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Justice Administration: Police,

Courts, and Corrections Management

Tenth Edition

Chapter 2

Organization and Administration: Principles

and Practices

Defining Organizations

• Organization: “a consciously coordinated social entity,

with a relative identifiable boundary, that functions on a

relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or

set of goals.“

– Social entity: organizations are composed of

interacting people and interact with other organizations.

– Relatively identifiable boundary: the organization’s

goals and the public served.

• Four types of organizations:

– Mutual benefit associations

– Business concerns

– Service organizations

– Commonweal organizations

The Evolution of Organizational

Theory

• Organizational Theory: The study of organizational

designs and structures that includes the behavior of

administrators and managers within organizations.

• The history of management can be divided into three time

periods:

– Scientific management (1900–1940)

– Human relations management (1930–1970)

– Systems management (1965–present)

• Bureaucratic management is another important element.

Scientific Management

• Scientific management: A school of management

thought that is concerned primarily with the efficiency and

output of workers.

• P O S D C O R B (formulated by Luthor Gulick):

– Planning

– Organizing

– Staffing

– Directing

– Coordinating

– Reporting

– Budgeting

Figure 2.1

Gulick’s P O S D C O R B

Source: Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick, Papers on the Science of Administration (New

York: Institute of Public Administration, 1937).

Human Relations Management

• In the 1930s, people began to realize the negative effects

of scientific management on the worker.

• A view arose in policing that management should instill

pride and dignity in officers.

• Movement toward human relations management began in

the 1920s-1930s, with studies conducted by the Harvard

Business School.

• 1940s and 1950s – police departments began recognizing

the effect of the informal structure on an organization.

– Emphasis on participatory management in police

agencies.

– Led to greater focus on employee – the role of the

organizational structure became secondary.

Systems Management

• In the mid-1960s, systems management approach combined features

of human relations and scientific management approaches.

– Designed to bring the individual and the organization together.

– Attempted to help managers use employees to reach desired

production goals.

• The systems approach recognized that:

– Some hierarchical arrangement was needed for coordination.

– Authority and responsibility were essential.

– Overall organization was required.

• To be effective, groups must be able to recognize and deal with

conflict and change.

• Team cooperation is required to achieve organizational goals.

Bureaucratic Management (1 of 2)

• Criminal justice agencies fit the description of an

organization.

– They are managed by being organized into specialized

units.

– They consist of people who interact within the

organization and with external organizations

– They exist to serve the public.

• Criminal justice organizations are bureaucracies as well.

• Bureaucracy:

– Structuring of an organization so as to function

efficiently.

– Includes rules, division of labor, hierarchy of authority,

and expertise among its members.

Bureaucratic Management (2 of 2)

• For a bureaucratic structure to function efficiently, it must

have:

– Rulification and routinization

– Division of labor

– Hierarchy of authority

– Expertise

– Written rules

Organizational Inputs/Outputs

• Another way to view organizations is as systems that take

inputs, process them, and thus produce outputs.

– Inputs: An organization’s committing resources (funds,

personnel / labor, and equipment) toward

accomplishing a goal or mission.

– Outputs: An organization’s desired goods or services.

• A police agency processes reports of criminal activity and

attempts to satisfy the customer (crime victim).

Principles of Organization: Primary

Principles (1 of 2)

• All organizations have an organizational structure or table

of organization.

– Written or unwritten

– Very basic or highly complex

• An experienced manager uses this as a blueprint for

action.

• The size of the organization depends on the demands

placed on it and the resources available to it.

• Growth precipitates the need for more personnel, greater

division of labor, specialization, written rules, and other

such elements.

Principles of Organization: Primary

Principles (2 of 2)

• In building the organizational structure, the following

principles should be kept in mind:

– Principle of the objective

– Principle of specialization

– Principle of authority

– Principle of responsibility

– Principle of definition

– The scalar principle

– Principle of correspondence

– Span of control

Span of Control and Unity of

Command

• Span of control:

– The number of subordinates a chief executive,

manager, or supervisor in a criminal justice

organization can effectively supervise.

• Unity of command:

– The principle holding that only one person should be in

command or control of a situation or an employee.

Figure 2.3

Chain of Command

Figure 2.4

Organizational Pyramid

and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle

River, New Jersey., p. 349.

Organizational Pyramid

• Characteristics of the pyramidal structure:

1. Nearly all contacts take the form of orders going down

and reports of results going up the pyramid.

2. Each subordinate must receive instructions and orders

from only one boss.

