, while creating a process that will improve patient care in a particular unit from intake to exit would be considered an unstructured task.

Position power is related to the assigned power the leader has over the group. A leader has more positional power if everyone formally reports to that leader. The attending physician has strong positional power over a group of medical residents while a case manager has less positional power over the nurses and therapists who are part of a treatment team since each of the members report to different units in the organization.

Stress and anxiety increases when the leader’s style does not match a situation, and poor decision making is often the result. The most successful outcomes occur when the leader’s preferred style matches the situational requirements and they are able to expand their behavioral repertoire through formal training. Relationship-oriented leaders are able to incorporate task-oriented behaviors while task-oriented leaders demonstrate increased relationship-building behaviors (Fiedler, 1978; Northouse, 2010).

Hersey and Blanchard’s situational theory (1976, 1982) posits that the best leaders are able shift their focus over time from task to relationships based on the developmental needs of the group. Newly formed or immature groups that have yet to build commitment and expertise may do best with a directive, task-oriented leader, while moderately mature and mature groups are most successful when guided by a supportive, relationship-oriented leader. Ultimately, the level of engagement, participation, autonomy, and maturity that is achieved by the group depends, in part, on the degree to which decision-making authority is shared between the leader and the group members (Blanchard, Zigarmi & Zigarmi, 1985).

Blake and Mouton (1978, 1980, 1982) proposed that leadership style is informed by the degree to which the individual is concerned with task completion or relationship building. Their leadership grid provided a graphic representation of the variations in leadership styles ranging from (1,1) apathetic and not concerned with people or outcomes to (9,9) a leader who demonstrates his/her dual concern for relationship and goal attainment by fostering teamwork. Blake and Mouton identified the latter as the ideal leadership style.

REFLECTION

The following grid is based on the work of Blake and Mouton (1978, 1980, 1982) and depicts managerial style based on the level of caring about people (concern for people) and caring about getting the job done (concern for production).

1.  In the culture of your organization, which style is the most common?

2.  Is this style effective? Why or why not?

FIGURE 4-1 The leadership grid.

Reproduced from: Blake, R. Moulton, J. (1964). The Managerial Grid: The Key to Leadership Excellence. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company.

Relational Theories

Later theories recognized leadership as a reciprocal interaction between leaders and followers with the hallmark of good leadership being transformation of the followers who are committed to the leader’s vision (Bass & Avolio, 1994). The application of neuropsychological and neurocognitive research to the field of leadership has supplemented the wealth of information from the sociopsychological fields. Most recently, leadership is conceptualized as a set of learnable attitudes, behaviors, and skills geared toward relationship building. The effect on others is an awakening of self-efficacy, confidence, and capability, which enables proactive, engaged collective action toward a common goal (Goleman et al, 2002).

Emotional Intelligence

Decades of neuropsychological research have established that emotions can dictate our thinking, motivate us, and mobilize us into action. It is generally accepted that thoughts can induce emotions, and emotions also generate thoughts. For instance, when an individual is upset about something (emotion), he or she may engage in self-talk or internal dialogue (thoughts), which may fuel a spiral of intense emotions and upsetting thoughts.

The thoughts and emotions that shape human behavior originate from separate centers of the brain and are interactive determinants of one another. The amygdala or the feeling mind is a primitive part of the brain that triggers a fight-or-flight response, which is tempered by the prefrontal cortex or thinking mind. When stress, drugs, or alcohol compromises the nervous system, the tempering function of the prefrontal cortex may fail to block the instructions from the amygdala, and behavior that is not rational or adaptive to the situation may result.

Effective leaders are not as susceptible to this “amygdala highjack” as other leaders are. They are tuned in to their emotional skills and are able to use them in an appropriate way and in the proper context (Goleman et al, 2002). Daniel Goleman found that outstanding leaders were judged by their superiors as performing significantly better on a constellation of personal skills and social skills that fell into the following four broad categories: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management. This constellation of behaviors has been termed emotional intelligence (see Table 4-1 ) and is a prerequisite for relationship building that is the bedrock of sustainable leadership practices (Goleman, 1995). Developing competency in relationship management is contingent upon competency in self-awareness, self-management, and social awareness and essential for success in life and/or workplace.

