chapter 3

You open the USA Today Web page, and the headlines indicate that murder is

decreasing. Then you happen to catch your local paper’s headlines that scream

about soaring homicide rates. What is going on? Is homicide increasing or

decreasing? It could be that where you live, homicide has increased since the pre-

vious year while at the same time it has decreased in the nation as a whole. Why do

the rates vary in different places, and why are they increasing or decreasing? These

are some of the questions that academics and criminal justice practitioners may

ask about homicide. Moreover, instead of relying on our hunches, which have the

potential to be incorrect, academics and many criminal justice professionals

employ the scientific method to learn about homicide. In employing the scientific

method to answer our questions (and to generate more questions), we use various

data sources.

It stands to reason, then, that what we know about homicide is only as good as

the data we have to study it. The importance of homicide data quality is true for aca-

demic criminologists as well as for criminal justice practitioners and the general pub-

lic. In this chapter, we look at the data that criminologists commonly employ when

studying homicide, which is often the same data that practitioners use to try to stop

or prevent homicide. In fact, the data criminologists use to study homicide is often

collected for practitioners rather than for academic criminologists, which sometimes

makes the studying of homicide difficult.

In this chapter, you will read about various data sources. The chapter begins

with a discussion of three sources for national homicide data collected by the

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). These three sources are the Uniform Crime

Reports (UCR), the Supplemental Homicide Reports (SHR), and the newer

National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS). These FBI sources are followed

25

Chapter 3

MEASURING MURDER

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26 The Murder Book: Examining Homicide

by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) National Death Index (NDI)

mortality files. Next is an overview of various regional homicide data sources,

including the Chicago Homicide Data and the Homicide Investigation Tracking

System (HITS) data in Washington. The chapter also includes a review of other

sources criminologists use to study homicide, including case studies of particular

cases or offenders. Finally, the chapter concludes with a discussion of the typologies

of homicide used by criminologists in their studies of homicide.

If you are going to study in the field of homicide, it helps if you become famil-

iar with a whole host of initials that are commonly bantered around when profes-

sionals talk about homicide. It is not uncommon, for instance, to hear a member of

the HRWG talking about a comparison between the rates of homicide as reported

in the NIBRS and the SHR. Another HRWG member who works for ICPSR may

mention that HITS is available from NACJD. So what are these people talking

about and who are they? Well, the HRWG is the Homicide Research Working

Group, an organization of homicide researchers from a variety of disciplines who

network together to improve homicide research across the world. Among the many

members of the HRWG are those who work at ICPSR, the Interuniversity

Consortium for Political and Social Research. ICPSR manages the NACJD, which

is the National Archive of Criminal Justice Data. As for NIBRS, SHR, and HITS,

each of these are data sets that we discuss along with other data sources (with other

initials) later.

UNIFORM CRIME REPORTS

As you may know from other criminal justice courses, the FBI has a crime report-

ing program known as the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) that collects data from

state Uniform Crime Reporting agencies. Each year, the FBI produces Crime in the

United States in which they list the Part I crimes that have been reported to the

BOX 3.1

Felony Murders and the UCR

When an individual victim dies of a heart attack that is believed to be the result of severe stress caused by an offender who is committing a felony, the death may be classified by statute as felony murder and thus prose- cuted as such. However, it is not recorded as a criminal homicide in the UCR. As noted in the 2004 UCR Reporting Handbook, “a heart attack can- not, in fact, be caused at will by an offender. Even in instances where an individual is known to have a weak heart, there is no assurance that an offender can cause sufficient emotional or physical stress to guarantee that the victim will suffer a fatal heart attack” (p. 6).

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Supplemental Homicide Reports 27

BOX 3.2

Canadian and British Homicide Data

Statistics Canada works very much like the FBI in the United States to collect data on homicide. Whenever a homicide occurs, the investigating officer must complete a homicide survey that contains three main questionnaires: (1) the Incident Questionnaire, (2) the Victim Questionnaire, and (3) the Charged/ Suspect-Chargeable Questionnaire. Statistics Canada started col- lecting information on all murders in 1961 and then added information on manslaughters and infanticides in 1974 (Statistics Canada, 2005). The process is very similar in Britain where the Research Development and Statistics Home Office collect and report data from the police about crime reported to the police.

police throughout the United States in the previous year. These Part 1 crimes, also

referred to as index crimes, include murder, aggravated assault, robbery, rape, lar-

ceny, burglary, vehicle theft, and arson. The FBI also reports the number of arrests

for 20 Part II offenses, including most every other crime, ranging from vandalism

and public drunkenness to drug violations and simple assault.