3. Important decisions are made at the top of the pyramid.

4. Superiors have a specific span of control, supervising

only a limited number of people.

5. Personnel at all levels, except at the top and bottom,

have contact only with their boss above them and their

subordinates below them.

Closed versus Open Systems

• Closed model systems are closely aligned with

bureaucratic management.

– Interaction with the outside environment is minimal.

• Open model systems are more closely aligned to human

relations management.

– Focus is on participatory management.

Communication within the

Organization

• Communication

– The use of words, sounds, signs, bodily cues, or other

actions to convey or exchange information, or to

express ideas, to another person or group.

• In criminal justice, people communicate in and through

offense reports; in affidavits; via general orders, policies,

procedures, rules, and regulations; on the courtroom

witness stand; and in competency, parole, or probation

hearings.

• Communication is exceedingly important and sensitive in

criminal justice organizations.

Process and Characteristics (1 of 2)

• Elements that compose the communication process:

– Encoding

– Transmission

– Medium

– Reception

– Decoding

– Feedback

• Communication within a criminal justice organization may

be downward, upward, or horizontal.

Process and Characteristics (2 of 2)

• Five types of downward communication within a criminal

justice organization:

– Job instruction

– Job rationale

– Procedures and practice

– Feedback

– Indoctrination

• Upward communication in C J may be like trying to swim

upstream.

• Horizontal communication thrives when formal

communication channels are not open.

Communicating in Police

Organizations

• Police officers must be able to communicate internally and externally.

• The ability of the police to communicate effectively using both oral and

written means is paramount.

• Officers must be prepared to converse with highly educated people.

• Police use jargon and slang to communicate among themselves

• Grapevine:

– An informal means of circulating and communicating information

or gossip.

– Gossip zigzags back and forth across organizations.

– The grapevine can be harmful.

Oral and Written Communications

• Organizations promulgate written rules, policies, and

procedures because:

– The requirement for administrative due process

– Civil liability

– Accreditation movement

• E-mail and text messaging are easy to use and

instantaneous.

Other Barriers to Effective

Communication (1 of 2)

• Not being good listeners

• Time constraints

• Inadequate and excessive information

• Tendency to say what we think others want to hear

• Failure to select the best words

Other Barriers to Effective

Communication (2 of 2)

• Prejudices

• Strained sender-receiver relationships

• Not having the same “big picture” as superiors

• Differences in different cultural nonverbal cues

• C J agencies are becoming more open and responsive and

are using social media more as a means of communication

Cultural Cues

• 90% of communication is nonverbal.

• People learn to interpret nonverbal messages by growing

up in a particular culture.

– Not every culture interprets nonverbal cues the same

way.

• Criminal justice practitioners must possess cultural

empathy and understand cultural cues of citizens from

across the world.

External Communications: Use of

Social Media

• External communications flow from within the

organization to the outside.

• C J agencies are using social media platforms to

communicate externally with constituents.

– Becoming more open and responsive to community

needs.

• Social media is the driving force of this communication

today.

What Is Leadership?

• Leadership:

– Influencing and working with and through individuals or

a group to generate activities that will accomplish

organizational goals.

• Leadership differs from management.

– Administrators must be skilled managers and effective

leaders.

• Leaders take the macro view.

– Their role might best be defined as "the process of

influencing organizational members to use their

energies willingly and appropriately to facilitate the

achievement of the [agency's] goals."

Trait Theory

• Trait theory:

– A theory based on the notion that good leaders

possess certain character traits that poor leaders do

not.

• Stogdill and Goode believed that a leader could be

identified through a two-step process:

– Study leaders and compare them to non-leaders to

determine which traits only the leaders possessed.

– Seek people with traits to be promoted to managerial

positions.

• Trait theory has lost support since the 1950s.

Figure 2.5

Traits and Skills Commonly Associated with Leader

Effectiveness

Traits Skills

Adaptable to situations

Alert to social environment

Ambitious and achievement oriented

Assertive

Cooperative

Decisive

Dependable

Dominant (desire to influence others)

Energetic (high activity level)

Persistent

Self-confident

Tolerant of stress

Willing to assume responsibility

Clever (intelligent)

Conceptually skilled

Creative

Diplomatic and tactful

Fluent in speaking

Knowledgeable about group task

Organized (administrative ability)

Persuasive

Socially skilled

Adapted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper

Saddle River, New Jersey.

