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Leadership Behavior and Motivation

Chapter 3 Part One: Individuals as Leaders

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Learning Outcomes

List the University of Iowa leadership styles.

Describe similarities and differences between the University of Michigan and Ohio State University leadership models.

Discuss similarities and differences between the Ohio State University Leadership Model and the Leadership Grid.

Discuss similarities and differences among the three content motivation theories.

Discuss the major similarities and differences among the three process motivation theories.

Explain the four types of reinforcement.

State the major differences among content, process, and reinforcement theories.

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Leadership Behavior

By the late 1940’s leadership research had shifted from trait theory paradigm to behavioral theory paradigm.

Focusing on what the leader says and does.

Researchers attempted to identify behavior of effective leaders.

Behavioral leadership theory made major contributions to leadership research.

But it found there is no ‘one’ best style of leadership.

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Leadership Behavior is Based on Traits

Leaders’ behavior is based on their traits and skills.

Directly affecting their behavior and relationship with employees.

Leading by example is important.

Behavior is easier to learn and change than traits.

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Leadership Style

Leadership style is the combination of traits, skills, and behaviors leaders use as they interact with followers.

While based on traits and skills, the important component of a leadership style is behavior.

Consistent patterns of behavior characterize a leader.

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University of Iowa Leadership Styles

Exhibit 3.1

Autocratic leadership style

The autocrat makes the decisions, tells employees what to do and closely supervises workers.

Democratic leadership style

The democrat encourages participation in decisions, allows the group to determine tasks and does not closely supervise employees.

A leader’s style usually falls somewhere between autocrat and democrat.

Exhibit 3.1

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University of Michigan Leadership Model

Created and used the Survey of Organizations.

The University of Michigan Leadership Model thus identifies two leadership styles: job-centered and employee-centered.

Job-Centered Leadership Style has scales measuring goal emphasis and work facilitation.

Employee-Centered Leadership Style has scales measuring supportive leadership and interaction facilitation.

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University of Michigan Leadership Model

Exhibit 3.2

Refers to the extent to which the leader takes charge to get the job done.

Refers to the extent to which the leader focuses on meeting employee needs and developing relationships.

Exhibit 3.2

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Ohio State University

Developed the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ).

Initiating structure behavior:

Same as job-centered – focuses on task completion.

Consideration behavior:

Same as employee-centered – focuses on meeting people’s needs and developing relationships.

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The Ohio State University Leadership Model

Exhibit 3.3

The Ohio State University Leadership Model identifies four leadership styles:

low structure and high consideration,

high structure and high consideration,

low structure and

low consideration, and

high structure and low consideration.

Exhibit 3.3

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Differences, Contributions, and Applications of Leadership Models

Differences between the models:

University of Michigan uses a continuum, making it one-dimensional while Ohio State considers the two behaviors independent, making it two-dimensional.

Contributions:

There is no one best leadership style in all situations.

Applications:

Self-assessment helps change behavior leading to more effective performance and relationships.

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Discussion Questions

Which leadership model do you prefer?

Do you agree with the University of Michigan model (with two leadership styles) or with the Ohio State model (with four leadership styles)?

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The Leadership Grid

The Leadership Grid builds on the Ohio State and Michigan studies.

Based on the same two leadership dimensions, here called:

Concern for production, and

Concern for people.

Measured on a scale from 1 to 9, giving 81 possible combinations of concern.

The Leadership Grid identifies five leadership styles: 1,1 impoverished; 9,1 authority compliance; 1,9 country club; 5,5 middle of the road; and 9,9 team leader.

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Blake, Mouton, and McCanse Leadership Grid

Exhibit 3.4

The impoverished leader (1,1) does the minimum required to remain employed.

The authority compliance leader (9,1) focuses on getting the job done but treats people like machines.

The country-club leader (1,9) maintains a friendly atmosphere without regard to production.

The middle-of-the-road leader (5,5) strives to maintain satisfactory performance and morale.

The team leader (9,9) strives for maximum performance and employee satisfaction.

Exhibit 3.4

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High-High Leader Research

The high-high leader has concern for both production and people, or

Team leadership style.

There is some support for the high-high leader style as the universal theory.

However, it is not accepted as the one best style in all situations.

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Discussion Question

Do you agree with the Leadership Grid’s claim that the one best leadership style is the team leader (9,9)?

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Behavioral Theory Contributions

Behavioral research led to the shift in paradigm to contingency leadership theory.

A second contribution was the recognition that organizations need both production and people leadership.

A third contribution supports coleadership.

One leader is production-oriented.

One leader is people-oriented.

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Leadership and Motivation Theories

Motivation is anything that affects behavior in pursuing a certain outcome.

Through the motivation process, people go from need to motive to behavior to consequence to satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

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The Motivation Process

Exhibit 3.5

Some need or want motivates all behavior.

Needs and motives are complex.