In the case of homicide, the UCR program keeps track of all murder and non-

negligent manslaughter. Regardless of how the killings may eventually be defined

in a court of law, the deaths are defined as a murder or nonnegligent manslaugh-

ter in the UCR data if the police have classified them as such based on their inves-

tigation. Because definitions may vary by jurisdiction, those who report to the

UCR are advised to use the FBI’s definition of murder and nonnegligent

manslaughter, which is “the willful (nonnegligent) killing of one human being by

another” (FBI, 2005).

The UCR program, which began in 1930, is voluntary on the part of law enforce-

ment agencies. Still, in a typical year like 2002, over 17,000 city, country, and state law

enforcement agencies reported data on crimes in their jurisdictions. Another way to

think about the coverage of the UCR is that in 2002, 93.4% of the total U.S. popula-

tion lived in jurisdictions that reported crime statistics to the FBI (FBI, 2005).

Although the FBI report that the primary objective of the UCR Program is to “gener-

ate a reliable set of criminal statistics for use in law enforcement administration,

operation, and management,” criminologists often use the data as an indication of

how much crime exists in the United States and also to test theories about crime and

crime prevention (FBI, 2002).

SUPPLEMENTAL HOMICIDE REPORTS

In addition to the UCR reports, the FBI has been collecting the Supplemental

Homicide Reports (SHR) since 1961 (Riedel, 1999). The SHR were last revised in

1976, and since then, the format has remained the same (Fox, 2003; Riedel, 1999).

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28 The Murder Book: Examining Homicide

NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM

It is an exciting time for those who study crime. The UCR program is undergoing a

slow but important transformation. Gradually, crime data collection is changing

from what is known as a “summary system” to an incident-based system. The

National Incident-Based Reporting System, or NIBRS, collects data on each single

crime occurrence. Unlike the UCR, which uses a summary system, NIBRS contains

much more detail. Over 20 years ago in 1982, the FBI and Bureau of Justice

Statistics (BJS) task force began systematically to study the best way to revise the

UCR data collection system. In 1985, after several meetings, conferences, and input

from criminologists, the FBI released recommendations for an improved UCR pro-

gram that considered the needs of criminal justice practitioners and researchers

(FBI, 2005; Riedel, 1999). This new NIBRS program is different from the UCR in

that instead of focusing on the eight Part I index crimes, NIBRS focuses on 46 spe-

cific crimes called Group A offenses in 22 categories and 11 less serious Group B

offenses. With regard to the focus of this text, the Group A offense category of

homicide offenses is most important. The homicide offense group in NIBRS

includes the crimes of murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, negligent

manslaughter, and justifiable homicide.

More important for the study of homicide than the increased number of crimes

that NIBRS includes is the details of how and what data is collected for NIBRS as well

TABLE 3.1 Supplemental Homicide Reports

The SHR includes information on the following for each homicide incident:

• Month • Sex of offender

• Year • Victim/offender relationship

• Age of victim • Circumstance of the crime

• Race of victim • Weapon used

• Sex of victim • Number of victims

• Age of offender • Number of offenders

• Race of offender • Reporting agency

Although early SHR data may be less reliable than more recent data, the SHR

provides the most reliable, detailed, and timely data on homicides across the

United States (Riedel, 1999; U.S. Department of Justice, 2003). Still as we will see

later, there is no perfect homicide data set. Table 3.1 lists the information included

in the SHR that includes the date of the offense; the age, sex, and race of both the

homicide victim and offender; the type of weapon used; the relationship of the

victim to the offender; and the circumstance surrounding each homicide incident.

In the later section on typologies, you will learn more about the different catego-

rizations of the information provided in the SHR and other data sets.

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National Death Index 29

as the introduction of quality assurance checks built into the NIBRS system

(Addington, 2003; FBI, 2005). With the NIBRS system, crime data is collected in much

greater detail than it was with the UCR and SHR. Fifty-two pieces of information

about each crime incident are collected in NIBRS (Riedel, 1999). In addition to the

demographic information that is usually collected on both the victim and offender,

NIBRS includes information on types of injuries, multiple weapons (instead of just

one as was the case with the UCR), dates of arrest, resident status of the victim and

offenders, and the disposition of arrestees younger than 18 years old (Riedel, 1999).