Style Theory (1 of 2)

• Style theory: A theory that focuses on what leaders do

and argues that leaders engage in two distinct types of

behaviors:

– Those relating to task

– Those relating to relationships

• Principles of leadership behavior:

1. Leaders must give task direction to their followers.

2. Closeness of supervision directly affects employee

production. High-producing units had less direct

supervision; highly supervised units had lower

production.

3. Leaders must be employee oriented.

Style Theory (2 of 2)

• Autocratic leaders are primarily authoritarian in nature

and prefer to gives orders rather than invite group

participation.

– Personal with criticism.

• Democratic leaders stress working within the group and

strive to attain cooperation from group members by

eliciting their ideas and support.

• Laissez-faire leaders take a hands-off approach to

leadership.

– Organization in effect runs itself.

Figure 2.6

Style Theory

and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle

River, New Jersey.

Situational Leadership Theory

• Assumes leaders are most effective when they are adaptable.

• The best leadership style is situationally dependent.

• Interaction between task behavior and relationship behavior leads to

four leadership styles:

– “Telling” leaders

– “Selling” leaders

– “Participating” leaders

– “Delegating” leaders

Leading from Behind

• Collaborative leadership approach.

• Leader articulates a vision and empowers team members

to get the job done.

• Leader gives team members credit for it.

• Purposeful, collaborative leadership approach – very

different from top-down, authoritative approach.

Katz's Three Skills

• Katz identified three essential skills that leaders should

possess:

– Technical: specialized knowledge, analytical ability

within that specialty, and facility in the use of the tools

and techniques of the specific discipline.

– Human: working with people, including being

thoroughly familiar with what motivates employees and

how to utilize group processes.

– Conceptual: coordinating and integrating all the

activities and interests of the organization toward a

common objective.

• These skills can be taught – good administrators are not

born but can be trained.

21st-Century Authentic Leaders

• Distrust of leaders leads to belief that there is a lack of

leadership.

• National survey determined leaders are being hired for

style rather than substance, image instead of integrity.

• There is no shortage of people with the capacity to lead

who are just waiting for the opportunity.

• Authentic leaders demonstrate five traits:

– Pursuing purpose with passion

– Practicing solid values

– Leading with hearts as well as heads

– Establishing connected relationships

– Demonstrating self-discipline

Leading in a Time of Crisis: The

COVID-19 Pandemic

• In times of crisis, leaders must be particularly understanding and accommodating given the increased stressors affecting C J

employees.

• Keys to successful leadership in times of crisis:

– Engage in clear communication that emphasizes

transparency, honesty, and empathy.

– Be ready, don’t hide, provide accurate information.

– Learn from how you as a leader responded to the crisis.

– Acknowledge that we may not be as productive as usual during a pandemic.

– Practice self-care.

The Hawthorne Studies

• Hawthorne effect:

– A theory meaning that employees' behavior may be

altered if they believe they are being studied—and that

management cares.

• Hawthorne studies revealed that people work for a variety

of reasons, not just for money and subsistence.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Maslow argued for the application of the humanistic school

of psychology.

– Stressed importance of growth and self-actualization.

– Argued that people are innately good.

• Hierarchy of needs:

– Maslow’s belief that people’s basic and primary needs

or drives are physiological, safety or security, social,

ego, and self-actualization.

• Needs should be filled in sequential order.

• Higher needs are rarely satisfied.

Figure 2.7

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs

Source: “A Theory of Human Motivation.” Psychological Review 50(4): 1943, 370–396.

McGregor's Theory X/Theory Y

• Douglas McGregor designated one set of human

assumptions as Theory X and the other as Theory Y:

• Theory X

– Management’s view that people inherently dislike

work, will avoid it, and thus punishments and other

"drivers" must be used as motivators.

• Theory Y

– The view that people inherently like to work, seek

greater responsibility, and are inherently motivated

rather than by punishment.

Ouchi’s Theory Z

• Takes McGregor’s Theory Y further.

• Emphasizes the importance of participating in

organizations.

• Core elements include collective decision making, job

security, generalized understanding of organizational

goals, emphasis on training and performance

improvement, concern for the employee, and individual

responsibility for shared accomplishments.

Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene

Theory

• Maintenance or hygiene factors:

– Elements of one's career that provide one with their

need to avoid pain.

– Adequate pay, benefits, job security, decent working

conditions, supervision, interpersonal relations, etc.

• Motivational factors:

– Those psychosocial factors providing intrinsic

satisfaction on the job, serving as an incentive to

devote more of their time, energy, and expertise in

productive behavior.

Expectancy and Contingency

Theories (1 of 2)

• Expectancy theory holds that employees will do what their managers or organizations want them to do if the following are

true:

1. The task appears to be possible (employees believe that they possess the necessary competence).

2. The reward (outcome) offered is seen as desirable by the

employees (intrinsic rewards come from the job itself,

while extrinsic rewards are supplied by others).

3. Employees believe that performing the required behavior or task will bring the desired outcome.

4. There is a good chance that better performance will bring

greater rewards.

Expectancy and Contingency

Theories (2 of 2)

• Contingency theory

– An effort to determine the fit between the organization’s characteristics and its tasks and the motivations of

individuals.

– Tells mangers to tailor jobs to fit people or to give people the skills, knowledge, and attitudes to become competent.

• Basic components:

1. People need to achieve a sense of competence.

2. How people fulfill this need varies from person to person.

3. Competence motivation is most likely to be achieved

when there is a fit between task and organization.

4. A sense of competence continues to motivate people

after competence is achieved.

Motivation through Job Enrichment (1 of 2)

• Job enrichment: a way to motivate the workforce by

changing the nature of one’s job.

• Enrichment includes:

– Skill variety

– Task identity

– Task significance

– Autonomy

– Feedback

• Employees then experience meaningfulness of work,

responsibility, and knowledge of results.

Motivation through Job Enrichment (2 of 2)

• Generation Y/Millennials (born between 1980 and late 1990s)

– Raised in an environment where they received awards just for showing up.

– Parents emphasized self-esteem building and feelings of

success rather than having winners and losers.

– More team-oriented, more technically literate.

• Generation Z (born between late 1990s and 2010)

• Important for C J hiring decision-makers to understand these

groups’ views on work, and how to engage, collaborate, and retain them.

• Many similarities between Millennials and Gen Z members.

Coming Challenges

• Finding them

• Training them

• Keeping them

• Body art

• Technology

Becoming a Learning Organization

• Agency administrators must promote a "learning

organization" culture.

– Communication and collaboration are promoted so that

everyone is engaged in identifying and solving

problems.

– Culture that looks to the future to continually

experiment, improve, and adapt so as to meet the

challenges of a more complex role.

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Slide 1: Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management
Slide 2: Defining Organizations
Slide 3: The Evolution of Organizational Theory
Slide 4: Scientific Management
Slide 5: Figure 2.1
Slide 6: Human Relations Management
Slide 7: Systems Management
Slide 8: Bureaucratic Management (1 of 2)
Slide 9: Bureaucratic Management (2 of 2)
Slide 10: Organizational Inputs/Outputs
Slide 11: Principles of Organization: Primary Principles (1 of 2)
Slide 12: Principles of Organization: Primary Principles (2 of 2)
Slide 13: Span of Control and Unity of Command
Slide 14: Figure 2.3
Slide 15: Figure 2.4
Slide 16: Organizational Pyramid
Slide 17: Closed versus Open Systems
Slide 18: Communication within the Organization
Slide 19: Process and Characteristics (1 of 2)
Slide 20: Process and Characteristics (2 of 2)
Slide 21: Communicating in Police Organizations
Slide 22: Oral and Written Communications
Slide 23: Other Barriers to Effective Communication (1 of 2)
Slide 24: Other Barriers to Effective Communication (2 of 2)
Slide 25: Cultural Cues
Slide 26: External Communications: Use of Social Media
Slide 27: What Is Leadership?
Slide 28: Trait Theory
Slide 29: Figure 2.5
Slide 30: Style Theory (1 of 2)
Slide 31: Style Theory (2 of 2)
Slide 32: Figure 2.6
Slide 33: Situational Leadership Theory
Slide 34: Leading from Behind
Slide 35: Katz's Three Skills
Slide 36: 21st-Century Authentic Leaders
Slide 37: Leading in a Time of Crisis: The COVID-19 Pandemic
Slide 38: The Hawthorne Studies
Slide 39: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Slide 40: Figure 2.7
Slide 41: McGregor's Theory X/Theory Y
Slide 42: Ouchi’s Theory Z
Slide 43: Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Slide 44: Expectancy and Contingency Theories (1 of 2)
Slide 45: Expectancy and Contingency Theories (2 of 2)
Slide 46: Motivation through Job Enrichment (1 of 2)
Slide 47: Motivation through Job Enrichment (2 of 2)
Slide 48: Coming Challenges
Slide 49: Becoming a Learning Organization
Slide 50: Copyright