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CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN HAZARD ANALYSIS/PREVENTION AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT
MAJOR TOPICS
▶ Overview of Hazard Analysis ▶ Preliminary Hazard Analysis ▶ Detailed Hazard Analysis ▶ Hazard Prevention and Deterrence ▶ OSHA Process Safety Standard ▶ Risk Assessment ▶ Safety Management Concerns ▶ Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems
There is a saying that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. This is certainly the case with
workplace safety and health. Every accident that can be prevented should be prevented. Every hazard
that can be identified should be corrected or at least minimized through the introduction of appropriate
safeguards. Careful analysis of potential hazards in the workplace has led to many of today’s widely used
safety measures and practices.
The key to preventing accidents is identifying and eliminating hazards. A hazard may be defined as
follows:
A hazard is a condition or combination of conditions that, if left uncorrected, may lead to an accident,
illness, or property damage.
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This chapter provides prospective and practicing safety and health professionals with the information
they need to analyze the workplace, identify hazards that exist there, and take the preventive measures
necessary to neutralize the hazards.
OVERVIEW OF HAZARD ANALYSIS
FIGURE 27–1 Two approaches to hazard analysis.
If a hazard is a condition that could lead to an injury or illness, hazard analysis is a systematic process of
identifying hazards and recommending corrective action. There are two approaches to hazard analysis:
preliminary and detailed (Figure 27–1). A preliminary hazard analysis (PHA) is conducted to identify
potential hazards and prioritize them according to
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the (1) likelihood of an accident or injury being caused by the hazard and (2) severity of injury, illness, or
property damage that could result if the hazard caused an accident.
FIGURE 27–2 Detailed hazard analysis methods.
Whereas a preliminary analysis may involve just observation or pilot testing of new equipment and
systems, the detailed hazard analysis involves the application of analytical, inductive, and deductive
methods. Figure 27–2 lists some of the more widely used methods for conducting a detailed hazard
analysis. Each of these methods is covered at length later in this chapter.
PRELIMINARY HAZARD ANALYSIS
It is not always feasible to wait until all the data are compiled from a detailed analysis before taking steps
to identify and eliminate hazards. For example, when a new system or piece of equipment is installed, the
management probably wants to bring it on line as soon as possible. In such cases, a PHA is in order. The
PHA can serve two purposes: (1) it can expedite bringing the new system on line, but at a substantially
reduced risk of injuring workers and (2) it can serve as a guide for a future detailed analysis.
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PHA amounts to forming an ad hoc team of experienced personnel who are familiar with the equipment,
material, substance, or process being analyzed. Experience and related expertise are important factors in
conducting a preliminary review. For example, say a new piece of equipment, such as a computer
numerically controlled (CNC) machining center, is installed. The safety and health professional may form
a team that includes an experienced machinist, an electrician, a materials expert, and a computer control
specialist.
All members of the team are asked to look over the machining center for obvious hazards relating to their
respective areas of expertise. Then, they work together as a group to play devil’s advocate. Each team
member asks the others a series of “what if ” questions: What if a cutting bit breaks? What if the wrong
command is entered? What if the material stock is too long? Depending on the nature of the process being
analyzed, personnel from adjacent or related processes should be added to the team.
Figure 27–3 is an example of a job hazard analysis survey adapted from one developed by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. A preliminary analysis team would use this form to identify
potential hazards associated with a spray-painting process. Key elements include the substances to which
workers will be exposed, the form that those substances will take, the probable route of entry, and
recommended hazard control strategies. A similar form can be developed for any process or operation
that may be the focus of a PHA.
Cost–Benefit Factors in Hazard Analysis
Every hazard typically has several different remedies. Every remedy has a corresponding cost and
corresponding benefit. Management is not likely to want to apply $10 solutions to $1 problems. Therefore,
it is important to factor in cost when recommending corrective action regarding hazards. This amounts to
listing all of the potential remedies along with their respective costs and then estimating the extent to
which each will reduce the hazard (its benefit).
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FIGURE 27–3 Sample job hazard analysis survey.
Going back to the earlier example of the CNC machining center, assume that the analysis team identified
the following potential hazards:
■ Lubricants sprayed on the machine operator or floor
■ Flying metal chips hitting the operator or other workers
■ Jammed metal stock kicking back into the operator
Figure 27–4 is a matrix that may be developed by the analysis team to illustrate the cost of each hazard
versus the benefit of each remedy. After examining this matrix, the remedy that makes the most sense
from the perspective of both cost and impact on the hazards is the Plexiglas(tm) door. It eliminates two of
the hazards and reduces the third. The flexible curtain costs less but does not have a sufficient impact on
the hazards. The third and fourth options cost more and have less impact on the hazards.
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FIGURE 27–4 Sample cost–benefit analysis matrix.