Moreover, and different from the UCR system, NIBRS does not use a hierarchy

rule. The hierarchy rule is something that you may have heard about in your other

criminal justice courses. It means that if several crimes occur in one incident, only the

most serious crime is recorded. For example, if an offender robs three people, rapes one

of them, and murders another, only the murder is counted in UCR statistics because it

is considered the most serious of all the severe crimes that occurred. With NIBRS, how-

ever, each crime would be recorded and counted separately but in such a way that the

files would be linked so studies could be performed on the entire crime incident.

The FBI began collecting NIBRS data in January 1989; however, the NIBRS pro-

gram does not yet have nationwide participation. It is a voluntary program, and

some states have been slow to switch to NIBRS or are reticent about switching

because the NIBRS program involves some new costs and officer training. The South

Carolina Law Enforcement Division was the first organization to use NIBRS in 1987.

As of 2005, 26 state programs have been NIBRS certified (FBI, 2005). In addition, 12

states are involved in testing NIBRS and the District of Columbia and 8 state agencies

are in the stages of planning and development (FBI, 2005). The data from the agen-

cies in the 26 participating states account for 22% of the U.S. population (FBI, 2005).

Does your state report NIBRS data? At the time this book went to press, the following

states were participating in NIBRS: Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut,

Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts,

Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon,

Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont,

Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and the District of Columbia.

The future of NIBRS, although not perfect, is promising. As Addington (2003)

notes, NIBRS is not designed to solve all the problems with SHR. However, four

changes are likely to make NIBRS an improvement over SHR: (1) computerized data

submission that permits data edits and record updating; (2) better and more instruc-

tions for submitting data to NIBRS; (3) a new certification requirement for agencies

before they are permitted to submit NIBRS data; and (4) regular quality assurance

checks by the FBI for logical consistency and completeness (Addington, 2003).

NATIONAL DEATH INDEX

Although most criminologists rely on data collected by the FBI to learn about

homicide, there are other valuable resources. The National Death Index (NDI) is

part of the National Vital Statistics System collected by the Center for Disease

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30 The Murder Book: Examining Homicide

Control and Prevention’s (CDC) National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS).

Compiled from state data, the NDI is a computerized index of death record infor-

mation. The NCHS compiles statistical information about deaths in the United

States as a way to inform those who make health policy decisions. Although the

focus of the NDI is all deaths recorded by medical examiners or coroners in the

nation each year since 1933, it is still a valid source for information on deaths

caused by homicide (Riedel, 1999).

Different from other sources of homicide information that rely on police

agencies, the NDI data is compiled from death certificate information.

Standardized death certificate information is completed by a medical examiner or

coroner. The completed death certificates are then given to local registrars or

county health officers who verify them and send copies on to the state’s vital sta-

tistics office where they are again checked and then sent to the NCHS. At the

NCHS, cases are classified according to the International Classification of

Diseases (ICD) and then entered into the National Death Index data set (Riedel,

1999) (see Table 3.2).

Death certificate information may include details about the injuries and condi-

tions that contribute to a victim’s death. They may also include information about

the manner of death including homicide (Barber et al., 2002). However, because the

focus is not on crime, death certificate information does not include any information

on the homicide offender or suspect. However, the NDI does include information

that is not included in many crime databases, such as marital status and educational

level of the victim (Van Court & Trent, 2004). Other information collected by the

NCHS are as follows:

1. Age, race/ethnicity, and sex of the victim

2. Whether victim was in the armed forces

3. Victim’s social security number

4. Victim’s birthplace, occupation, residence, and place of death

5. Parents’ names and addresses

6. Places and manner of disposition

7. Whether an autopsy was completed

8. Times, places, and causes of death

9. Indication of whether death occurred at work (Riedel, 1999)

The ICD coding system is used to assign a cause of death code for each death

certificate based on what the coroner or medical examiner noted as cause of death. It

may seem straightforward, but there is a reason to be cautious in interpreting these

data. As noted by Barber et al. (2002), law enforcement personnel may define a homi-

cide as murder, manslaughter, justifiable homicide, or accidental killing of one

human by another. A more common understanding of the term homicide is that it is

an intentional killing of one human by another. As a result, one coroner may record

the accidental shooting of a hunting buddy on a death certificate as an accident,

whereas another coroner may record it as a homicide.

