Discussion 2

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CHAPTER 2

Sociological Research

Sociology in Modules,

Richard T. Schaefer

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Chapter Modules

• Module 5 What Is the Scientific Method?

• Module 6 Major Research Designs

• Module 7 Ethics of Research

• Module 8 Developments of Methodology

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Sociological Research • Subject? Social phenomena, people & groups, social facts, social

process, social institutions, social structures, social construction of reality, social patterns.... Etc.

• How ppl act, think, feel, and interact in a certain period of time and in specific situation or context. How social structures are involved in the life of individuals and groups. How society is organized and how it changes...etc.

• Sociologists study society scientifically by following a methodological approach =/= common sense or prejudgments and stereotypes.

• Sociologists explain the Why and the How society is ordered ( assumption. The goal of research is to develop scientific laws, theories, and observations about society. Sociologist look for the nature and the causes of the patterns in society and groups that we can observe. E.g., patterns of divorce, marriage, addiction, suicide...

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Module 5 What Is the Scientific Method?

• Scientific method: a systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem. Science is a cyclic

process.

1. Defining the problem

2. Reviewing the literature

3. Formulating a testable hypothesis

4. Selecting the research design and then collecting and analyzing data

5. Developing the conclusion • A report is then prepared, with an executive summary

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Figure 5-1 The Scientific Method

The scientific method allows sociologists to objectively and logically evaluate the data they collect. Their findings can suggest ideas for further sociological research.

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Defining the Problem

• Any research starts with a question. • how schooling relates to income?

• Operational definition: explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the concept . What it is to be observed and how we will measure it. Listing

characteristics or attributes of variable to be able to test and measure

• Abstract-----> specific, concrete observations • Gender, Women, Men. Amount of hrs spent studying for sociology class= 0 h to 5 h

• Status= membership in social club

• Prejudice= person's unwilling to hire or work with members of minority group

• Altruism= giving money( charity), giving blood,….

• Does it pay to get a college degree ? We need to define earnings and level of education. Education = numbers of years and earnings = income

• Religiosity and suicide ( Durkheim)

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Reviewing the Literature

• Literature review consists of relevant scholarly studies and information.

– Refine the problem. Other factors (statuses of parents)

– Clarify possible techniques for collecting data. State by state income.

– Eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes (the search for understanding reality is uncertain and unending)

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Formulating the Hypothesis

• Hypothesis: speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables

• Variable: measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions.

– Independent variable: variable hypothesized to cause or influence another

– Dependent variable: variable whose action depends on influence of the independent variable( effect)

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Formulating the Hypothesis (2)

• Causal logic: involves a relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one leading to the other. See p.33

• X -----> Y .

• Correlation: exists when change in one variable coincides with change in the other.

– Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

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Collecting and Analyzing Data • Selecting the Sample

– Sample: selection from a larger population( target) that is statistically representative (list of all cases) of that population

– Random sample: when every member of an entire population being studied has the same chance of being selected. The whole

population must be available for selection, if not the sample will not be random

– Snowball or convenience samples: participants recruited through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet. When it is hard to find or identify. such as illegal drug users

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Collecting and Analyzing Data (2)

• Ensuring Validity and Reliability

– Research results must be both valid and reliable

– Validity: degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon being studied. Am I measuring what I intended to measure? Discrimination or prejudice ?

– Reliability: extent to which a measure produces consistent results. How stable and consistent my results are? If a

same research is repeated by another sociologist, will he gets the same results?

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Developing the Conclusion

• Supporting Hypotheses

– Sociological studies do not always generate data that support the original hypothesis

– Sociologists interested in both the general pattern that emerges from data and exceptions to that pattern

• Controlling for Other Factors

– Control variable: factor held constant in order to test the relative impact of an independent variable

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In Summary: The Scientific Method

• Defining the problem

• Reviewing the literature

• Formulating a hypothesis

• Collecting and analyzing data

• Developing the conclusion

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The Scientific Method, Example

• Example: Does it “pay” to go to college?

– Operational definitions: education and earnings

– Review of state-by state comparisons of income and educational levels

– Hypothesis: The higher one’s educational degree, the more money one will earn • Variables: ++ level of education----> ++ level of income

– Information collected from Census Bureau survey (secondary data)

– Conclusion: People with more schooling do earn more money than others, although there are exceptions to the general pattern

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Causal Logic Figure 5-3

• In causal logic, an independent variable (often designated by the symbol x) influences a dependent variable (often designated as y)

• Thus, x leads to y

• For example, parents who attend church regularly (x) are more likely to have children who are churchgoers (y)

Independent variable x

→ Dependent variable y

Level of educational degree

→ Level of income

Degree of lack of integration into society

→ Likelihood of suicide

Availability of affordable housing

→ Level of homelessness

Parents’ church attendance

→ Children’s church attendance

Time spent preparing for quiz

→ Performance on quiz

Parents’ income → Likelihood of children’s enrolling in college

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Module 6 Major Research Designs

• Research design: detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically

– Surveys

– Ethnography

– Experiments

– Existing sources

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Surveys

• Survey: study, generally interview or questionnaire, that provides sociologists with information about how people think and act

– Interview: researcher obtains information through face-to-face, phone, or online questioning

– Questionnaire: researcher uses a printed or written form to obtain information from a respondent

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Surveys (2)

• Quantitative research: collects and reports data primarily in numerical form. We ask in this terms: How many? How much? How often?