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DETAILED HAZARD ANALYSIS
Typically, a PHA is sufficient. However, in cases where the potential exists for serious injury, multiple
injuries, or catastrophic illness, a detailed hazard analysis is conducted. A number of different methods
can be used for conducting detailed analyses. The most widely used of these are as follows:
■ Failure mode and effects of analysis (FMEA)
■ Hazard and operability review (HAZOP)
■ Human error analysis (HEA)
■ Technique of operations review (TOR)
■ Fault tree analysis (FTA)
■ Risk analysis
Failure Mode and Effects of Analysis
Failure mode and effects of analysis (FMEA) is a formal step-by-step analytical method that is a spin-off of
reliability analysis, a method used to analyze complex engineering systems. FMEA proceeds as follows:
1. Critically examine the system in question.
2. Divide the system into its various components.
3. Examine each individual component and record all of the various ways in which the components may
fail. Rate each potential failure according to the degree of hazard posed (0 = No hazard, 1 = Slight, 2 =
Moderate, 3 = Extreme, 4 = Severe).
4. Examine all potential failures for each individual component of the system and decide what effect the
failures could have.
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Figure 27–5 is an example of an FMEA conducted on a direct extrusion process. The process or system is
broken down into seven components: die backer, die, billet, dummy block, pressing stem, container liner,
and container fillet. The types of failures that may occur are identified as corrosion, cracking, shattering,
bending, and surface wear. Of the various components, only the dummy block poses an extreme hazard
and a corresponding hazard to workers.
An FMEA produces an extensive analysis of a specific process or system, as illustrated in Figure 27–5.
However, FMEAs have their limitations. First, the element of human error is missing. This is a major
weakness because human error is more frequently at the heart of a workplace accident than is system or
process failure. This weakness can be overcome by coupling HEA, which is covered later in this chapter,
with an FMEA. Second, FMEAs focus on the components of a given system as if the components operate in
a vacuum. They do not take into account the interface mechanisms between components or between
systems. It is at these interface points that problems often occur.
Discussion Case: What Is Your Opinion?
Mike Chinchar is the new safety director at MicroTel Corporation. He completed his college degree just six
weeks ago. At the moment, he is wishing he could transport himself back in time and be a college student
again. Chinchar is on the hot seat. “Chinchar, you seem to think that this company should simply stop
functioning every time you identify a hazard. This situation you are proposing will be expensive! Isn’t
there some other way to solve the problem? Did you do a cost–benefit analysis before arriving at this
recommendation?” What types of factors should Chinchar have considered before recommending a
solution to a hazardous situation? What is your opinion?
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FIGURE 27–5 Sample FMEA.
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Hazard and Operability Review
Hazard and operability review (HAZOP) is an analysis method that was developed for use with new
processes in the chemical industry. Its strength is that it allows problems to be identified even before a
body of experience has been developed for a given process or system. Although originally intended for
use with new processes, it need not be limited to new operations. HAZOP works equally well with old
processes and systems.
HAZOP consists of forming a team of experienced, knowledgeable people from a variety of backgrounds
relating to the process or system and having team members brainstorm about potential hazards. The
safety and health professional should chair the team and serve as a facilitator. The chair’s role is to elicit
and record the ideas of team members, make sure that one member does not dominate or intimidate
other members, encourage maximum participation from all members, and assist members in combining
ideas where appropriate to form better ideas.
A variety of approaches can be used with HAZOP. The one recommended by the American Institute of
Chemical Engineers (AICHE) is probably the most widely used. AICHE recommends the following
guidewords: no, less, more, part of, as well as, reverse, and other than.
These guidewords relate to the operation of a specific component in the system or a specific part of an
overall operation. They describe ways in which the component may deviate from its design or its intended
mode of operation. For example, if a component that should rotate 38° in a cycle fails to rotate at all, the
no guideword applies. If it rotates less than 38°, the less guideword applies. More would apply if the
component’s rotation exceeded 38°. Reverse would be used if the component rotated 38° in a direction
opposite of the one intended. As well as is similar to more in that it indicates an increase in an intended
amount. Other than is used when what actually occurs is something completely different from what was
intended. For example, if the component fell off rather than rotating 38°, other than would be used.
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A HAZOP proceeds in a step-by-step manner. These steps are summarized as follows:
1. Select the process or system to be analyzed.
2. Form the team of experts.
3. Explain the HAZOP process to all team members.
4. Establish goals and timeframes.
5. Conduct brainstorming sessions.
6. Summarize all input.
Figure 27–6 is an example of a form that can be used to help organize and focus brainstorming sessions. It
can also be used for summarizing the results of the brainstorming sessions. This particular example
involves a plastic-mixing process. Only one component in the process (flow-gate number 1) has been
analyzed. If the flow-gate does not work as intended, there will be no flow, too little flow, or too much
flow. Each condition results in a specific problem. Action necessary to correct each situation has been
recommended. Every critical point, sometimes referred to as a node, in the process is analyzed in a
similar manner.