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National Death Index 31

TABLE 3.2 ICD-10 Homicide Cause of Death Codes

Code Cause of Death

U01.0 Terrorism involving explosion of marine weapons (homicide)

U01.1 Terrorism involving destruction of aircraft (homicide)

U01.2 Terrorism involving other explosions and fragments (homicide)

U01.3 Terrorism involving fires, conflagration,

and hot substances (homicide)

U01.4 Terrorism involving firearms (homicide)

U01.5 Terrorism involving nuclear weapons (homicide)

U01.6 Terrorism involving biological weapons (homicide)

U01.7 Terrorism involving chemical weapons (homicide)

U01.8 Terrorism, other specified (homicide)

U01.9 Terrorism, unspecified (homicide)

X85 Assault (homicide) by drugs, medicaments,

and biological substances

X86 Assault (homicide) by corrosive substance

X87 Assault (homicide) by pesticides

X88 Assault (homicide) by gases and vapors

X89 Assault (homicide) by other specified chemicals

and noxious substances

X90 Assault (homicide) by unspecified chemical

or noxious substances

X91 Assault (homicide) by hanging, strangulation, and suffocation

X92 Assault (homicide) by drowning and submersion

X93 Assault (homicide) by handgun discharge

X94 Assault (homicide) by rifle, shotgun, and larger firearm discharge

X95 Assault (homicide) by other and unspecified firearm discharge

X96 Assault (homicide) by explosive material

X97 Assault (homicide) by smoke, fire, and flames

X98 Assault (homicide) by steam, hot vapors, and hot objects

X99 Assault (homicide) by sharp object

Y00 Assault (homicide) by blunt object

Y01 Assault (homicide) by pushing from high place

Y02 Assault (homicide) by pushing or placing victim

before moving object

Y03 Assault (homicide) by crashing of motor vehicle

Y04 Assault (homicide) by bodily force

Y05 Sexual assault (homicide) by bodily force

Y08 Assault (homicide) by other specified means

Y09 Assault (homicide) by unspecified means

Source: Compiled from World Health Organization data (World Health Organization, 2003).

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32 The Murder Book: Examining Homicide

BOX 3.3

Comparing Two Data Sources

Barber and her colleagues at the Harvard Injury Control Research Center compared accidental deaths by another with a firearm as recorded in the 1997 SHR data and the 1997 NDI data. A total of 168 victims in the 1997 SHR data were recorded as having been accidentally or unintentionally shot and killed by another human. Barber et al. were able to find 140 of these victims in the 1997 NDI data. Of those 140 they found, 105 (75%) were coded as homicides in the NDI data, 32 (23%) were recorded as acci- dents, and 3 (2%) were recorded as undetermined deaths.

CHICAGO HOMICIDE DATA

In addition to the national data sources already discussed in this chapter, some excellent

smaller homicide data sets are available through the Interuniversity Consortium for

Political and Social Research (ICPSR). Carolyn Rebecca Block of the Illinois Criminal

NATIONAL VIOLENT DEATH REPORTING SYSTEM

In 2003, the CDC introduced the National Violent Death Reporting System

(NVDRS). Somewhat like the FBI’s decision to improve on the UCR with NIBRS, the

CDC’s NVDRS is an improvement over the NDI. Like the UCR and NIBRS, the

NVDRS is a nationwide state-based system. Like the NDI, data are collected from a

public health perspective—the goal is to provide data that will aid in the develop-

ment of prevention strategies. Unlike the NDI, however, demographic data on the

perpetrators of violent deaths and the victim offender relationships are collected.

Again parallel to the NIBRS system, the NVDRS does not yet have national cover-

age but is being implemented slowly and carefully with training provided for the states

that participate and regular monitoring of the data submission process. The first

NVDRS data results were released in April 2005 and include information from the six

states that participated in the NVDRS (MD, MA, NJ, OR, SC, and VA) in 2003. As of

August 2004, the number of NVDRS participating states had nearly tripled to 17 states.

These 17 stretch across the United States and include Alaska, California, Colorado,

Georgia, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Maryland, North Carolina, New Jersey, New Mexico,

Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Utah, Virginia, and Wisconsin.

Because the focus of the NVDRS is violent deaths, in addition to data on homi-

cide, information is also collected about suicides, deaths by legal intervention (exclud-

ing executions), unintentional firearm injury deaths, and those deaths for which intent

is not determined. State agencies collect information on the circumstances of violent

deaths that they obtain from the police, medical examiners, and coroners. Like the

NDI, homicides circumstance categorizations are based on the ICD-10 (see Table 3.2).

