HRMN 406: Project Deliverable 1

Chapter 3

The Adult Learner

Do not focus on what you cannot do. Focus on what you can or want to do. Practice as an actor rehearses to master their craft!

Chapter Three Learning Objectives

Readers will achieve the following learning objectives after reading Chapter Three.

1 Define and explain the meaning of the theory of andragogy. 2 Discuss the importance of a self-motivated adult learner. 3 Explain that the adult learner requires that learning be purposeful. 4 State the importance of having a role in shaping the learning process. 5 Discuss why the adult learner prefers to learn through problem-solving. 6 Explain why the adult learner learns best when able to relate to the

subject of a training exercise. 7 Describe how the adult learner prefers certain types of instructional

methods that offer a less structured approach to learning. 8 Explain why the adult learner prefers instructional methods that

increase learning and which create less stress during the learn- ing process.

9 Describe the typical types of instructional methods most supportive of adult learning.

Learning Objective #1: Define and Explain the Meaning of the Theory of Andragogy

Andragogy is often referred to as many things: theory, body of concepts, constructs, principles of learning, etc. (Blondy, 2007). Because andragogy offers a detailed understanding for how adults learn, theory is the best form of approach in referring to andragogy. Andragogy was popularized by Malcom Knowles (1980), who benefited from early German studies on adult learning.

C o p y r i g h t 2 0 1 9 . R o u t l e d g e .

A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . M a y n o t b e r e p r o d u c e d i n a n y f o r m w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e p u b l i s h e r , e x c e p t f a i r u s e s p e r m i t t e d u n d e r U . S . o r a p p l i c a b l e c o p y r i g h t l a w .

EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 8/22/2022 5:03 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND GLOBAL CAMPUS AN: 1881039 ; Stanley C. Ross.; Training and Development in Organizations : An Essential Guide For Trainers Account: s4264928.main.eds

Book: Stanley C. Ross. (2019). Training and Development in Organizations: An Essential Guide For Trainers. Routledge.

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The Adult Learner 25

The Adult Learner

Andragogy characterizes the creation of a learning process as a joint effort involving the adult learner and the facilitator or instructor associated with the design and implementation of a planned learning process. The adult learner shares in the responsibility for designing a planned learning process because the adult learner knows best what knowledge is needed, the preferred ways of learning, and the pace of learning that is optimal. Partnering in design- ing the learning process motivates the adult learner to actively engage in the learning process.

Knowles et al. (2015) identified five assumptions associated with adult learning.

1 Self-concept: adults evolve to assert greater control over all aspects of their life.

2 Adult learning experience: experience provides the foundation that sup- ports future learning.

3 Readiness to learn: the motivation process leads adults to learn in support of their role within the group and society.

4 Orientation to learn: motivation increases the urgency to learn and learn- ing focuses on problem-solving as a practical focus for learning.

5 Motivation to learn: motivation to become an adult and then throughout adulthood shifts the focus of motivation from being externally directed to where the individual is self-motivated to learn.

A complement to Knowles’ basic assumptions is contained in four principles of andragogy that are useful guides for designers of an adult learning experience.

1 Adult learners benefit best from a learning experience that is shaped by their personal involvement in designing the learning process and in eval- uating the outcomes of the learning experience that is a product of the learning process.

2 Activities associated with the learning process need to build on the learn- er’s prior experiences.

3 Learning activities need to be of direct benefit to the learner. 4 Problem-focused learning activities offer the greatest benefit to the

adult learner.

Learning Objective #2: Discuss the Importance of a Self-Motivated Learner

The adult self-learner’s motivation to learn stems from the drive to satisfy needs. Need satisfaction is a lifelong process because needs remain omnipres- ent. The only change is the actions that the adult self-learner must satisfy. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (1943) provides a useful overview of the importance of needs, the variety of needs individuals have during their

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26 The Adult Learner

lifetime, and how the satisfaction of needs falls more in the control of the individual as the individual moves into adulthood. An individual’s needs do not disappear. Needs remain constant but the individual learns the skills required to successfully satisfy certain needs. Maslow’s theory puts an empha- sis on levels of needs. The individual learns to satisfy lower-level needs and moves on to focus on learning how to satisfy higher-level needs. Higher-level need satisfaction becomes more challenging because the higher-level needs become more difficult to satisfy. As a result, the individual strives harder to accomplish need satisfaction and the effort involves learning new skills and methods for pursuing need satisfaction.