HAZOPs have the same weaknesses as FMEAs—they do not factor human error into the equation. HAZOPs
predict problems associated with system or process failures. However, these are technological failures.
Because human error is so often a factor in accidents, this weakness must be addressed. The next section
sets forth guidelines for analyzing human error.
Human Error Analysis
Human error analysis (HEA) is used to predict human error, not to review what has occurred. Although
the records of past accidents can be studied to identify trends that can, in turn, be used to predict
accidents, this should be done as part of an accident investigation. HEA should be used to identify hazards
before they cause accidents.
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FIGURE 27–6 Sample HAZOP.
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Two approaches to HEA can be effective: (1) observing employees at work and noting hazards (the task
analysis approach) and (2) actually performing job tasks to get a firsthand feel for hazards. Regardless of
how the HEA is conducted, it is a good idea to perform it in conjunction with FMEAs and HAZOPs. This
will enhance the effectiveness of all three processes.
Technique of Operations Review
Technique of operations review (TOR) is an analysis method that allows supervisors and employees to
work together to analyze workplace accidents, failures, and incidents. It answers the question “Why did
the system allow this incident to occur?” Like FMEA and HAZOP, this approach seeks to identify systemic
causes, not to assign blame.
TOR is not new. It was originally developed in the early 1970s by D. A. Weaver of the American Society of
Safety Engineers. However, for 20 years, user documentation on TOR was not readily available.
Consequently, widescale use did not occur until the early 1990s, when documentation began to be
circulated.
A weakness of TOR is that it is designed as an after-the-fact process. It is triggered by an accident or
incident. The strength of TOR is its involvement of line personnel in the analysis. The process proceeds as
follows:
1. Establish the TOR team. It should consist of workers who were present when the accident or incident
occurred, the supervisor, and the safety and health professional. The safety and health professional
should chair the team and serve as a facilitator.
2. Conduct a roundtable discussion to establish a common knowledge base among team members. At
the beginning of the discussion, five team members may have five different versions of the accident
or incident. At the end, there should be a consensus.
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3. Identify one major systematic factor that led to, or played a significant role in, causing the accident or
incident. This one TOR statement, about which there must be consensus, serves as the starting point
for further analysis.
4. Use the group consensus to respond to a sequence of yes/no options. Through this process, the team
identifies a number of factors that contributed to the accident or incident.
5. Evaluate identified factors carefully to make sure that there is a team consensus about each. Then,
prioritize the contributing factors beginning with the most serious one.
6. Develop corrective or preventive strategies for each factor. Include them in a final report that is
forwarded through normal channels for appropriate action.
Fault Tree Analysis
Fault tree analysis (FTA) can be used to predict and prevent accidents or as an investigative tool after the
fact. FTA is an analytical methodology that uses a graphic model to display the analysis process visually. A
fault tree is built using special symbols, some derived from Boolean algebra. The resultant model
resembles a logic diagram or a flowchart. Figure 27–7 shows and describes the symbols used in
constructing fault trees. Figure 27–8 shows how these symbols may be used to construct a fault tree. The
top box in a fault tree represents the accident or incident that either could occur or has occurred.
All symbols below the top box represent events that contribute in some way to the ultimate accident or
incident. The sample fault tree shown in Figure 27–8 is qualitative in nature. Fault trees can be made
quantitative by assigning probability figures to the various events below the top box. However, this is
rarely done because reliable probability figures are seldom available. A fault tree is developed using the
following steps:
1. Decide on the accident or incident to be placed at the top of the tree.
2. Identify the broadest level of failure or fault event that could contribute to the top event. Assign the
appropriate symbols.
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FIGURE 27–7 Symbols used in fault tree analysis.
3. Move downward through successively more specific levels until basic events are identified.
Experience, deliberate care, and systematic analysis are very important in constructing fault trees. Once a
fault tree has been constructed, it is examined to determine the various combinations of failure or fault
events that could lead to the top event. With simple fault trees, this can be accomplished manually; with
more complex trees, this step is difficult. However, computer programs are available to assist in
accomplishing this step. The final step involves making recommendations for preventive measures.
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FIGURE 27–8 Sample fault tree.
Risk Analysis
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Where are we at risk? Where are we at greatest risk? These are important questions for safety and health
professionals involved in analyzing the workplace for the purpose of identifying and overcoming hazards.
Risk analysis is an analytical methodology normally associated with insurance and investments. However,
risk analysis can be used to analyze the workplace, identify hazards, and develop strategies for
overcoming these hazards. The risk analysis process focuses on two key questions:
■ How frequently does a given event occur?
■ How severe are the consequences of a given event?
The fundamental rule of thumb of risk analysis is that risk is decreased by decreasing the frequency and
severity of hazard-related events.