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Homicide Investigation Tracking System 33

HOMICIDE INVESTIGATION TRACKING SYSTEM

Although criminals may cross boundaries in commission of their crimes, law

enforcement is divided by federal, state, county, and city boundaries, and in large law

enforcement agencies there are often divisions between investigative units such as

the robbery and homicide divisions. Additionally, as is well known enough to be

included in many crime dramas and mystery novels, there have often been clashes

between different law enforcement agencies over who has jurisdiction in some cases.

This lack of cooperation across jurisdictions has been blamed for slowing down the

apprehension of criminals such as Ted Bundy who have crossed jurisdictions while

committing their crimes (Headley, 2000; Keppel, 1995; Keppel & Weiss, 1993).

Those who commit crimes across many jurisdictions make it more difficult for

law enforcement agents to link the crimes together and gather evidence to help

them find the offenders. In response to murderers such as the Green River Killer

Gary Ridgway and Ted Bundy, who were discovered to have crossed jurisdictional

boundaries, former King County Detective Robert Keppel (1995) developed the

Homicide Investigation Tracking System (HITS) with funding from the National

Institute of Justice.

The attorney general’s office in the state of Washington maintains the HITS

database as a repository on crimes that occur in the state of Washington and, to

some extent, in Oregon, Idaho, Alaska, and British Columbia. HITS data include a

wealth of information designed to help police investigators link crimes and appre-

hend offenders. Victim and offender characteristics, weapon information, crime

evidence, geographic locations, and even information about vehicles are included

in HITS. In addition, known murderers and sex offenders living in the community

are also tracked in HITS. Even though HITS was designed to help with the appre-

hension of offenders, it is used by those who study homicide from an academic

perspective as well.

Similar to national data sets such as SHR and NVDRS, law enforcement agents,

coroners, and medical examiners report HITS data voluntarily. Additionally, prose-

cutor’s offices in each of Washington’s 39 counties, the Washington State Association

of Sheriffs and Police Chiefs Uniform Crime Reporting Unit, and the Washington

Justice Information Authority and Richard L. Block of Loyola University (1998) have

worked with the Chicago Police Department for many years on the Chicago homicide

data set. ICPSR reports that the Chicago data set is one of the largest, most comprehen-

sive data sets on violence established in the United States. There are nearly 23,000

homicides and 115 variables included in this data set that includes every homicide in

the Chicago police homicide files from 1965 to 1995. Like the SHR, the Chicago data set

is structured so criminologists can focus on victims, offenders, or incidents. In addition

to the information collected in the SHR, such as victim/offender relationship, type of

weapon, and circumstance, the Chicago data set includes information about the

offender’s previous criminal record and geographic variables, including the census

tract, community area, police district, and police area where the victim was found.

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34 The Murder Book: Examining Homicide

HOMICIDE DATA CONCERNS

Although there is much to learn from these data sets about homicide trends in the

United States, theories of criminal offending and victimization, and even homicide

investigation, the data sets are not perfect. Those who use these data sets and those

who read the studies and reports based on these data sets should know about some of

the problems. Two major concerns about homicide data sets are first, the problem of

incomplete or missing data and second, the accuracy of the data. First, the fact that

the editors of Homicide Studies, An Interdisciplinary and International Journal dedi-

cated their entire August 2004 issue to the problem of missing data should make it

clear that this is a serious concern for those of us who study homicide. However, as

James Alan Fox (2004) noted in his article in the Homicide Studies journal, the con-

cern about missing cases is less a problem for homicide researchers than those who

study other crimes.

Although we can never be absolutely certain, criminologists are more confident

that most homicides come to the attention of the police than they are that most lar-

ceny cases or even aggravated assaults are reported to the police. The fact that dead

bodies are the result of homicides makes it more likely that the crime of homicide

will be discovered. However, there are, of course, cases as discussed in the previous

chapter in which bodies are never found, and there is also the possibility that a mur-

der has been classified as an accidental death. Still, criminologists are generally more

confident about homicide data than other crime data.

State Department of Vital Statistics submit data to HITS. The HITS computer

system permits each agency to enter, search, and analyze their own information and

compare the crimes they have discovered with crimes occurring in other areas. The

attorney general’s office has also graciously allowed crime researchers to use this

data set.