We don’t always know what our needs are.

Like traits, motives cannot be observed, but you can observe behavior and infer the person’s motive.

(attribution theory)

Exhibit 3.5

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Major Motivation Theories

Exhibit 3.5

Exhibit 3.6

To see the relationship between the theories, we will look at each separately then put them back together using the unifying motivation process.

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Content Motivation Theories

Hierarchy of needs theory

Process Motivation Theories

Equity theory

Reinforcement Theory

Two-factor theory

Acquired needs theory

Expectancy theory

Goal-setting theory

Positive

Avoidance

Extinction

Punishment

Content Motivation Theories

Content motivation theories focus on explaining and predicting behavior based on people’s needs. Includes:

Hierarchy of Needs Theory,

Two-Factor Theory, and

Acquired Needs Theory.

The key to successful leadership is to meet the needs of employees while achieving organizational objectives.

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Hierarchy of Needs Theory

In the 1940’s, Abraham Maslow developed his hierarchy of needs theory based on these four assumptions.

Only unmet needs motivate.

People’s needs are arranged in order of importance (hierarchy) from basic to complex.

No motivation to fulfill a higher-level need unless the lower-level need(s) are met.

People have five classifications of needs.

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Hierarchy of Needs

The hierarchy of needs theory proposes that people are motivated through five levels of needs.

Physiological needs – basic needs.

Safety needs – safety and security.

Belongingness needs – also called social needs.

Esteem needs – focuses on ego, status, self-respect.

Self-actualization needs – reach one’s full potential.

Today, Maslow and others realize needs are not on a simple five-step hierarchy.

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How Organizations Motivate With Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Exhibit 3.7

People have a need for more than just pay.

If there is no money for raises, provide inexpensive motivators such as compliments.

Leaders must meet employees’ lower-level needs so they do not dominate the motivational process.

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Two-Factor Theory

In the 1960’s Frederick Herzberg combined lower-level needs he called hygiene or maintenance.

Higher-level needs he called motivators.

The two-factor theory proposes that people are motivated by motivators rather than maintenance factors.

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Maintenance and Motivators

Maintenance factors

Also called extrinsic motivators.

Extrinsic motivators include:

Pay,

Job security,

Working conditions,

Fringe benefits, and

Relationships.

Motivators

Also called intrinsic motivators.

Intrinsic motivators include:

Achievement,

Recognition,

Challenge, and

Advancement.

Better motivators than extrinsic factors.

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Two-Factor Motivation Theory

Exhibit 3.8

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Motivating Employees With Two-Factor Theory

Money as a motivator:

Money will not necessarily motivate employees to work harder.

Motivating with the Two-Factor Theory:

Under the new paradigm, pay is important but the best motivators are intrinsic motivators.

Herzberg developed job enrichment, the process of building motivators into the job.

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Acquired Needs Theory

Acquired needs theory proposes that people are motivated by their need for achievement, power, and affiliation.

Motivating employees with a high n Ach:

Give them challenging tasks with clear objectives.

Motivating employees with a high n Pow:

Let them plan/control their jobs as much as possible.

Motivating employees with a high n Aff:

Let them work as part of a team.

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A Comparison of Content Motivation Theories

Exhibit 3.9

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Balancing Work-Life Needs

Work-life balance is also called work-home and work-family balance.

Life needs a healthy balance.

The global marketplace allows for around the clock work causing work-life conflict.

Two things organizations are doing:

Providing on-site day care centers, and

Offering flextime.

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Discussion Questions

Which of the three content motivation theories do you prefer?

Why?

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Process Motivation Theories

Process motivation theories focus on understanding how people choose behavior to fulfill their needs. Include:

Equity theory,

Expectancy theory, and

Goal-setting theory.

Process motivation theories are more complex than content motivation theories.

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Equity Theory

Equity theory proposes that people are motivated when their perceived inputs equal outputs.

People compare their inputs and outputs to that of relevant others and conclude if they are under-rewarded, over-rewarded, or equitably rewarded.

When inequity is perceived, employees attempt to correct the balance.

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Motivating With Equity Theory

When employees believe they are equitably rewarded, they are not actively motivated.

When employees feel under-rewarded, they are demotivated.

Equity theory offers useful information:

Equity is based on perception,

Reward equitably, and

Reward high performance.

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Expectancy Theory

Based on Victor Vroom’s formula:

motivation = expectancy x instrumentality x valence

Expectancy theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can accomplish the task, they will get the reward, and the rewards for doing the task are worth the effort.

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Expectancy Theory Assumptions:

Internal and external factors affect behavior.

Behavior is the individual’s decision.

People’s needs, desires and goals differ.

People make behavior decisions based on their perceptions of outcomes.

Expectancy Theory – Three Variables

All three variables must be met in Vroom’s formula for motivation to take place:

Expectancy refers to the person’s perception of his/her ability (probability) to accomplish an objective – self-efficacy.

