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Essentials of Sociology: A Down-To-Earth Approach

TWELFTH EDITION

Chapter 2

Culture

Learning Objectives (1 of 3)

2.1 Explain what culture is, how culture provides orientations to life, and what practicing cultural relativism means

2.2 Know the components of symbolic culture: gestures, language, values, norms, sanctions, folkways, mores, and taboos; also explain the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

2.3 Distinguish between subcultures and countercultures

2.4 Discuss the major U.S. values and explain value clusters, value contradictions, value clashes, how values are lenses of perception, and ideal versus real culture

Learning Objectives (3 of 3)

2.5 Take a position on the issue of the existence of cultural universals and contrast sociobiology with sociology

2.6 Explain how technology changes culture and what cultural lag and cultural leveling are

LO 2.1 What Is Culture?

Culture and Taken-for-Granted Orientations to Life

Practicing Cultural Relativism

LO 2.1—Culture and Taken-for-Granted Orientations to Life (1 of 2)

What is Normal, Natural, or Usual?

The Culture Within Us

Culture as Lens

Culture Shock

Ethnocentrism

LO 2.1—Culture and Taken-for-Granted Orientations to Life (2 of 2)

What a tremendous photo for sociologists! Seldom are we treated to such cultural contrasts. Can you see how the cultures of these women have given them not only different orientations concerning the presentation of their bodies but also of gender relations?

LO 2.1—Practicing Cultural Relativism (1 of 4)

Understanding Cultures on Their Own Terms

“Sick Cultures” − Robert Edgerton

Confronting Contrasting Views of Reality

LO 2.1—Practicing Cultural Relativism (2 of 4)

Many Americans perceive bullfighting as a cruel activity that should be illegal everywhere. To most Spaniards, bullfighting is a sport that pits matador and bull in a unifying image of power, courage, and glory. Cultural relativism requires that we suspend our own perspectives in order to grasp the perspectives of others, something easier described than attained.

LO 2.1—Practicing Cultural Relativism (3 of 4)

What some consider food, even delicacies, can turn the stomach of others. Grilled guinea pigs are served in restaurants in the Peruvian Andes.

LO 2.1—Practicing Cultural Relativism (4 of 4)

Standards of beauty vary so greatly from one culture to another that what one group finds attractive, another may not. Yet, in its ethnocentrism, each group thinks that its standards are the best—that the appearance reflects what beauty “really” is.

As indicated by these photos, around the world men and women aspire to their group’s norms of physical attractiveness. To make themselves appealing to others, they try to make their appearance reflect those standards.

LO 2.2 Components of Symbolic Culture

Gestures

Language

Language and Perception: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Values, Norms, and Sanctions

Folkways, Mores, and Taboos

LO 2.2—Gestures (1 of 2)

Conveying Messages without Words

Gestures’ Meanings Differ Among Cultures

Can Lead to Misunderstandings

Is it really true that there are no universal gestures?

Figure 2.1 Gestures to Indicate Height, Southern Mexico

Source: By the author.

It is helpful for complex images (i.e., charts and graphs) to have descriptive text near the image (perhaps as a caption or in the Notes field). They would still require alt text.

LO 2.2—Gestures (2 of 2)

Although most gestures are learned, and therefore vary from culture to culture, some gestures that represent fundamental emotions such as sadness, anger, and fear appear to be inborn. This crying child whom I photographed in India differs little from a crying child in China—or the United States or anywhere else on the globe. In a few years, however, this child will demonstrate a variety of gestures highly specific to his Hindu culture.

LO 2.2—Language (1 of 2)

Allows Cumulative Human Experience

Provides Social or Shared Past

Provides Social or Shared Future

Allows Shared Perspective

Allows Complex, Shared, Goal-Directed Behavior

LO 2.2—Language (2 of 2)

Mural from Miami.

LO 2.2—Language and Perception: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Language Has Embedded Within It Ways of Looking at the World

Sapir-Whorf Reverses Common Sense

LO 2.2—Values, Norms, and Sanctions (1 of 3)

Values − What is Desirable in Life

Norms − Expectations or Rules for Behavior

Sanctions − Reaction to Following or Breaking Norms

Positive & Negative Sanctions

Moral Holidays and Places

LO 2.2—Values, Norms, and Sanctions (2 of 3)

Many societies relax their norms during specified occasions. At these times, known as moral holidays, behavior that is ordinarily not permitted is allowed. This photo was taken at Mardis Gras in New Orleans. When a moral holiday is over, the usual enforcement of rules follows.

LO 2.2—Values, Norms, and Sanctions (3 of 3)

The ethnic terms we choose—or which are given to us—are major self-identifiers. They indicate both membership in some particular group and a separation from other groups.

LO 2.2—Folkways, Mores, and Taboos (1 of 2)

Folkways − Norms not Strictly Enforced

Mores − Core Values: We Insist on Conformity

Taboos

LO 2.2—Folkways, Mores, and Taboos (2 of 2)

The violation of mores is a serious matter. In this case, it is serious enough that the security at a football match in Edmonton, Alberta (Canada), have swung into action to protect the public from seeing a “disgraceful” sight, at least one so designated by this group.