OTHER DATA SETS

Dr. Eric Monkkonen (2001, 2005), a historian, contributed much to the study of

homicide by constructing homicide data sets for New York City and California that

include data for the years before the FBI began collecting UCR data in 1931. His New

York City data set includes homicide data for 1797 to 1999, and his Los Angeles

California data set covers 1830 to 2003. With the goal of obtaining the best estimates

of annual homicide counts and the most detailed information on individual homi-

cide cases, Monkkonen used various sources to build his data sets, including court

records, coroner’s reports, and newspapers. The data sets he built include variables

found in other data sets, such as age, sex, and race of the victim and offender, the type

of weapon used, and the date and location of the killing. In addition, like the public

health data sets, he included the birthplace of the offender and victim. Moreover, in

the New York data set, Monkkonen included information on arrests, trials, convic-

tions, and executions of the offenders.

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Homicide Data Concerns 35

Missing Data

Fox (2004) and others in the special issue of Homicide Studies address the bigger

issue of missing data for the study of homicide. Although the data sources may

show there has been a homicide, details about a homicide may be missing. The

circumstance or weapon information may be missing or, more likely, data about

the offender may be missing. Although missing information about offenders,

especially if the victim/offender relationship is that of a stranger, has been an

ongoing challenge for homicide researchers, the problem may be increasing as the

percentage of homicides that are solved has been decreasing in recent years

(Riedel, 2003). Cases that have not been cleared (another term for solved) usually

do not have information on the offender’s age, race, and sex simply because the

offender is unknown.

In the Homicide Studies journal, dedicated to the problem of missing homicide

data, Lynn Addington (2003) compared the amount of missing data for murder and

manslaughter characteristics in the SHR and NIBRS for 1999. She found that the

NIBRS and SHR data sets are similar in that they both have little missing information

for victim characteristics. For offender and victim/offender relationship informa-

tion, however, Addington found that the NIBRS data is more complete than the SHR.

In contrast, the data on weapons and murder circumstances in the SHR are more

complete than the same information in the NIBRS.

Data Inaccuracy

Although the problem is not an insidious one, occasionally data are recorded inaccu-

rately in the national homicide data sets. Fox (2003) provides an excellent example of

data that have been inaccurately coded. He notes that in 1977, a woman killed her

three stepchildren and her husband. Because the SHR allow only one relationship to

be recorded, all four victims were coded as stepdaughters. However, in actuality, this

was only accurate for two victims. The remaining two victims should have been

coded as a stepson and as a husband (Fox, 2003).

Homicide data inaccuracies that may be more difficult to detect are those that

have been reported by researchers who have compared police files to homicide data.

For example, Riedel (1999) notes that comparison between police records and SHR

data have found differences on all the variables including age. One reason for this

may be that specific SHR data cannot be updated.

Bias

Although not exactly a problem of missing or inaccurate data, an important

caveat about NIBRS data is that it may have a small agency bias. As noted in the

section on NIBRS, the program is voluntary, and thus not all law enforcement

agencies report. In fact, few large cities report to the NIBRS program. NIBRS-

reporting agencies tend to be smaller rather than larger law enforcement agencies.

Thus criminologists who use NIBRS to study homicide need to be careful about

generalizing their conclusions. In other words, if we draw conclusions about

homicide using NIBRS data, we must be careful not to assume that we can draw

the same conclusions for large cities.

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36 The Murder Book: Examining Homicide

TYPOLOGIES

Whereas in Chapter 2, I discussed the different legal definitions of homicide that

include typologies based on intent, criminologists who study homicide often divide

homicide into different types based on the relationship between the offender and the

victim or the circumstances surrounding the homicide. The rationale for dividing

homicides in these ways is that many homicide researchers have found that different

types of homicides call for different theories or explanations. It probably seems logi-

cal to you that the theories regarding the killing of husbands or wives may be differ-

ent than theories that explain the killing of an employer or a stranger. Likewise, a

killing in a “drug deal gone bad” is likely to be explained differently than a homicide

that occurs during a domestic dispute or a robbery.

Most large homicide data sets are set up so researchers can study particular homi-

cide circumstances and relationships or so a criminologist can compare different

CASE STUDIES

To better understand and learn about the details of homicide and to test individual-level

theories of homicide offending, criminologists often use the case study method. A case

study is an intensive study of a single case or number of cases. Often psychological

researchers take this approach, but others who study homicide also find this approach

enlightening. For a homicide researcher, a case study might involve an in-depth inter-

view with a homicide offender or it may involve collecting all the information possible

on a particular homicide incident or a number of events. Those who use the case study

method may conduct interviews with offenders, witnesses, and survivors; they may

observe trials, examine police and prison files, and collect newspaper accounts of events.