In most healthcare organizations, leaders and managers are often appointed based on expertise and years of experience. However, as supervisory responsibility increases, so does the need for people-handling skills. Research indicates that some leaders and managers who are appointed primarily because of technical skill may lack the necessary emotional and relational competencies that enable them to lead and/or manage effectively (Goleman et al., 2002). They also need personal and social skills, which are the bases for emotional intelligence and are essential for effective leadership. In a team environment, skills such as effective listening, adaptability, empathy, collaboration, and the ability to give and use feedback are requisite for not only the designated leader, but for all members of the team. When members of a team are emotionally intelligent, they can create a collaborative atmosphere that leverages the inherent skills and power of the whole group (Goleman et al, 2002).

TABLE 4-1 Emotional Intelligence Domains

Self-Awareness: The ability of an individual to be cognizant of his/her own emotions, acknowledge personal strengths and weaknesses and describe how emotions impact his/her actions. Self-awareness includes the emotional selfawareness competency and is highly correlated with accurate self-assessment and self-confidence.

Self-Management: The ability to moderate negative emotional responses, to remain calm in stressful situations, adapt to change, continually work to improve oneself and stay optimistic in challenging situations. Competencies include achievement orientation, adaptability, emotional self-control and positive outlook.

Social Awareness: The ability to understand other individuals, teams and organizations by being open to other perspectives, putting oneself in another person’s shoes, understanding the values, culture and unspoken rules in a team or organization. The competencies included are empathy and organizational awareness.

Relationship Management: The ability to constructively resolve conflicts, coach and mentor others, inspire others by expressing a compelling vision, strategically influence others and to work as an effective member of a team. These competencies include skills in conflict management, coaching and mentoring, influencing, inspirational leadership and teambuilding.

Adapted from: Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R. and McKee, A. (2002). Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of Emotional Intelligence. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

REFLECTION: Emotional Intelligence Checklist

Rate yourself on each of the components of the emotional intelligence checklist to determine your characteristics in each of the domains.