As the individual moves into adulthood, he or she assumes more responsi- bility for satisfying personal needs. There are two reasons for asserting greater control over the process of satisfying needs. First, societal values emphasize less reliance on parental figures and others to guide the individual in satisfying personal needs. These values are part of every individual’s development process that is often referred to as maturation. Second, the individual assumes greater responsibility for satisfying personal needs as the image of their self-concept becomes more lucid and developed. In short, the individual has a better image of the self and believes that only through taking personal responsibility will they successfully achieve their ideal goal of the self. This goal is often referred to as self-concept or sense of self-worth (Ross, 2015).

The individual’s assertion of greater control over fulfilling needs is driven by the importance of self-concept and creating a self-image that achieves the desired point. Adults remain self-motivated though, because self-worth is like reaching for the sun, always on the move because the sense of self- worth continues evolving. This phenomenon occurs because the individual’s needs are never fully satisfied, according to Maslow. The other explanation for understanding the catalyst for self-motivation is to fulfill social needs. Individuals are social beings with the driving need to be part of a social group and to gain acceptance from group members. Gaining acceptance is only one phase of the needs fulfillment process. Remaining a member of the group explains the ongoing importance of meeting social needs. A corollary to this process is that some individuals want to assume an important leader- ship position within the group. This shift in role expectations reflects a shift in the individual’s self-concept, which now includes the need to become an important contributor to the group.

A third explanation for self-motivation is the need to solve problems. Problems occur in pursuing the fulfillment of both the self-concept and the social needs linked to an individual’s self-concept. Problems impede and the individual’s focus shifts to resolve the problems. Because both self-concept and social roles fluctuate over time and circumstances, problems occur that require resolution.

Learning becomes critical in the individual’s efforts to solve problems that can hinder the development of the self-concept and achieving the social

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The Adult Learner 27

needs of the individual. Learning is essential in building the self-concept and becoming part of a group. Self-learning occurs because the individual rec- ognizes that success in meeting personal needs requires taking more control over the learning process.

Learning Objective #3: Explain That the Adult Learner Requires That Learning Be Purposeful

The adult learner becomes pragmatic because he or she asserts greater control over the learning process. Learning does not occur for the sake of learning. Learning becomes useful to the adult learner who is attempting to achieve personal and professional goals. The pursuit of goals originates in the drive to satisfy needs.

If the learning experience lacks relevance in the drive to achieve a goal, then the adult learner quickly loses interest because the subject matter is not perceived as being useful in satisfying needs. The subject matter must fulfill two needs. First, the individual seeks to join social groups and establish a role identify. Once a member, the individual seeks to maintain their role and per- haps become a more important member of the group. Satisfying social needs becomes an important goal of the individual.

Professional-type needs associated with the individual’s self-concept (and self-esteem) represent another of the individual’s motivators. A job offers the individual the opportunity to satisfy most personal needs (Maslow, 1943). Developing competencies strengthens the individual’s work role, enhances the individual’s social role with the work organization, and enhances the individual’s feeling of self-worth. This process of developing competencies is dynamic and not static because the organization operates in an external envi- ronment with competitors, changing customer needs, evolving economic and social conditions, and rapidly changing technologies. These factors cre- ate a dynamic environment whereby competencies soon become yesterday’s strengths. The individual, like the organization, needs to learn how to adapt to survive and succeed in this dynamic environment.

In this pursuit of competency to establish social and work roles the indi- vidual confronts problems. Solving problems represents the individual’s effort to eliminate impediments in the pursuit of competencies. Problem-solving strategies have the purpose of eliminating road blocks during the process of achieving goals.