Researchers who use the case study method to study homicide gain rich details that may

contribute to our understanding of other cases or they may help us generate theoretical

understandings of homicide offenders. For example, Shipley and Arrigo (2004) employ

the case study method in their examination of Aileen Wuornos.

Despite the value of individual case studies, researchers must not generalize par-

ticular cases to all cases. In other words, just because we seem to gain an understand-

ing of one offender does not mean we will understand them all. Levin and Fox (1985)

point out that we must be careful in accepting any theories of homicide offending

that are generated from a study of one or a few cases. Often those killers who are

studied are the particularly bizarre offenders who may be very different from other

homicide offenders. For example, Levin and Fox (1985) discuss the use of the

MacDonald triad in predicting violence. The MacDonald triad refers to three factors

believed to be common in the childhood histories of homicide offenders: bedwet-

ting, fire starting, and the torture of small animals. (See Chapter 12 for more infor-

mation on the MacDonald triad.) Case studies of many homicide offenders find at

least one element of the MacDonald triad. However, Levin and Fox (1985) note that

many individuals who express all three aspects of the MacDonald triad do not

become murderers. We can learn much from individual cases, but we must be partic-

ularly careful in the generalization of these cases, especially when generating policy.

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Typologies 37

TABLE 3.3 SHR Homicide Relationship Codes

Code Relationship of Victim to Suspect

1 Husband

2 Wife

3 Common-law husband

4 Common-law wife

5 Mother

6 Father

7 Son

8 Daughter

9 Brother

10 Sister

11 In-law

12 Stepfather

13 Stepmother

14 Stepson

15 Stepdaughter

16 Other family

17 Neighbor

18 Acquaintance

19 Boyfriend

20 Girlfriend

21 Ex-husband

22 Ex-wife

23 Employee

24 Employer

25 Friend

26 Homosexual relationship

27 Other—known to victim

28 Stranger

88 Not applicable

99 Relationship unknown

Source: Compiled from FBI Uniform Crime Reporting Program and Supplementary

Homicide Report Data Standards or Guidelines.

circumstances and relationships. For example, in the SHR, in addition to an unknown

category and a not applicable category, there are 30 relationship codes (see Table 3.3). It

would seem to be a fairly complete list, but look at it closely. Think about how you

would code the murder of 24-year-old University of Richmond senior De’Nora Hill.

According to newspaper accounts, Hill was shot to death by her former boyfriend, Joe

Casuccio, in December 2005 (Bowes & Holmberg, 2005). How would you code Hill’s

relationship to Casuccio? At one time, she was his girlfriend, but this was no longer the

case. She filed a criminal complaint against him the week before she was killed, which

in all likelihood indicated that they were no longer friends, and “acquaintance” does not

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38 The Murder Book: Examining Homicide

TABLE 3.4 SHR Homicide Circumstance Options

Code Circumstances

2 Rape

3 Robbery

5 Burglary

6 Larceny

7 Motor vehicle theft

9 Arson

10 Prostitution and commercialized vice

17 Other sex offense

18 Narcotic drug laws

19 Gambling

26 Other felony type—not specified

32 Abortion

40 Lover’s triangle

41 Child killed by babysitter

42 Brawl due to influence of alcohol

43 Brawl due to influence of narcotics

44 Argument over money or property

45 Other arguments

46 Gangland killings

47 Juvenile gang killings

48 Institutional killings

49 Sniper attack

50 Victim shot in hunting accident

51 Gun-cleaning death, other than self-inflicted

52 Children playing with gun

53 Other negligent handling of gun

59 All other manslaughter by negligence except traffic deaths

60 Other nonfelony-type homicide

70 Suspected felony type

80 Felon killed by private citizen

81 Felon killed by police

88 Not applicable

99 Circumstances undetermined

Source: Compiled from Center for Disease Control data (Center for Disease Control, 2004).

seem to capture their relationship either. If a similar case were in the Chicago Homicide

Data (CHD) maintained by Dr. C. Becky Block, the relationship would be categorized

as ex-girlfriend. The CHD contains other relationships that are lacking in the SHR,

including customer, drug pusher, proprietor, and homosexual domestic relationship.