• Qualitative research: relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities. We use In-depth interviews and direct observations and participation

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Ethnography

• Ethnography: study of an entire social setting through extended systematic fieldwork. Qualitative , descriptive.

• Ethno: ppl & graphy: writing

• Observation: the basic technique of ethnography; direct participation in closely watching a group or organization

– Ethnographic research also includes collecting historical information and conducting in-person interviews

– Participant observation: method in which the sociologist joins a group for a period to get an accurate sense of how it operates

– Street corner society, William F. Whyte .

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Experiments

• Experiment: artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables. The independent

variable is controlled.

– Experimental group: exposed to an independent variable

– Control group: not exposed to the independent variable

– Hawthorne effect: unintended influence of the observers of experiments on the subjects. Western Electric CO 20/30s

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Use of Existing Sources

• Secondary analysis: research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data

– Considered nonreactive—not influencing people’s behavior

– Durkheim's data on suicide is an example of secondary analysis

• Content analysis: systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale

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Table 6-2 Existing Sources Used In Sociological Research SOURCE: Developed by author Richard T. Schaefer.

Most Frequently Used Sources • Census data

• Crime statistics

• Birth, death, marriage, divorce, and health statistics

Other Sources • Newspapers and periodicals

• Personal journals, diaries, e-mail, and letters

• Records and archival material of religious organizations, corporations, and other organizations

• Transcripts of radio programs

• Motion pictures and television programs

• Web pages, blogs, and chat rooms

• Song lyrics

• Scientific records (such as patent applications)

• Speeches of public figures (such as politicians)

• Votes cast in elections or by elected officials on specific legislative proposals

• Attendance records for public events

• Videos of social protests and rallies

• Literature, including folklore

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Table 6-3 Major Research Designs SOURCE: Developed by author Richard T. Schaefer.

Survey Ethnography Experiment Existing sources/ Secondary analysis

Examples: questionnaires, interviews

Example: observation Example: deliberate manipulation of people’s social behavior

Example: analysis of census or health data

Advantage: Yields information about specific issues

Advantage: Yields detailed information about specific groups or organizations

Advantage: Yields direct measures of people’s behavior

Advantage: Cost-efficient

Limitation: Can be expensive and time- consuming

Limitation: Involves months if not years of labor-intensive data

Limitations: Ethical limitations on the degree to which subjects’ behavior can be manipulated

Limitation: Limited to data collected for some other purpose

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Module 7 Ethics of Research

• Code of ethics: standards of acceptable behavior developed by and for members of a profession

• ASA’s Code of Ethics (1997) 1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research

2. Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity

3. Protect subjects from personal harm

4. Preserve confidentiality

5. Seek informed consent when data are collected from research participants or when behavior occurs in a private context

6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance

7. Disclose all sources of financial support (1999)

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Value Neutrality

• Value neutrality: Max Weber’s term for objectivity of sociologists in the interpretation of data

• Investigators have an ethical obligation to accept research findings even when data run counter to their personal views, to theoretically-based explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs

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The Data-Rich Future

• Massive increases in available data allow sociologists to undertake new research

– Housing issues in Boston

– Spread of influenza and other contagious diseases

– Crime patterns

• Increased data raises concerns about individual privacy

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Appendix I: Using Statistics and Graphs

• Using Statistics

– Percentage: a portion of 100

– Mean: average; sum of a series of values divided by the number of values. Always leans toward extreme score

– Mode: single most common value in a series of values. Score that occurs the most times.

– Median: midpoint that divides a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values. To calculate the median, scores must be arranged, then count down or up.

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Appendix I: Using Statistics and Graphs (2)

• Reading Graphs

– Tables and figures allow social scientists to display data and make it easier to develop conclusions

• Cross-tabulation: shows relationship between two or more variables

– Graphs are often easier for the public to understand

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Figure A-2 Changing Attitudes Toward the Legalization of Marijuana

A quick look at the results of 16 national surveys shows that support for legalization of the drug has increased.

Source: Gallup 2014; see Jones and Saad. 2014.

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Figure A-3 People Who Favor Legalization of Marijuana by Political Affiliation and Age

Through cross-tabulation, we can quickly see that older people are less likely to favor the legalization of marijuana than younger people, and that Republicans are less supportive of legalization than Democrats.

Source: Gallup 2012; see Newport 2012.

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Appendix II: Writing a Research Report

• Finding Information

– Check textbooks

– Use library’s online catalog

– Investigate computerized periodical indexes

– Examine government documents

– Use newspapers

– Ask people, organizations, and agencies concerned with the topic

– Consult instructor or reference librarian

– Be cautious in using the Internet

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Review

• Sociologists are committed to the use of the scientific method

• In this chapter:

– Basic principles of scientific method

– Various techniques used by sociologists in conducting research