Creating a learning experience based on prior knowledge represents the individual’s commonsense approach to learning. Prior experience provides the individual with strategies that worked in the past and which offer useful lessons to build on to solve problems during the process of developing com- petencies related to achieving personal and professional goals. The link to past learning makes learning new knowledge and skills relatable; this helps the individual move up the learning curve faster, with the increased likelihood for

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28 The Adult Learner

successful learning to occur. A training program must enable the individual to benefit from their prior personal experiences.

Learning Objective #4: State the Importance of Having a Role in Shaping the Learning Process

Andragogy emphasizes the importance of having the adult learner assume an active role in designing the curriculum. The underlying assumption is that the more active the role in designing the program, the greater the likelihood that learning will occur.

What accounts for the individual’s role are personal goals identified by the individual. The two primary categories of goals are social goals and work- related goals. Specific goals are set by the individual. For example, a social goal is to marry or to start a family. The individual needs to learn the role to succeed in achieving these types of goals. Another social goal is to become a member of a social group such as a club, team or activity that temporarily brings people together. A social group can include peers at work and learning how to fit in, which usually means developing social skills but can include professional competencies if the group is a work group.

Work-related goals entail earning positive evaluations, meeting job expec- tations, and earning promotions, as well as receiving bonuses. These goals often require certain types of experiences, and gaining these experiences entails learning the knowledge and necessary skills. Though the organization can provide general insights on the knowledge and skills needed to achieve successful experiences, the individual is the best judge to determine the gaps in the knowledge and skills needed. A proactive role in shaping the indi- vidual’s learning experience is critical to achieving work-related goals that are important in satisfying fundamental needs, according to Maslow 1943).

The individual recognizes that an adult is held accountable for their actions. Accountability assumes the need to answer for the behaviors of the adult. Adults recognize that accountability has strong ramifications for the adult personally, in failing to achieve either social and/or work-related goals. Since the adult is more responsible for the results of their actions, the adult seeks greater control over the antecedents that influence their actions. The learning process is instrumental in shaping the individual’s actions because learning is pivotal to achieving personal goals and individuals are held accountable for the success or failure to achieve these goals. The individual assumes a pro- active role in structuring the learning process based on prior strategies that worked towards the same ends.

The individual’s role in asserting greater control over the learning process is explained by the individual’s understanding of the barriers that can nega- tively impact the learning process. These barriers are often personal, though andragogy indirectly identifies other types of barriers. For example, one form of barrier is not using an individual’s personal experiences to influence ongo- ing learning. These barriers often take the form of instructional methods and

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The Adult Learner 29

the extent to which a curriculum is designed. Certain instructional methods are preferred by the adult learner (e.g., visuals, case studies, group work, etc.). Structure helps shape the learning process but too much structure can stifle learning because structure can constrain while serving the purpose of giving focus and guidance to learning.

Learning Objective #5: Discuss Why the Adult Learner Prefers to Learn through a Problem-Solving Process

One of the underlying assumptions of adult learning as explained by andra- gogy is that adults prefer to learn when solving a problem. Problems are identified by gaps in the individual’s current knowledge or limitations in the individual’s skill set. Gaps are identified during the process for achieving social goals and work-related goals. Solving a problem moves the individual closer to achieving personal and professional goals.

As individuals move through the developmental process from infancy to adulthood, one of the important differentiators that separates the adult from the non-adult is the individual’s pursuit of self-efficacy, and how achieving this goal of self-efficacy requires the individual to assert greater self-respon- sibility in pursuing this goal. The developmental focus is reinforced by the external focus of society’s expectations that adults control their lives and are responsible for both successes and failures. To achieve self-efficacy the indi- vidual identifies milestones to accomplish and organizes a process or pro- cesses to achieve these milestones. During the pursuit of these milestones (also known as social and work-related goals) to achieve self-efficacy, problems occur. The individual’s ability to solve problems enables them to move for- ward in the pursuit of greater levels of self-efficacy.