Table 3.4 includes the SHR circumstance codes. Like the relationship codes, much

is covered, and this data set has been very useful to hundreds of homicide researchers.

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REVISED

Chapter Questions 39

However, the categories are not what researchers call “exhaustive.” In other words, they

are not a list of every type of homicide circumstance that could happen. There is the

category “circumstances undetermined” and a few “other” categories, which may tech-

nically make the categorization exhaustive. However, there are also circumstances that

could be added to the SHR circumstances to make it a more complete listing in today’s

world. Take a close look at the list in Table 3.4 and see if you can think of any homicides

that do not fit the circumstances listed. Did you think of the 9/11 attacks on the World

Trade Center? Certainly the category of terrorism is one that unfortunately could be

added. In January 1999, the NCHS began using the tenth version of the International

Classification of Diseases (ICD–10) to code cause of death in the NDI. The ICD-10

homicide codes includes several for terrorism, as you can see in Table 3.2. The ICD-10

was the first to include deaths caused by terrorism. In addition to the other homicide

causes of death already listed in the ICD previous to the tenth version, ten types of

death by terrorism were included in this latest revision.

SUMMARY

This chapter provided an overview and comparison of different sources of U.S.

national homicide data, including the FBI’s Supplemental Homicide Reports, the FBI’s

relatively new National Incident-Based Reporting System, and the National Center for

Health Statistics National Death Index mortality files. Additional data sources com-

monly used by homicide researchers to study homicide in particular parts of the

United States, including Chicago, California, Washington, and New York, were also

reviewed. The use of case studies by some homicide researchers and common concerns

about homicide data were discussed. The chapter ended with a comparison of circum-

stances and relationships catalogued and not catalogued in these various sources.

CHAPTER QUESTIONS

1. What does SHR stand for?

2. What data are included in the SHR?

3. What does NIBRS stand for?

4. How is NIBRS different from the SHR?

5. Why is the NIBRS likely to be better than the SHR?

6. How many states are included in NIBRS?

7. How are the NDI and the NVDRS different from the other data sources included

in this chapter?

8. List at least two U.S. homicide data sources that are state or city specific.

9. What does HITS stand for, and what was the impetus behind this data source?

10. What are the two main concerns about homicide data?

11. What is a case study?

12. What must we be cautious when we use case studies to theorize about homicide

offending?

13. Name five relationship categories in the SHR.

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40 The Murder Book: Examining Homicide

REFERENCES

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Block, Carolyn Rebecca, Richard L. Block, and the Illinois Criminal Justice Information

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Bowes, Mark, and Mark Holmberg. 2005. “UR Student Killed by Ex-Boyfriend Gunman Kills

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Headley, Bernard. 2000. The Atlanta Youth Murders and the Politics of Race. Carbondale:

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14. What relationships are missing from the SHR?

15. Compare the circumstances listed for the ICD Death codes in Table 3.2 and that

for the SHR in Table 3.4. How do the circumstances listed differ, and what might

account for these differences?

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Riedel, Marc. 1999. “Sources of Homicide Data: A Review and Comparison.” In M. Dwayne

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De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.) /NOR <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> /PTB <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> /SUO <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> /SVE <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> /ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 5.0 and later.) >> /Namespace [ (Adobe) (Common) (1.0) ] /OtherNamespaces [ << /AsReaderSpreads false /CropImagesToFrames true /ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue /FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false /IncludeGuidesGrids false /IncludeNonPrinting false /IncludeSlug false /Namespace [ (Adobe) (InDesign) (4.0) ] /OmitPlacedBitmaps false /OmitPlacedEPS false /OmitPlacedPDF false /SimulateOverprint /Legacy >> << /AddBleedMarks false /AddColorBars false /AddCropMarks false /AddPageInfo false /AddRegMarks false /ConvertColors /ConvertToCMYK /DestinationProfileName () /DestinationProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK /Downsample16BitImages true /FlattenerPreset << /PresetSelector /MediumResolution >> /FormElements false /GenerateStructure false /IncludeBookmarks false /IncludeHyperlinks false /IncludeInteractive false /IncludeLayers false /IncludeProfiles false /MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings /Namespace [ (Adobe) (CreativeSuite) (2.0) ] /PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK /PreserveEditing true /UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged /UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile /UseDocumentBleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice