wa2 summary

12/28/2021

1

Chapter Two: Defining Crimes and Measuring Criminal Behavior

-Slides and data in this outline are from Adler, Mueller, and Laufer (2007, 2013, 2018 & 2022); Siegel (2015); and modified by Manning (2007, 2013, 2015, 2018

& 2022).

Scared Straight Program – 1978 Rahway Max Prison

-Politically motivated –fit the get tough on crime bill

-Three year post experiment study shows evidence must be evidence based

-Criminologists embrace a systematic empirical study of the nature and extent of crime.

Example of successful criminology research based policy:

-Domestic violence research between 1981-82 shows police counseling and temporary separation was not effective.

-Now there are more mandatory arrest being made.

7 Basic Requirements for an Act to be a Crime Defense must prove failure of a basic requirement

• 1. The act requirement – mind & Body • Conscious act not an unconscious act or reaction • Not a status or condition

• 2. The legality requirement – prohibited by law • Thoughts without action – no crime • Choosing to not fill out sex registration forms – is a crime • Good Samaritan?

• 3. The harm requirement

• 4. The causation requirement • Behavior in question caused the harm – not a 3rd party

• 5. The mens rea requirement (guilty mind)

• 6. The concurrence requirement • Must be a criminal act with criminal intent (Ex: striker – rock –window) • Exceptions – felony murder

• 7. The punishment requirement – its must already exist

12/28/2021

2

Criminal defense negates basic ingredients of crime.

• Crime – must be known to the police

• Not all crimes reported are cleared

• DA will not always prosecute

• Defense negation of crime elements examples: • Insanity defense; legality requirement lacking; duress, self-defense.

• State tries cases on behalf of the state • Victims can file civil law suits for pain and suffering

Typologies of Crime

• The French created the following three categories accepted worldwide • Felonies - severe

• Misdemeanors – minor

• Violation - fines

• As Criminologist we will also focus on the following • Violent crime

• Crimes against property

• White collar and corporate crime

• Drug, alcohol and sex-related crime

12/28/2021

3

Reasons for Measuring Crime

• Researchers collect and analyze data to test theories about why people commit crime.

• Researchers and criminal justice agencies need to enhance their knowledge of the characteristics of various types of offenses.

• Criminal justice agencies depend on certain information to facilitate daily operations and anticipate future needs.

The Research Process

• Topic – research question

• Theory: is a set of principles that explain how 2 or more phenomena are related • May choose to use a hypothesis or not.

• Methodology (qualitative vs. quantitative) • Will you use secondary data or primary data

• Analysis • What did you do, findings, discussions and conclusions

12/28/2021

4

Exploring and defining the Thesis Process

• Abstract

• Introduction

• Methodology – Analysis of secondary data

• Theory

• Methodology – Exploration of primary data

• Findings

• Discussion and Conclusions

• References

Methodologies used to Collect Primary Data on Crime

• 1. Survey Research • And interviews

• 2. Experiments

• 3. Observation

• 4. Participant Observation

• 5. Case Studies

12/28/2021

5

Surveys and interviews explored

• The systematic collection of respondents’ answers to questions asked in questionnaires or interviews.

• Population

• Sample

• Random Sample

Experiments

• An investigator introduces a change into a process and makes measurements or observations in order to evaluate the effects of the change.

• Variables: • Independent Variable A causes Dependent Variable B to Change

• Control Group • Pretest and post test

12/28/2021

6

Participant and Non-Participant Observation

• In participant observation the researcher may join and participate in the activities of the group being studied.

• In observational research the researcher observes the group being studies but is not a participant in the activities.

• This process may be used to study criminals, prisoners, prosecutors, or police officers.

Case Studies

• A case study is an analysis of all pertinent aspects of one unit of study, such as an individual, an institution, a group or a community.

• Sources of information may be life histories, biographies, diaries, journals, letters, and other records. • Edwin Sutherlands “The Professional Thief”

12/28/2021

7

Ethics and Research in Criminology researcher responsibilities studying “vulnerable populations”

• Should the results of interviews be published?

• If the research does not disclose names could the participant be obstructing justice?

• Is there confidentiality for a criminal suspect?

• Does a researcher have to turn over his/her files if requested by the police or court?

• Should criminologists be immune from prosecution?