LO 2.3 Many Cultural Worlds

Subcultures

Countercultures

LO 2.3—Subcultures (1 of 9)

Subculture − A World Within the Dominant Culture

LO 2.3—Subcultures (2 of 9)

Each subculture provides its members with values and distinctive ways of viewing the world. What values and perceptions do you think are common among body builders?

LO 2.3—Subcultures (3 of 9)

Membership in this subculture is not easily awarded. Not only must high-steel ironworkers prove that they are able to work at great heights but also that they fit into the group socially. Newcomers are tested by members of the group, and they must demonstrate that they can take joking without offense.

LO 2.3—Subcultures (4 of 9)

Specialized values and interests are two of the characteristics that mark subcultures. What values and interests distinguish the modeling subculture?

LO 2.3—Subcultures (5 of 9)

The subculture that centers around tattooing previously existed on the fringes of society, with seamen and circus folk its main participants. It now has entered mainstream society, but not to this extreme.

LO 2.3—Subcultures (6 of 9)

With their specialized language and activities, surfers are highly recognized as members of a subculture. This surfer is “in the tube.”

LO 2.3—Subcultures (7 of 9)

The cabbies’ subculture, centering on their occupational activities and interests, is also broken into smaller subcultures that reflect their experiences of race–ethnicity.

LO 2.3—Subcultures (8 of 9)

Why would anyone decorate herself like this? Among the many reasons, one is to show solidarity (appreciation, shared interest) with the subculture that centers on comic book characters.

LO 2.3—Subcultures (9 of 9)

Even subcultures can have subcultures. The rodeo subculture is a subculture of “western” subculture. The values that unite its members are reflected in their speech, clothing, and specialized activities, such as the one shown here.

LO 2.3—Countercultures

Countercultures − Groups With Norms and Values at Odds With the Dominant Culture

LO 2.4 Values in U.S. Society

An Overview of U.S. Values

Value Clusters

Value Contradictions

An Emerging Value Cluster

When Values Clash

Values as Distorting Lenses

“Ideal” Versus “Real” Culture

LO 2.4—An Overview of U.S. Values (1 of 2)

Achievement and Success

Individualism

Hard Work

Efficiency and Practicality

Science and Technology

Material Comfort

Freedom

LO 2.4—An Overview of U.S. Values (2 of 2)

Democracy

Equality

Group Superiority

Education

Religiosity

Romantic Love

LO 2.4—Value Clusters

Success

Education

Hard work

Material comfort

Individualism

LO 2.4—Value Contradictions

U.S. values group superiority?

Change over time

LO 2.4—An Emerging Value Cluster (1 of 2)

Leisure

Self-fulfillment

Physical Fitness

Youthfulness

Concern for the Environment

LO 2.4—An Emerging Value Cluster (2 of 2)

Physical fitness, as with this Zumba class, is part of an emerging value cluster.

LO 2.4—When Values Clash

Culture Wars

LO 2.4—Values as Distorting Lenses (1 of 2)

What society “ought” to be like

LO 2.4—Values as Distorting Lenses (2 of 2)

Values, both those held by individuals and those that represent a nation or people, can undergo deep shifts. It is difficult for many of us to grasp the pride with which earlier Americans destroyed trees that took thousands of years to grow, are located only on one tiny speck of the globe, and that we today consider part of the nation’s and world’s heritage. But this is a value statement, representing current views. The pride expressed on these woodcutters’ faces represents another set of values entirely.

LO 2.4—“Ideal” Versus “Real” Culture

Ideal: What a group considers worth aiming for

Real: What people actually do

LO 2.5 Cultural Universals (1 of 2)

Some Activities are Universal − Courtship, Marriage, Funerals, Games

Present in all cultures, but the specific customs differ from one group to another

What are some examples of activities that you think might differ from culture to culture?

What activities might be the same?

LO 2.5 Cultural Universals (2 of 2)

Unlike this beautiful ant, we humans are not controlled by instincts. Sociobiologists, though, are exploring the extent to which genes influence our behavior.

LO 2.6 Technology in the Global Village

The New Technology

Cultural Lag and Cultural Change

Technology and Cultural Leveling

LO 2.6—The New Technology (1 of 2)

Technology

New Technology

LO 2.6—The New Technology (2 of 2)

Language is the basis of human culture. Our new technology makes it easy to talk with people across the globe, something new in human history. This development is changing cultures. Shown here is a Kayapo Indian talking on his cell phone at the National Indigenous Mobilization conference in Brazil.

LO 2.6—Cultural Lag and Cultural Change (1 of 2)

Cultural Lag

Cultural Change

LO 2.6—Cultural Lag and Cultural Change (2 of 2)

Technological advances are now so rapid that there can be cultural gaps between generations.

LO 2.6—Technology and Cultural Leveling (1 of 2)

Cultural Leveling

LO 2.6—Technology and Cultural Leveling (2 of 2)

Cultural leveling is occurring rapidly, with some strange twists. These men from an Amazon tribe, who have just come back from a week hunting in the jungle, are wearing traditional headdress and using traditional weapons, but you can easily spot something else that is jarringly out of place.