Emotional Intelligence Checklist
SELF-AWARENESS
Emotional self-awareness: Recognizing how our emotions affect our performance	One who has emotional self-awareness: •  Is aware of one’s own feelings and can speak openly about them •  Can identify the triggers to and inner signals of his or her own emotions •  Recognizes the effects of one’s own feelings on one’s behavior •  Displays emotional insight, seeing the big picture in a complex situation
Accurate self-assessment: Knowing one’s own inner resources, abilities and limits	One who makes an accurate self-assessment: •  Is aware of his or her own strengths and limitations •  Welcomes honest, constructive criticism and is open to feedback •  Has a sense of humor about oneself •  Knows when to seek assistance
Self-confidence: A strong sense of one’s self-worth and capabilities	One who has self-confidence: •  Is confident in his or her job capability •  Knows one’s own strengths and believes in his or her own abilities •  Displays a self-assurance that is visible to others •  Has presence
SELF-MANAGEMENT
Emotional self-control: Keeping disruptive emotions and impulses in check	One who has emotional self-control: •  Does not act impulsively •  Does not get impatient or show frustration •  Behaves calmly in stressful situations •  Stays composed and positive, even in trying moments
Transparency: Maintaining integrity, acting congruently with one’s values	One who exhibits transparency: •  Keeps promises •  Addresses unethical behavior in others •  Openly and publicly admits to mistakes •  Lives and acts on values
Adaptability: Flexibility in handling change	One who is adaptable: •  Adapts ideas based on new information •  Applies standard procedures flexibly •  Handles unexpected demands well •  Changes overall strategy, goals, or projects to fit the situation
Achievement: Striving to improve or meeting a standard of excellence	One who exhibits achievement: •  Seeks ways to improve performance •  Sets measurable and challenging goals •  Anticipates obstacles to a goal •  Takes calculated risks to reach a goal
Initiative: Readiness to act on opportunities	One who has initiative: •  Does not hesitate to act on opportunities •  Seeks information in unusual ways •  Cuts through red tape and bends rules when necessary •  Initiates actions to create possibilities
Optimism: Persistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbacks	One who has optimism: •  Has mainly positive expectations •  Believes the future will be better than the past •  Stays positive despite setbacks •  Learns from setbacks
SOCIAL AWARENESS
Empathy: Sensing others’ feelings and perspectives and taking an active interest in their concerns	One who has empathy: •  Listens attentively •  Is attentive to people’s moods or nonverbal cues •  Relates well to people of diverse backgrounds •  Can see things from someone else’s perspective
Organizational awareness: Reading a group’s emotional currents and power relationships	One who has organizational awareness: •  Is able to detect crucial social networks and key power relationships •  Understands political forces within the organization •  Identifies the organization’s guiding values •  Recognizes unspoken rules of the organization
Service: Anticipating, recognizing, and meeting customers’ or clients’ needs	One who provides service: •  Makes himself available as needed •  Monitors client satisfaction •  Fosters an environment that keeps client relationships on the right track •  Ensures that client needs are met
RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT
Inspirational leadership: Inspiring and guiding individuals and groups	One who provides inspirational leadership: •  Leads by example •  Makes work exciting •  Inspires others •  Articulates a compelling vision
Influence: Having impact on others	•  One who has influence: •  Engages an audience when presenting •  Persuades by appealing to people’s self-interest •  Gets support from key people •  Develops behind-the-scenes support
Developing others: Sensing others’ development needs and bolstering their abilities	One who develops others: •  Recognizes specific strengths of others •  Gives directions or demonstrations to develop someone •  Gives constructive feedback •  Provides ongoing mentoring or coaching
Change catalyst: Initiating or managing change.	One who is a change catalyst: •  States need for change •  Is not reluctant to change or make changes •  Personally leads change initiatives •  Advocates change despite opposition
Conflict management: Negotiating and resolving conflict.	One who manages conflict: •  Airs disagreements or conflicts •  Publicly states everyone’s position to those involved in a conflict •  Does not avoid conflict •  Finds a position everyone can endorse
Teamwork and collaboration: Working with others and creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals.	One who exhibits teamwork and collaboration: •  Cooperates with others •  Solicits others’ input •  In a group, encourages others’ participation •  Establishes and maintains close relationships at work

Data from: Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R. and McKee, A. (2002). Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of Emotional Intelligence. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

Resonance

The perceived attitude and emotional status of the leader is instrumental in the creation of a positive or negative emotional climate (Nembhard & Edmondson, 2006; Pescosolido, 2000). When a leader is impatient, frustrated, or fearful of failure, the group members react with defensive and self-protective behaviors—often setting off a reciprocal volley of destructive emotions and creating a dissonant and unproductive climate that is focused on self-preservation rather than cocreation. Conversely, leaders who project enthusiasm, realistic optimism, and care for the group engender these same feelings within the group. The group members are engaged, in sync, or are resonant with the leader and each other and have more energy to engage in the work of the group and face challenges more creatively (Pescosolido, 2000).

According to Boyatzis & McKee (2005), resonant leaders are mindful, compassionate, and hopeful and are skilled in eliciting affiliative and affirmative emotions in others. They are mindful in that they are fully aware of themselves, others, and the environment and are committed to their values while being open to other perspectives. The manifestation of hopefulness is confidence in their own and the group’s ability to reify dreams. Compassion is reflected in their acceptance that they, in concert with their fellow humans, have strengths and vulnerabilities and are not omniscient. They face challenges and opportunities with equanimity and respect the contributions and value of the people they lead and those they serve.

FIGURE 4-2 The resonant leader.

Data from: Boyatzis, R. & McKee, A. (2005). Resonant Leadership. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

There seems to be agreement that the best leaders are self-aware, self-regulating, and attuned to the diverse perspectives, needs, and abilities of their followers and the requirements of the situation. Good leaders have high levels of social and emotional intelligence, an ability to develop and maintain reciprocal relationships, and a willingness to empower others, and they are able to employ a balance of task-related and relation-building behaviors. Put simply, good leaders can get the job done well while maintaining a supportive emotional atmosphere (Goleman, 1998; Kouzes & Posner, 2007; Maxwell, 2005; Whitney et al, 2010).