Problem-solving represent a higher form of application of cognitive think- ing. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning (Bush, Daddysman & Charnigo, 2014) offers a useful model for understanding the different levels of thinking that are possible. Though the individual does not choose to have problems, set- ting goals invites problems to occur because a goal is not always achieved and problems can and do occur during the process of achieving goals. Problem- solving becomes a rewarding and reinforcing process because through it the individual gains self-confidence that personal cognitive abilities and their application have led to successful problem resolution in prior situations, and the individual becomes confident of future success in solving new problems.

Learning Objective #6: Explain Why the Adult Learner Learns Best When Able to Relate to the Subject of a Training Exercise

Cognitive functioning evolves through the human development process since associated learning becomes more prevalent as the individual moves through various developmental stages into and through adulthood.

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30 The Adult Learner

Associated learning involves the pairing of a known with an unknown. Analogies represent a common way to test associated learning. The more familiar the subject, the easier it is for the individual to draw a connection between the known and the unknown.

Because experience is an important part of the process of associated learn- ing, adults seek to learn based on the familiar. Whether a self-learner or learning in a training or educational program, instructional methods that emphasize the use of prior experiences become more significant learning aids.

Human behavior follows the application of routines – hereafter referred to as learning processes – to achieve various outcomes (social and work- related goals). Self-learning adheres to this process model. Once established, this programmed process becomes the basis for future learning. Programming refers to the individual formalizing a self-learning process. This is similar to an organization creating a policy on a subject. When confronted with a new situation the individual focuses on their personalized self-learning process as the basis for dealing with a new subject or situation.

The process and the experiences associated with this process become the basis for future learning because the process evolved from past successful learning experiences. Individuals do not use what did not work before unless shown a different way to do so, and even then resistance is likely to occur unless the experiential learning method is the method used to overcome the memory of prior failure, which is a negative experience.

Experiences represent the building blocks for future learning. We build on past knowledge gained from prior experiences because what was learned becomes incorporated within the individual’s comfort zone. The comfort zone represents the individual’s internalized policies which represent the rules to follow and the processes to use in adhering to these policies (or guidelines) for responding to all types of familiar and less familiar situations. The strategy for responding to unfamiliar situations is to apply an internalized policy(ies)

Only when the individual learns that the situation differs from past experi- ences will the individual apply a different strategy, but still a strategy linked with policies learned from prior experiences. Experiential learning exercises intended to promote new learning need to heed the important role of an individual’s comfort zone if the learning experiences are to lead to a success- ful outcome.

Learning Objective #7: Describe How the Adult Learner Prefers Certain Types of Instructional Methods That Offer a Less Structured Approach to Learning

One of the important principles of andragogy is that the adult learner needs to be involved in the design and implementation of a learning process. This leads to the question: why? Adults seek to succeed in what they do. Learning is no different for the adult learner. The adult learner seeks to benefit from

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The Adult Learner 31

the learning experience because the adult intends to benefit from learning through achieving goals.

Prior learning experiences that are associated with successful outcomes represent the preferred methods for achieving success in the future. This includes the type of instructional methods used during these successful learn- ing experiences. As a participant, the adult learner’s preference is to leverage those instructional methods that offered the best way to achieving the learn- ing outcomes and keep within the learner’s comfort zone.

Instructional methods that are acceptable to the adult learner must meet the requirements posed by three criteria relating to the individual’s comfort zone. First, the adult learner creates a policy or policies regarding acceptable and unacceptable instructional methods, complete with a rationale for this. Second, the delivery of instructional methods must conform to the acceptable processes to follow according to the learner’s internal policies. For example, the adult learner often prefers group work that emphasizes values such as social interaction, teamwork, and learning from others. These values influ- ence the choice of instructional methods, such as group work. The adult learner develops a preference for certain implementation methods or pro- cesses to follow. How often have we used or heard the expression “This is how we did it before and things went well”?

A less structured learning process does not mean there is no structure. The adult learner seeks to create that structure or be involved in creating the structure that is acceptable to the adult learner’s comfort zone require- ments. If the structured learning experience allows flexibility so that the individual benefits when learning are most beneficial, then structure is acceptable. Only when a rigid structure is applied does the adult learner resist, because the adult’s prior positive learning experiences were associated with less structure and negative learning experiences with the rigid applica- tion of a structured learning process. This attitude extends to the type of instructional methods used during a learning experience. Some instruc- tional methods can constrain learning and other instructional methods can encourage and promote learning.