Instrumentality refers to belief that the performance will result in getting the reward.

Valence refers to the value a person places on the outcome or reward.

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Motivating With Expectancy Theory

These conditions result in motivation:

Clearly defined objectives and the performance needed to achieve them,

Tie performance to rewards,

Be sure rewards are of value to employees,

Make sure employees believe you will do what you say you will do, and

Use the Pygmalion effect to increase expectations.

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Goal-Setting Theory

Goal-setting theory proposes that specific, difficult goals motivate people.

Writing objectives model are

(1) To + (2) action verb + (3) singular, specific, and measurable result to be achieved + (4) target date.

Goal setting might be the most effective management tool available.

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Writing Effective Objectives Model

Model 3.1

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Criteria for Objectives

Effective objectives meet these four criteria:

Singular result,

Each objective should have only one end result,

Specific,

The objective should state exact expectations,

Measurable,

Must be observable and measurable, and

Target date,

A specific date set for accomplishing the objective.

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Criteria Continued

In addition to the four criteria from the model, there are three other criteria that do not always fit within the model.

Difficult but achievable – should be challenging.

Participatively set – people who help set their objectives outperform those who don’t – gains commitment.

Commitment – for objectives to be met, employees must accept them – participating helps.

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Discussion Question

Which of the three process motivation theories do you prefer?

Why?

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Components of Reinforcement

Exhibit 3.10

B. F. Skinner believed managers needed to understand the relationship between behaviors and their consequences, and then arrange contingencies that reinforce desirable behaviors and discourage undesirable behaviors.

Exhibit 3.10

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Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement theory proposes that through the consequences for behavior, people will be motivated to behave in predetermined ways.

Uses behavior modification and operant conditioning.

Two important concepts used to modify behavior are the types of reinforcement and the schedules of reinforcement.

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Types of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement:

Offer attractive consequences.

Avoidance reinforcement:

Also called negative reinforcement,

Employee avoids negative consequence.

Extinction:

Withhold reinforcement when behavior occurs.

Punishment:

Undesirable consequence.

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Types of Reinforcement

Exhibit 3.11

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Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement:

Every desired behavior is reinforced.

Intermittent reinforcement:

When based on time – interval schedule,

When based on output – ratio schedule.

Fixed interval – consistent schedule of pay, etc.

Variable interval – praise now and then.

Fixed ratio schedule – scheduled bonus.

Variable ratio schedule – praise for excellent work.

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Motivating with Reinforcement

You get what you reinforce.

General guidelines for using reinforcement:

Set clear objectives,

Select appropriate reinforcement,

Select appropriate reinforcement schedule,

Do not reward mediocre or poor work,

Look for positives and give praise,

Give sincere praise every day, and

Do things for your employees, instead of to them.

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Changing Behavior

Tips on using reinforcement:

Use goal-setting theory to set objectives, and

Set specifics for your plan.

Develop your plan by:

Reducing other life stress,

Plan to avoid deviance from your plan,

Expect setbacks,

Plan your reinforcement – have punishments for undesirable behavior.

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Giving Praise

Giving praise creates a win-win situation.

The steps in the giving praise model are (1) tell the employee exactly what was done correctly, (2) tell the employee why the behavior is important, (3) stop for a moment of silence, and (4) encourage repeat performance.

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Giving Praise

Model 3.2

Make eye contact, be specific and descriptive.

State benefits, tell how you feel, be specific and descriptive.

Gives employee a chance to “feel” impact of the praise.

Motivates employee to continue desired behavior.

Model 3.2

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Discussion Questions

Reinforcement theory is unethical because it is used to manipulate employees.

Do you agree with this statement?

Which type and schedule of reinforcement do you plan to use most often as a leader?

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Loops back because behavior is learned through consequences.

Content Motivation Theories

Process Motivation Theories

Employee action to satisfy need

Reinforcement Theory

Degree to which the need is met

Loops back because meeting needs is ongoing.

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Need

Motive

Behavior

Consequence

Satisfaction

Putting Motivation Theories Together

Motivation helps explain why employees behave the way they do.

The groups of theories are complementary.

Each group of theories refers to a different stage in the motivation process.

Each group of theories answers a different question.

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Questions Answered by Theory Group

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Content Motivation Theories

What needs do employees have that should be met on the job?

Process Motivation Theories

How do employees choose behavior to fulfill their needs?

Reinforcement Theory

What can mangers do to get employees to behave in ways that meet the organizational objectives?

Key Terms

acquired needs theory

content motivation theories

equity theory

expectancy theory

giving praise model

goal-setting theory

hierarchy of needs theory

leadership grid

leadership style

motivation

motivation process

Ohio State University leadership model

process motivation theories

reinforcement theory

two-factor theory

University of Michigan leadership model

writing objectives model

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