• Is it possible to develop a technique that can ensure against identification of the subjects in a file? • Informed consent, avoid invasion of privacy • Do no harm: mental, physical or financial harms

Major Sources of Crime Information

• Uniform Crime Report (UCR) - Part I and Part II offenses • Published by the Federal Bureau of Investigation

• J. Edgar Hoover given permission in 1930 (FBI)

• Part II offenses • 21 crimes (all non part I except traffic violations)

• Ex: fraud, embezzlement, weapons, vandalism, simple assaults, sex crimes, drugs, gambling, disorderly conduct and vagrancy.

• National Crime Victimization Survey

• Self-Report Studies

12/28/2021

8

FBI Part I Index Offenses

• Strengths • Most consistent source of homicides and arrests

• Weakness • Many crimes not reported, there are reporting errors, most drug crimes omitted, white collar crimes omitted. • Does not differentiate between attempted and completed. • Cleared only means an arrest was made.

Crimes against the person -Murder -Rape -Assault -Robbery

Crimes against property -Burglary -Larceny -Motor Vehicle Theft -Arson

Victimization Surveys

• National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

• Measure the extent of crime by interviewing individuals about their experiences as victims.

• Published by the Bureau of Justice Statistics

• 90,000 households, 160,000 people • Cycle reports every three years.

• Covers time, place, offenders, weapons etc.

• Strengths: • includes crimes not reported, careful sampling of gen. pop.

• Weakness: relies on victims memory and honesty (telescoping). • One index crime not included- which one?

12/28/2021

9

Self-Report Surveys

• A self-report study ask people to report their own criminal acts in a confidential interview or, more commonly, on an anonymous questionnaire.

• These reports have demonstrated very high rates of law-violating behavior by seemingly law-abiding people. • Most violate some laws.

• Strengths: • includes non reported crimes, substance abuse and personal information.

• Weakness: • focus on petty crimes • Honesty of self-reporting participants.

Crime Trends • Crimes rose slowly between 1930-60. • Rose fast from 1960-1980 and then dropped till 1984. • Peeked: rose until 1991. • Crimes have been decreasing since 1991.

• Between 2014 and 2018 there was a 4.7% increase in violent crimes with a 14.6% decrease in property crimes (Adler, Mueller, & Laufer, 2022, p. 44).

• More crime happens in the Southern states. • More crime in urban areas • More victimization within five miles of home and in your own home • 50% violent crimes happen between 6 a.m. – 6 p.m.

• 67% of sexual assaults, household larcenies, and 75% of motor vehicle theft happens at night.

• While most juvenile crimes occur after school 3 p.m. – 7 p.m.

12/28/2021

10

Age and Crime

• Peek Crimes years 16-24 • Siegel (2015) says 16 for property crime and

• 18 for violent crime

• Half of all arrest are of individual under age 25

• Juveniles account for 15% of all index crimes in 2006 at 8% of pop. • 25% of larceny theft and 50% of all arson arrests.

• Arrest rates decline after age 30

Aging Out Vs. Life Course Perspectives

• Aging out phenomenon • Too old for crime – employment and relationships.

• Life Course: environmental factors • Class, poverty, unemployment, peers and opportunity

• Chronic Offenders – a study of Philadelphia youth born in 1945 • 1972 publication on the males (9,945)

• 35% contact with police by age 18, 46% of the offenders were one time offenders, 18% five or more which was 6% of the total group studied know as the Chronic 6%.

• The females (14,000

• 14% police contact by age 18, of those 60% one time offenders, 33% repeat and 7% of total group were chronic offenders

• Less violent crimes.

12/28/2021

11

Sex and Crime

• Males commit more crimes than females at all ages

• Arrest ratio: 3:1 however, the gap is closing

• 1960s females accounted for only 11% of total arrests. • 2013 textbook stated 23% and now its 35% (Adler, Mueller & Laufer, 2022).

• Female crimes are rising faster then the rate of boys.

• What Three offences do women commit more than men? • Prostitution, shoplifting, and welfare fraud.

• Explanation: as women's social, economic and political power increases so has their criminal activity (movies: wonder women and star war Jedi). • While more poor and more patriarchal families tend to restrict girls roles.

Race and Crime

• Blacks constitute 12.1% of USA pop. Yet 27% of all arrest for index crimes (Adler, Mueller, & Laufer, 2022). • 50% of black urban males are arrested for an index crime once in their

lifetime compared to 14% of white males. • 18% of blacks serve some time in prison but only 3% of white males. • Blacks have a higher risk of death do to violence.

• Debating the explanations: • Does it represent a bias CJ system? Or do Blacks commit more crimes? • While debates over class and crime remains controversial there is no debate

over the class of those in prison? Most made less then $5,600 before prison. • Lower class commit more serious crimes (burglary, robbery, assaults and

sexual assaults).