Learning Objective #8: Explain Why the Adult Learner Prefers Instructional Methods that Increase Learning and Which Create Less Stress during the Learning Process

As depicted in Figure 3.1, increases in the level of stress experienced by the individual participating in a learning program mean that less learning occurs. Research shows that a certain level of stress is beneficial to the individual, but that the benefit quickly diminishes as the individual shifts the focus from learning to eliminating or reducing the level of risk to tolerable limits.

Adults typically are familiar with most if not all types of instructional meth- ods. This familiarity means that the adult learner can differentiate between

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32 The Adult Learner

instructional methods which induce too much stress and those methods that are either stress-free or which pose acceptable levels of stress.

For the adult learner participating in a learning experience, the goal is to maximize learning to achieve personal and professional goals. Any instruc- tional method that impedes achieving these goals is actively resisted. The adult learner advocates for instructional methods that best serve the needs of the adult learner.

Instructional methods that require the adult learner to participate in a social situation (i.e., a group project), and which allow the adult to utilize prior experiences as a way to facilitate learning, are the preferred instructional methods. Any other type of instructional method will lead to less optimal levels of learning because the individual resists the methods used.

Learning Objective #9: Describe the Typical Types of Instructional Methods Most Supportive of Adult Learning

There are at least 150 instructional methods available to use in working with adult learners. The plethora of methods is useful in offering trainers a variety to select from. Some methods are better at drawing on the experiences of adult learners than other methods. These instructional methods are the focus here. But more important than the instructional method is the manner in which the trainer applies the method that draws on the personal experiences of the individual.

Examples of methods for working with individuals are listed in Table 3.1. The trainer needs to ensure that the focus of the method draws on the indi- vidual’s personal experiences. What the trainer wants to take advantage of is the individual’s insights. Cognitive skills and cognitive style (i.e., the way the individual processes information) can be used to facilitate learning.

Table 3.2 presents methods that involve two or more people working together in a learning exercise. Group work that draws on an individual’s prior learning experiences also provides useful feedback on an individual’s

0

Learning

Stress

Figure 3.1 Association between the Level of Stress and Learning That Can Occur

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The Adult Learner 33

social skills, teamwork capabilities, and level of self-confidence. Group work offers the trainer the opportunity to facilitate a learning experience that differs from those methods used with individuals only.

Neither individual nor group instructional methods are superior to the other. Each type of method offers the trainer the opportunity to draw on dif- ferent dimensions of the individual’s personal experiences that the individual leverages during a learning situation.

Questions

1 Define the term “andragogy.” 2 Identify and explain the reasons to explain the approach adults pursue

in learning. 3 Identify and briefly describe five motivational methods that would likely

be used to train adults.

Table 3.1 Instructional Methods to Use with Individuals

Method Focus

Case Studies • Apply prior learning experience to actual situations based on specific themes.

Discovery Learning • Uncovering through exploration that utilizes prior learned exploratory processes.

Journals • Personal insights based on prior situations and the results experienced.

Self-Reflection Exercises • Situation-specific to learn how the individual understands the lessons to learn.

Problem-Solving • Examines the process the individual uses for identifying a problem from symptoms and the process used to solve the problem.

Table 3.2 Instructional Methods to Use with Groups

Method Focus

Case Studies • Shared perspectives on understanding a situation and for generating solutions.

Cooperative Learning • Participants work together to facilitate learning for everyone.

Role Playing • Participants utilize prior experiences to dramatize roles and observers interpret the situation.

Problem-Solving • Participants interpret the cause(s) of symptoms and offer solutions.

Discussion Group • Members of the group share their views on a subject. Team Task • Group members assigned a goal to achieve as a team effort. Presentation • Participants work together in developing and delivering a

presentation.

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34 The Adult Learner

4 Explain why adults prefer to learn by using a problem-solving approach. 5 Explain how adults reduce stress during a new learning situation.

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critical perspectives. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning. 14: 25–42.

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