Safety and health professionals should understand the relationship that exists between the frequency and
severity factors relating to accidents. Historical data on accidents, injuries, and illness show that the less
severe an injury or illness, the more frequently it is likely to occur. Correspondingly, the more severe an
injury or illness, the less frequently it is likely to occur. For example, there are many more minor scrapes,
bumps, and abrasions experienced in the workplace than major debilitating injuries such as amputations
or broken bones.
A number of different approaches can be used in conducting a risk analysis. One of the most effective
approaches considers both probability and impact. Probability levels and corresponding frequency of
occurrence ratings are as follows: 1 = Impossible (frequency of occurrence: 10 /day); 2 = Extremely
unlikely (frequency of occurrence: 10 /day); 3 = Remote (frequency of occurrence: 10 /day); 4 =
Occasional (frequency of occurrence: 10 /day); 5 = Reasonably probable (frequency of occurrence:
10 /day); 6 = Frequent (frequency of occurrence: 10 /day).
The lowest rating (1) means it is impossible that a given error will be committed or a given failure will
occur. The highest rating (6) means it is very likely that a given error will be committed frequently or a
given failure will occur frequently. Notice the quantification of frequency levels for each level of
2
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−4
−3 −2 3
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probability. For example, the expected frequency of occurrence for a probability level of remote is 10 to
the negative fifth power per day.
Severity levels can also be rated, with the likely consequence of an accident or failure event of that
severity. The least severe incidents (1) are not likely to cause an injury or
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damage property. The most severe incidents (4) are almost certain to cause death or serious property
damage. Critical accidents (3) may cause severe injury or major loss. Marginal accidents (2) may cause
minor injury, minor occupational illness, or minor damage.
HAZARD PREVENTION AND DETERRENCE
All the methods and procedures discussed in this chapter have been concerned with identifying potential
hazards. This section deals with using the information learned during analysis to prevent accidents and
illnesses. The following hazard control methods are recommended:
■ Eliminate the source of the hazards.
■ Substitute a less hazardous equivalent.
■ Reduce the hazards at the source.
■ Remove the employee from the hazard (for example, substitute a robot or other automated system).
■ Isolate the hazards (for example, enclose them in barriers).
■ Dilute the hazard (for example, ventilate the hazardous substance).
■ Apply appropriate management strategies.
■ Use appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).
■ Provide employee training.
■ Practice good housekeeping.
For every hazard identified during the analysis process, one or more of these hazard control methods will
apply. Figure 27–9 shows the steps involved in implementing hazard control methods. The first step
involves selecting the method or methods that are most likely to produce the desired results. Once
selected, the method is applied and monitored to determine if the expected results are being achieved.
Monitoring and observing are informal procedures. They should be followed by a more formal, more
structured assessment of the effectiveness of the method. If the method selected is not producing the
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desired results, adjustments should be made. This may mean changing the way in which the method is
applied or dropping it and trying another method.
FIGURE 27–9 Steps for implementing hazard control measures.
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Safety Fact: What to Include in a Hazards Inventory
An excellent tool for getting the work of safety and health personnel organized, prioritized, and properly
focused is the hazards inventory. Such an inventory is a comprehensive list of all hazards associated with
all processes and work tasks in a company. A hazards inventory should include at least the following
information:
■ Process descriptions
■ Associated hazards
■ Controls relating to the hazards
■ Department location of each process
■ Names of supervisors of all personnel who work on each process (including telephone numbers)
■ Number of employees who work on each process
■ Medical information relating to the hazards
■ Historical information about the process and related hazards
The example of Crestview Container Corporation’s (CCC) problems with toxic paint illustrates how the
process works. CCC produces airtight aluminum containers for transporting electromechanical devices.
The containers must be painted as the last step in the production process. Although the specified paint
was supposed to be only slightly toxic—a problem that should have been resolved by using PPE—paint
station operators complained frequently of various negative side effects.
The CCC safety and health professional, working with management, solved the problem by applying the
following steps:
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1. Select a method. Of the various methods available, the one selected involved eliminating the source of
the hazard (the toxic paint). CCC personnel were tasked with testing various nontoxic paints until one
was found that could match the problem paint in all categories (for example, ease of application,
drying time, quality of surface finish). After 40 different paints were tested, a nontoxic substitute was
found.
2. Apply the method. The new paint was ordered and used on a partial shipment of containers.
3. Monitor/observe. The safety and health professional, along with CCC’s painting supervisors,
monitored both employee performance and employee complaints concerning the paint.
4. Assess effectiveness. To assess effectiveness, employee complaints were tabulated. The number of
complaints was down to a negligible amount and not serious in nature. Productivity was also
assessed. It was found that the new paint had no noticeable effect on productivity, negative or
positive.
5. Adjust as necessary. CCC found that no adjustments were necessary.
OSHA PROCESS SAFETY STANDARD
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Process Safety Standard has relevance from
the perspective of hazard prevention, relating specifically to chemical hazards. OSHA’s standard for
process safety is found in 29 CFR 1910.119. Its purpose is to prevent catastrophic accidents caused by
major releases of highly hazardous chemicals. To comply with this standard, companies must have
written operating procedures, mechanical
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integrity programs, and formal incident investigation procedures. Other key elements are as follows:
1. Coverage. Although the Process Safety Standard is typically associated with large chemical and
petrochemical processing plants, its coverage is actually much broader than this. Any company is
covered that uses the threshold amount of a chemical listed in the standard, or 10,000 pounds or more
of a flammable material on-site in one location.
2. Employee participation. Section (c) of the standard requires that employees be involved in all aspects
of the process safety management program. In addition, employees must be given access to
information developed as part of the program.
3. Process Safety Information (PSI). Section (d) of the standard requires organizations to establish and
maintain process safety information files. Information in these files includes chemical, process, and
equipment data.
4. Process Hazard Analyses (PHAs). Section (e) of the standard requires that companies conduct PHAs
for all processes covered by the standard. Like any other hazard analysis, the PHAs are supposed to
identify potential problems so that prompt corrective action or preventive measures can be taken.
5. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). Section (f ) of the standard requires employers to establish and
maintain written standard operating procedures for using chemicals safely. The requirement applies
to handling, processing, transporting, and storing chemicals.
6. Requirements for contractors. Section (h) of the standard describes the special requirements imposed
on companies that contract portions of their work to other companies. Complying with the standard is
a matter of making sure that contractors comply. The following requirements are imposed by Section
(h):
■ Screen contractors before issuing a contract to ensure that they have a comprehensive safety and
health program in place.
■ Orient contractors concerning the chemicals with which they may be required to work or be
around, the emergency action plan (EAP), and other pertinent information.
■ Evaluate contractors periodically to ensure that their safety performance is acceptable.
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■ Maintain an OSHA injury and illness log for the contractor that is separate from, and in addition
to, that of the host company.
OSHA’s Regulation for Chemical Spills
OSHA issues a special regulation dealing with chemical spills. The standard (29 CFR 1910.120) is called the
Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER) standard. HAZWOPER gives
organizations two options for responding to a chemical spill. The first is to evacuate all employees in the
event of a spill and call in professional emergency response personnel. Employers who use this option
must have an EAP in place in accordance with 29 CFR 1010.38(a). The second option is to respond
internally. Employers who use this option must have an emergency response plan in place that is in
accordance with 29 CFR 1010.120.
1. Emergency action plans (EAPs). An EAP should have at least the following elements: alarm systems,
evacuation plan, a mechanism or procedure for emergency shutdown of the equipment, and a
procedure for notifying emergency response personnel.
2. Emergency response plan. Companies that opt to respond internally to chemical spills must have an
emergency response plan that includes the provision of comprehensive training for employees. OSHA
Standard 29 CFR 1910.120 specifies the type and amount of training required, ranging from
awareness to in-depth technical training for employees who will actually deal with the spill. It is
important to note that OSHA forbids the involvement of untrained employees in responding to a spill.
The following topics are those covered in the HAZWOPER seminar conducted by Environmental
Safety Awareness, a safety and health company in Fort Walton Beach, Florida. These topics are typical
of those covered in up-to-date HAZWOPER courses.
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Summary of Key Federal Laws
Overview of Impacting Regulations
Classification and Categorization of Hazardous Waste
■ Definition of Hazardous Waste
■ Characteristics
■ Lists of Hazardous Wastes
Hazardous Waste Operations
■ Definitions
■ Levels of Response
Penalties for Noncompliance
■ Civil Penalty Policy
Responding to Spills
■ Groundwater Contamination
■ Sudden Releases
■ Clean-Up Levels
■ Risk Assessment
■ Remedial Action
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Emergency Response
■ Work Plan
■ Site Evaluation and Control
■ Site Specific Safety and Health Plan
■ Information and Training Program
■ PPE
■ Monitoring
■ Medical Surveillance
■ Decontamination Procedures
■ Emergency Response
■ Other Provisions
Contingency Plans
■ Alarm Systems
■ Action Plan
Personal Protective Equipment
■ Developing a PPE Program
■ Respiratory Equipment
■ Protective Clothing
■ Donning PPE
■ Doffing PPE
Safety Data Sheets
■ Introduction
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■ Preparing SDSs
■ SDS Information
■ Hazardous Ingredients
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■ Physical/Chemical Characteristics
■ Fire and Explosion Hazard Data
■ Reactivity Data
■ Health Hazard Data
■ Precautions for Safe Handling and Use
■ Control Measures
Site Control
■ Site Maps
■ Site Preparation
■ Work Zones
■ Buddy System
■ Site Security
■ Communications
■ Safe Work Practices
Hazardous Waste Containers
■ Emergency Control
■ Equipment
■ Tools
■ Safety
Decontamination
■ Types
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■ Decontamination Plan
■ Prevention of Contamination
■ Planning
■ Emergencies
■ Physical Injury
■ Heat Stress
■ Chemical Exposure
■ Medical Treatment Area
■ Decontamination of Equipment
■ Decontamination Procedures
■ Sanitation of PPE
■ Disposal of Contaminated Materials
RISK ASSESSMENT
Risk assessment in this context is the process of quantifying the level of risk associated with the operation
of a given machine or process. It should be a structured and systematic process that answers the following
four specific questions:
■ How severe are potential injuries?
■ How frequently are employees exposed to the potential hazards?
■ What is the possibility of avoiding the hazard if it does occur?
■ What is the likelihood of an injury should a safety control system fail?
The most widely used risk-assessment technique is the decision tree, coupled with codes representing
these four questions and defined levels of risk. Figure 27–10 is an
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example of a risk-assessment decision tree. In this example, the codes and their associated levels of risk
are as follows:
FIGURE 27–10 Risk-assessment decision tree.
S = Severity
Question 1: Severity of potential injuries
S1 Slight injury (bruise, abrasion)
S2 Severe injury (amputation or death)
F = Frequency
Question 2: Frequency of exposure to potential hazards
F1 Infrequent exposure
F2 From frequent to continuous exposure
P = Possibility
Question 3: Possibility of avoiding the hazard if it does occur
P1 Possible
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P2 Less possible to not impossible
L = Likelihood
Question 4: Likelihood that the hazard will occur
L1 Highly unlikely
L2 Unlikely
L3 Highly likely
RL = Risk Levels
Associated risk factors ranging from lowest (B) to highest (4) By applying the decision tree in Figure 27–10
or a similar device, the risk associated with the operation of a given machine can be quantified. This
allows safety personnel to assign logical priorities for machine safeguarding and hazard prevention.
SAFETY MANAGEMENT CONCERNS
Students studying occupational safety might become safety engineers, technologists, technicians,
specialists, or managers. Some who begin their careers serving in a technical capacity (engineer,
technologist, technician, specialist, etc.) might eventually find themselves called upon to manage a team
or department of safety professionals. Safety managers should be familiar with most of what is presented
in this book. However, when working in a safety management position, their principal concerns will be as
follows:
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Strategic Planning
Safety managers work with key decision makers in organizations to ensure that safety and health are
included in their strategic plans. An organization’s strategic plan should have either a broad goal or a
guiding principle (corporate value statement) that speaks to maintaining a safe and healthy work
environment.
Safety Policy
Safety managers work with other key decision makers in organizations to develop a written policy that
summarizes the organization’s commitment to maintaining a safe and healthy work environment. This
policy should also explain the responsibilities of managers, supervisors, and employees for maintaining a
safe and healthy work environment.
Written Procedures
An organization’s safety policy is translated into more specific language through the development of
written policies. Safety managers should ensure that their employers put all the following in writing: job
descriptions that include responsibilities for safety and health; general safety rules that apply to all
employees; procedures for specialized and hazardous operations; standard operating procedures for
processes, systems, and equipment (including safe operation); program for communicating with
employees about safety information, issues, and concerns; emergency plan with all its subordinate plans;
employee orientation program; near-miss procedures; safety suggestions procedures; procedures for job
hazard analysis; and safety manual.
Employee Training
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Safety managers are responsible for ensuring that both new and experienced employees receive the
training they need to do their jobs safely. This involves the following types of responsibilities: arranging
and scheduling training for new employees; arranging and scheduling retraining for experienced
employees in need of updating; arranging training for employees whose jobs have changed in some way;
identifying and assigning instructors to conduct training; monitoring and evaluating training that is
provided; documenting training; and ensuring that supervisors receive the training they need in order to
play their critical role in maintaining a safe and healthy work environment.
Communication
Safety managers are responsible for ensuring that employees, supervisors, and managers are fully
informed about safety and health policies, practices, concerns, and other information. Some of the
methods used by safety managers to communicate with stakeholders on a regular basis are safety
meetings, daily personal contact (management by walking around, or MBWA), safety committees, and
publications such as newsletters, e-mail, memorandums, and so on.
Human Resource Management
Safety managers work closely with human resource management personnel on personnel issues relating
to safety and health. These issues include blood testing immediately following accidents, drug testing as
part of the preemployment screening, developing and implementing corporate wellness programs, and
monitoring injured employees who are placed in back-to-work programs.
Self-Assessments
An important responsibility of safety managers is helping supervisors and employees play their roles in
maintaining a safe and healthy workplace. One of the ways safety managers
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do this is by developing checklists they can use in conducting safety-oriented self-assessments in their
areas of responsibilities. Several such checklists are contained in various chapters of this book.
Safety and Health Promotion
Safety managers are responsible for establishing promotional programs that keep employees, supervisors,
and managers focused on safety and health issues. The purpose of promotional programs is to remind
people to think of safety first. The best programs encompass safety on the job as well as off the job. An
employee injured at home might not cost the company any money in workers’ compensation premiums,
but does cost the company in lost time, the temporary loss of expertise the experienced employee brings
to the job, and in the work added to other employees to make up for his or her absence.
Accident Investigation and Reporting
Safety managers are responsible for establishing a structured system for investigating accidents and near
misses and for reporting the results of the investigations. They are also responsible for providing the
training needed to allow supervisors and other personnel to participate in accident investigations in a
positive, helpful manner. Included in this area of responsibility are accident cause analysis and workers’
compensation filing and follow-up.
Ongoing Monitoring
Safety managers are responsible for ensuring that workplace hazards and the requirements of applicable
regulatory agencies are properly monitored on a continuous basis. Hazards include noise, chemicals,
smoke, fumes, dust, ergonomics, and any other potential problems that might be present in the workplace.
Of course, monitoring hazards is just one aspect of the safety manager’s job. The following checklist will
help safety managers identify and monitor a number of issues:
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1. Have you identified all the standards from OSHA and other agencies that apply to your organization?
Do you have electronic access to the latest editions of these standards?
2. Are you familiar with the most recent workers’ compensation legislation in your state?
3. Are you implementing workers’ compensation cost-reduction strategies?
4. Are you monitoring the workplace for ergonomic hazards? Are you applying OSHA’s voluntary
ergonomic guidelines?
5. Are you monitoring employee stress levels and implementing appropriate stress-reduction strategies?
6. Are all machines properly guarded?
7. Have you instituted a comprehensive lockout/tagout program?
8. Have you implemented an effective slip-and-fall prevention program based on OSHA’s Fall Protection
Standard?
9. Have you implemented an effective ladder safety program?
10. Do all employees have and properly use the PPE called for in their jobs?
11. Have you implemented a safe-lifting program?
12. Have you implemented a forklift safety program based on OSHA’s Industrial Truck standard?
13. Have you identified all hazards in the workplace relating to temperature extremes and instituted
appropriate precautions?
14. Have you identified all pressure hazards in the workplace and taken appropriate precautions to
protect employees?
15. Have you implemented an electrical hazards prevention program based on OSHA’s Electrical
Standard?
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16. Are all avenues of ingress and egress properly marked and kept free of clutter and obstructions?
17. Have you implemented a fire safety program based on OSHA’s Fire Safety Standard?
18. Have you identified all potentially toxic substances in the workplace and instituted appropriate
procedures to protect employees from them?
19. Have you instituted a confined space safety program based on OSHA’s Confined Space Standard?
20. Have you identified all radiation hazards in the workplace and implemented appropriate procedures
to protect employees? Do these procedures comply with OSHA’s Standards for Health and
Environmental Controls?
21. Have you identified noise hazards in the workplace and instituted appropriate precautions to protect
employees?
22. Have you established a comprehensive hearing loss prevention program?
23. Have you developed a comprehensive emergency plan that takes into account all possible types of
emergency, including terrorism? Is your plan customized to meet local needs?
24. Have you ensured that selected personnel know how to undertake safety analysis and prevention
efforts? Can these personnel complete a detailed hazard analysis?
25. Does OSHA’s Process Safety Standard apply to your organization? If so, have you instituted a process
safety program that satisfies the standard?
26. Have you trained both safety and supervisory personnel to conduct accident investigations and
complete all necessary related reports?
27. Are all required OSHA accident and injury reports and logs maintained and kept up-to-date?
28. Have you implemented a comprehensive, ongoing safety promotion campaign?
29. Are all employees provided the training they need in order to do their jobs safely?
30. Do all employees who have specialized jobs receive the training they need in order to do those jobs
safely?
31. Is updated training and retraining provided as needed for all employees?
32. Have you instituted a program to protect employees from exposure to bloodborne pathogens? Does
your program protect employees who have contracted HIV or other bloodborne diseases from the
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negative effects of hysteria?
33. Have you instituted procedures to protect employees from workplace violence?
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
There are numerous occupational health and safety management systems (OHSMSs) in the market that
are designed to provide organizations with a comprehensive model for managing all aspects of
occupational safety and health. The intent and approach of these systems are similar to those of ISO 9000
for quality management and ISO 14000 for environmental management. An OHSMS typically revolves
around the standard management model composed of the following essential elements: (l) assess, (2) plan,
(3) implement, (4) monitor/evaluate, and (5) adjust. This model is carried out in a continuous cycle of
activities that is ongoing forever.
Although the actual structure of a given OHSMS can vary slightly depending on the vendor, organization,
or agency that develops the system, most contain at least the following elements:
■ Assessment of risk/hazard analysis
■ Planning for hazard abatement and control
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■ Establishment of performance outcomes (goals and objectives)
■ Establishment of roles and responsibilities
■ Training related to occupational safety and health
■ Communication with stakeholders
■ Procedures for controlling hazards and risks
■ Emergency response plans and procedures
■ Regular, ongoing measurement of performance (achievement of occupational safety and health goals
and objectives)
■ Closing the loop: acting on the results of evaluations in ways that continually improve safety and
health in the workplace
When an OHSMS is effectively implemented with executive-level support, it can produce the following
benefits: (1) improve the attitudes of personnel about their working environment; (2) increase the amount
of participation in safety and health activities as well as the perceptions of personnel about those
activities; (3) reduce lost time due to injuries and accidents and the costs associated with lost time; (4)
increase productivity; and (5) enhance morale at all levels.
SUMMARY
1. A hazard is a condition or combination of conditions that, if left uncorrected, may lead to an accident,
illness, or property damage.
2. Hazard analysis is a systematic process for identifying hazards and recommending corrective action.
There are two approaches to hazard analysis: preliminary and detailed.
3. Hazards can be ranked as potentially catastrophic, critical, marginal, and nuisance.
4. A preliminary hazard analysis (PHA) involves forming an ad hoc team of experienced personnel who
are familiar with the equipment, material substance, and process being analyzed. Experience and
related expertise are critical in conducting a preliminary hazard analysis.
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5. Failure mode and effects of analysis (FMEA) is a detailed hazard analysis methodology that involves
dividing a system into its various components, examining each component to determine how it may
fail, rating the probability of failure, and deciding what effect these failures would have.
6. Hazard and operability review (HAZOP) is a detailed hazard analysis methodology that was
developed for use in the chemical industry. It involves forming a team of experts and brainstorming.
7. Human error analysis (HEA) is used to predict human error and its potential effects. It can be used in
conjunction with FMEA and HAZOP to strengthen those approaches.
8. Technique of operations review (TOR) is a hazard analysis methodology that allows workers and
supervisors to conduct the analysis. It uses a simple worksheet that allows team members to respond
to a sequence of yes/no options.
9. Fault tree analysis (FTA) is a hazard analysis methodology that uses a graphic model to display the
analysis process visually. The model resembles a logic diagram.
10. Risk analysis, although more commonly associated with the insurance industry, can be used for
hazard and safety analysis. The process revolves around answering two questions: How frequently
does a given event occur? How severe are the consequences of a given event? The fundamental rule
of thumb of risk analysis is that risk is decreased by decreasing the frequency and severity of hazard-
related events.
11. The fundamentals of hazard prevention and deterrence include the following strategies: eliminate
the source of the hazard, substitute a less hazardous substance, reduce the hazard at the source,
remove the employee from the hazard, isolate the hazard, dilute the hazard, apply appropriate
management strategies, use personal protective equipment, provide employee training, and practice
good housekeeping.
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12. Risk assessment should answer four questions: (a) How severe are potential injuries? (b) How
frequently are employees exposed to potential hazards? (c) What is the possibility of avoiding the
hazard if it does occur? (d) What is the likelihood of an injury if a safety control system fails?
13. Safety management concerns include strategic planning, safety policy, written procedures, employee
training, communication, human resource management, self-assessments, safety and health
promotion, accident investigation and reporting, and monitoring.
14. Safety management systems provide comprehensive models for undertaking the above mentioned
concerns.
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
Communication
Corrective action or preventive measures
Cost
Benefit
Detailed hazard analysis
Employee training
Experience
Failure mode and effects of analysis (FMEA)
Fault tree analysis (FTA)
Frequency
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Hazard
Hazard analysis
Hazard and operability review (HAZOP)
Hazards inventory
Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER)
Human error
Human error analysis (HEA)
Human resource management
Impact
Monitoring
OHSMS
Preliminary hazard analysis (PHA)
Probability
Related expertise
Risk analysis
Risk assessment
Safety policy
Self-assessments
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Severity
Technique of operations review (TOR)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define the term hazard.
2. What is the purpose of preliminary hazard analysis?
3. Explain why experience and related expertise are so important when conducting a preliminary
hazard analysis.
4. Why is cost–benefit analysis such a critical part of hazard analysis and prevention?
5. Briefly describe the following detailed hazard analysis methodologies: FMEA, HAZOP, HEA, FTA, and
TOR.
6. What is the most fundamental weakness of both FMEA and HAZOP? How can it be overcome?
7. Name and briefly explain two approaches to HEA.
8. Why did it take so long for TOR to be adopted?
9. What is the most important strength of TOR?
10. Name five widely applicable hazard prevention strategies.
11. Explain the two options given to organizations by HAZWOPER for responding to a chemical spill.
12. What is risk assessment? How is it used?
13. Explain the principal concerns of the safety manager.
14. List the major components of an OHSMS.
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